Prepared by : Mr Gilbert 1111

2015/16

Covers whole chapter of Biodiversity.

Simpsons Index of Diversity
D = 1- ( sum of (n/N)^2 )
n = total number of organisms of a particular species
N = total number of organisms of all species.
**A value which is very near to 0 , it means the diversity is very little.
**A value if it is very near to 1 , means the higher the species diversity.

One advantage of this method is u dont need to identify all

organisms that present to the level of species.

The higher the number we get more D value , greater the

species diversity.
Diversity depends on the number of different species and the
abundance of species.
Comparison with this diversity index , is depends on the like and like
basis, means within community there must be having more same
species , so that the diversity of species will be increased.

SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING.
Random sampling is not suitable for every place that you may wish to survey.
Because the physical condition might affect the area, for example (altitude,
soil moisture content , soil type, soil pH , exposure or light intensity change ).
For example, suppose you want to investigate the change of the edge of a
field where it becomes very marshy.
You then sample the organisms that are present along the line, which is called
a transect.
Line transect is a line across one or more habitat.
The Organisms found at regular points along a line are noted,
transects are used to detect changes in community composition
along a line across one or more habitats.
Interrupted belt transect the abundance of organisms within quadrats
placed at regular points along a line is noted.

Prepared by : Mr Gilbert 1111

2015/16

Correlation
Correlation always will be made based on the graph.
There must be positive correlation, negative correlation and no correlation.

The strongest correlation is when all points are on the straight line, there is a
linear correlation.
This correlation coefficient will be having equal to 1.

If the variable A is increased, and variable B increased, this is called

positive correlation.
If the variable A is increased , but the variable B decreased , this is
called negative correlation.
If the correlation coefficient is equals to zero, means there is no
correlation.

We can calculate the correlation coefficient to find the strength of

relationship, and how closely the points on the straight line.
**Pearsons correlation coefficient can only be used when we see a
linear correlation after collecting the Quantitative data.
**If the graph is not a linear correlation, we can calculate the
Spearmans rank correlation coefficient.
Pearsons correlation coefficient
1. This test can only be used when the data is normally distributed
intervally,

R=

sum of xy (n)(mean number of P)(mean

number of Q)
(n) (standard deviation of P)( standard
deviation of Q)

R = is the correlation coefficient

X = number of species P in a quadrat
y= number of species Q in the same
quadrat.
n= Number of reading.
x= mean number of species P
y = mean number of species Q
Sx = the standard deviation for species P

Prepared by : Mr Gilbert 1111

2015/16

1. The value of R must be around -1 to +1

2. If the value is equal to positive value , means it has positive
correlation.
3. If the value is equal to negative value, Means it has negative
correlation.
4. If the value is equal to zero, there is no correlation.

Quadrat
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Mean
n xy
Standard
deviation

No of species
No of Species Q , y
P,x
10
21
9
20
11
22
7
17
8
16
14
23
10
20
12
24
12
22
9
19
10.2
20.4
10 x 10.2 x 20.4 = 2080.8
2.10
2.55

xy
210
180
242
119
128
322
200
288
264
171
Sum of xy = 2124

r = 2124 (10x10.2x20.4)
10x2.10x 2.55
= 0.81

Spearmans rank correlation

it shows positive correlation.

Prepared by : Mr Gilbert 1111

2015/16

This test is used to find out whether any correlation between two sets of
variables, when they are not normally distributed.
Thus, for this test, the correlation used not to be linear. (scattered graph)
**Lets remind back Pearsons Linear Correlation , it is used for
NORMALLY DISTRIBUTED and LINEAR GRAPH.

Quadrat

No of species
P

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

38
2
22
50
28
8
42
13
20
43

Rank of
Species P

7
1
5
10
6
2
8
3
4
9

No of Species
of Q

24
5
8
31
27
4
36
6
11
30

Rank of
species of Q

6
2
4
9
7
1
10
3
5
8

***The rank of species is based on the number of species. The Least

number of species will be rank as number 1.
Quadrat

Rank for species

P

Rank of species
Q

Difference in
Rank

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

7
1
5
10
6
2
8
3
4
9

6
2
4
9
7
1
10
3
5
8

1
-1
1
1
-1
1
-2
0
-1
1

Rs = 1- 6x D^2)
n^3 n

D^2

1
1
1
1
1
1
4
0
1
1
Sum of D^2 = 12

Prepared by : Mr Gilbert 1111

2015/16

Rs = is a Spearmans rank coefficient

Sum of D^2 = the sum of differences between two ranks of two
samples.
n = the number of samples.

** For this case the Rs = 0.93

How to interpret the correlation between the values and what does
it mean ?

This number is known as Correlation coefficient.

The Rs value is closer to 1 , it means it has a significant correlation
between two sets of data.
As the t test or chi- squared test, we have to look up with the critical
value and compare it.

In t test , we take the probability of 0.05 as our baseline,

If the probability found is equal or less than 0.05 , means there is a
significant and not due chance. Or vice versa.

In Spearman calculations, how to interpret the Rs value ?

1. firstly , we have to find out the critical value. By using the number
of quadrats
2. check whether the value of Rs value is bigger or smaller than the
critical one.
3. The larger the Rs value means the correlation between two sets
of data is higher.
n
Rs value

5
1.00

6
0.89

7
0.79

8
0.76

9
0.68

10
0.65

11
0.60

12
0.54

14
0.51

16
0.51

For this case, the Rs value found is 0.93.

1. Check the n ( No of Quadrats ) in this case. For example, n= 10 ,
thus critical value is 0.65.
2. So our Rs value now is much larger than 0.65 , so that we can
accept the significant correlation between the species of P and
species of Q.

ASSISTED REPRODUCTION

Prepared by : Mr Gilbert 1111

2015/16

Zoos are used to transport mammals between them as part of their captive
breeding programmes.
Movement of large mammals is very difficult, so it is better to take the semen
from the animals and store them in the sperm banks.
Ways for storing the sperms.
Samples are collected from the males, checked for sperm activity, and diluted
with a medium that containing buffer solution and albumen. And storing it at
liquid nitrogen at -196 C.
Artificial Insemination.
1. A straw is placed into the warm water so that the sperm will become
active,
2. Put into a catheter , which is inserted into the vagina, through cervix
and uterus.
3. Hormone treatment is done so that the female will superovulate and
large numbers of follicles is produced.
4. When the sperm is fuse with the ovum, the zygote is formed , and the
cell division will form an embryos.
5. The resulting embryos may flushed out from the uterus , so that it can
be transferred to other female species.
6. These females no need to be same species , they could be a related
species but not a endangered species.
7. The process of embryo transfer protects the endangered species from
the risks of pregnancy and means that she can be source of many
offspring.
8. Females that receive embryo from others are surrogate mothers.
IVF
Steps for IVF carried out in animals
In order to carry out in vitro fertilization ( IVF ) , oocytes are collected by
inserting a needle into a ovaries, and withdrawing some follicles.
The follicles will be cultured in the medium for a short time, and then mixed
with semen.
The resulting zygote will be divided into embryos, which is cultured for
several days.
Insert the embryos into the mother or into several females.
Eggs can be stored as many as sperms, eggs are more difficult to freeze, as
they are more likely to be damaged by the freezing, or thawing process. This
is because oocytes are large cells which contains a lot of water and easily will
be frozen, which is able to damage internal membrane.

Prepared by : Mr Gilbert 1111

2015/16

Botanic Gardens
Seeds or cuttings are collected from species in the wild, and then used to
rebuild the population and then reintroduced back into their habitats.
The roles of botanic Gardens
1. Protect endangered plant species , the worlds botanic Garden already
cultivate around one third of the worlds known plant species.
2. Research on the reproduction and growth so that the species cultivated
in botanic garden can be grown in appropriate conditions.
3. Research conversation methods so that the plants can be introduced
back into a new habitats if their original habitat has been destroyed.
4. Reintroduce species to habitats where they have become very rare or
extinct.
5. Educate the public in the many roles of plants in ecosystems and their
economic values.

Controlling alien species ( must use examples )

Alien or invasive species are those that have moved from one ecosystem to
another where they were previously unknown
People are responsible in trading the animals on ships to other places.
People are using some other species as biological control agents to pests.

1. Indian mongoose , Herpestes auropunctatus , was introduced to

Jamaica in 1872 .and proved so successful at controlling rats in the
canefield.
Unfortunately , it becomes a predator of other animals.

2. Cane Toad , introduced to Queensland in Australia from Hawaii in

1935 to control an insect pest of sugar cane. After few years , Cane
toad has become a pest as it breeds rapidly and has spread across
Eastern, western or northern of Australia.
o Cane toad has very little predators in Australia , because It will
produce a certain toxin that will kills most animals that eat it.
o The species is known to be most at risk from invasion by cane
toads is the northern quoll, which tries to eat the toad.
o Cane toads are probably compete with some other amphibians
species for food.

Prepared by : Mr Gilbert 1111

2015/16

Other alien species are escapees or animals introduced for sport.

1. Burmease pythons , have invaded into Florida, probably the pet
owners found that they could not look after their pet anymore and just
let them go into wild.
The pythons feed on a wide variety of mammals and birds so it will
compete with the native predators.
Thus, it will be difficult to conserve endangered species in the National
Park.
Human are pythons only predators, although how many efforts is used
to remove the number of pythons, but the reproduction of pythons is
too rapidly and too much.
2. The red lionfish, Pterios volitans, is native to the seas of South
East Asia. It enters the sea of Carribean from US , eating all local
species of coral reefs.
There is no natural predators in its new environment. Thus , the
population is increasing over time. The Belize divers are encouraged to
spear them to reduce their populations. Or the fishermen are
encouraged to catch all of these species so that the population of them
would decreased.

Invasive Species have a variety of effects towards the balanced

ecosystem.
I.
II.
III.

As well as being a successful predators with few controls.

They might compete with the native organisms, as they occupy the
same niche, pushing other species towards extinction.
They may introduce some new diseases that spread among their
species that never been exposed to this pathogens.

3. Some invasive plants grow so successfully with the place and cover a
huge area of species. For example, water hyacinth, is grow
successfully when introduced to the new habitat.
CONS:: Since the hyacinth is a floating aquatic plant, it will cover the
huge area of place, it prevents the sunlight from passing into the
water, and reduce the oxygen concentration in water and this will
cause the dying of aquatic animals and aquatic submerged plants.

Prepared by : Mr Gilbert 1111

2015/16

PONS :: This water hyacinth also will provide a place or habitat for
mosquitoes larvae so its control would be important too for the sake of
human health too.

4. Japanese Knotweed
Japanese Knotweed , has a vigorous root system, and its growth is very
strong and it could force its way towards the concrete roads or damage
buildings.

International Conversation Organisations.

g) discuss the roles of non-governmental organisations, such as the
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES), in local and global conservation

1. CITES ( Convention on International Trade In Endangered

Species of wild Flora and Fauna. )
CITES
1

ii

III

Criteria

Trading
Regulations

Animals
Examples

Species that are

the most
endangered
species
Species that are
not threatened
with extinctions
but will be
unless trade is
closely
controlled.
Species
included at the
request of a
country that
regulates trade
in the species
and needs the
cooperation of
other countries
to prevent
unsustainable or
illegal
exploitation.

All trade in
species or their
products is
banned
Trade is only
allowed if an
export permit is
granted by the
countries
concerned.

Orang- Utans,
Turtle , Panda.

Kinabulu Pitcher
Plant
( Malaysia )

Sir David;s Long

Beaked echidna(
Papua
Indonesia)

All species in
the genus ,
Venus Fly trap.

Trade in these
species is
regulated ,
permits are
required, but
they are easier
to obtain than
for species in
Appendix II

Mauritian Pink
Pigeon

Spur tree from

Nepal

2. World Wide Fund for Nature. ( WWF )

Plant
examples

Prepared by : Mr Gilbert 1111

2015/16

WWF is one of the biggest organization of NGO.

Its mission statement is to stop the Degradation of planets natural
environment and build a future where human can live with the nature.

Restoring degraded habitats.

I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.

Restoring a place or areas that has been degraded by human activity

or Natural disasters.
Mangrove forests are found throughout the tropics.
This is an extremely rich ecosystem that provides valuable protection
to coastlines from storms.
Many mangrove plants have been cut down for development program
so that the restoring back the mangrove plants is a vital process.
For example, in India and Bangladesh, now has the largest areas of
mangrove forests.

Protection from Mangrove Forests.

This can reduce the erosion level by reducing the effects of strong waves
during storms and they act as a barrier to rising sea levels by trapping
sediments.
Their roots is long and strong enough to trap into the soil and avoid any soil
erosion and landslide occurs.
Soil erosion is always the major problem which can leads to many other
effects to the world, for example, Flood, typhoon, and etc.