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    N. PISKUNOV DIFFERENTIAL and INTEGRAL CALCULUS MIR PUBLISHERS Moscow 1969 TRANSLATED FROM THE RUSSIAN BY 0. YANKOVSKY H.C Mexyos AVOSEPEHUHANBHOE H HHTETPARBHOE HCWHCAEHHA Ha aneonsenon saene CONTENTS Preface (Chapter 1. NUMBER. VARIABLE. FUNCTION Real Numbers, Real Numbers as Points on a Number Scale 13 ‘The Absolute Value of a Real ‘Number ir Variables and Constants. 16 ‘The Range of Variable 6 Grdeed Variables. Increasing Variables seane Function a ays af Representing Functions ¢ Bale Elementary Functions. Eenetaty’ Forti eaie Fonctions sees ese n= Perr 10. Baler Coordinate Sytem DD D2I02 Exercises on Chapter Te ess ONE MALE (Chapter 11, LIMIT. CONTINUITY OF A FUNCTION 1 Te Lint of Vari. An Tatty tage Vs 4 Bie Li of aan Ae tate aaa 3 ila Mca ny’ Sided nding © 2S é a i 8 6. The Lint ofthe Function HF eg sss o Pie lumber ess est erases. Sa ERA uias SELL ciipinin® 3 Coma Amie 2 2 Si 18, SOU Bape Sioa Fuains 222022222 a It Goan etme, Seo SID 8 Powe m Gp I 8 Chapter I. DERIVATIVE. AND DIFFERENTIAL A. Velocity of Motion oe oe vv eee eee ee ee 2 Detiniton of Derivative 22D T LILI D iii iiit Dh & Geometric Meaning of the Derivative 122222222 22122 a 4 Diferentiablity of Functions ens LTT Lt a 5: Finding the Derivatives of Elementary’ Functions’ The ‘Derivative of the Function y =a", Where n Is Poslive and Integral. sss =» 8 6, Derivatives of the Functions yesin st y=cotx % 4. Darnativs of; a Constant te Produ oa Contant by & Funston 2'Sum, a Product, anda Quotient 0 8, The Derivative of’ « Logarithmic Funct Dill Be 8; The Derivative of a Composite Function. ©: | tas 10; Derivatives of the Functions y=tonx, y—eot#, yoin{e] 2.2 S 8 4 Contents 11. An Implicit Function and Its Differentiation. 12, Derivatives of & Power Function for an Arbitrary Real Exponent, “of an Exponential Funcion, nd a Compile Exponential Function". 81 13, An Inverse Function and’ Ite Different Dlg MM Inverse Trigonomettic Functions and Their Dilfereniistion << << 96 15, Table of Basle Differentiation Formulas =. es 2112S 02 16. Parametric Representation of a Function <2 120 D122 DI it 103 17. The Equations of Certain Curves in Parametric Form” <2 222. 2 105 8, The Derivative of a Function Represented Parametricaliy” <<.‘ ° 108 19. Hyperbolic Functions 500 20, The Differential Dos BL. The Geometric Signiticsnce of the Differential | 12121! erat B2 Derivatives of Different Orders. ss SS Ltt ue 28, Diferentials of Various Orders 222122 I ITLL 12 24, Different-Order Derivatives of ‘Impiicit’” Functions’ and ot Functions Represented Paramelrically 9. once cert ent + r 25. The Mechanical Significance of ihe Second Derivative |. ° 24 26. The Equations of @ Tangent and of a Normal. ‘The Lengths of ihe Subtangent and the Subnormal = +. ar 27. The Geometric Significance of the Beriva with Respect to the Polar Angles ss tse cere ee eee 9 Exercises on Chapter Is. oe oe eee rrr 130 (Chapter 1V. SOME THEOREMS ON DIFFERENTIABLE FUNCTIONS 1. A Theorem on the Roots of a Derivative (Rolle’s Theorem) 2. A Theorem on Finite Iyerements (Lagrange's Theorem). 3A Theorem ‘on the Ratto of thes Increments of. Two (Cauchy's Theorem) ee eee eet pee eee ett (he lito Rat lin (Eaton ot indie nimte Ferme ote Type) eee ee veces “ 5. The Lint fa Rell Tw Iily Large Quant Eton Ot ndeminte Fms the Ty8 Z) eee eee ee MO §, Feats Rome pe cv s-as cases watigee cole» ie 7. Expansion of the Functions ¢,'sin x, ‘ard'eds x in'a Taylor Series 1 156 Exercises on Chapler Ves ve vee t ete c ete cece 6 1D (Chapter V. INVESTIOATING THE BEHAVIOUR OF FUNCTIONS 1. Statement of the Problem 0 vo. eee ee ee 21 Inerease and Decrease of '@ Function 3. Maxima and Minima of Functions. < 4 Testing a Differentiable Function for Maximum” and Misimuim with aFirst Derivative see ee ee et ete et B."Teing Function fot Maximum ‘aid’ Niu ‘with ‘second Derivative vos. PCCP Cer 6. Maxima and Minime of a Function ‘of an‘Interwal” VL. LL 178 Contents 5 7. Applying the Theory of Maxima and Minima of Functions to the Solution of Problems 19 8. Testing @ Function for'Naxiniuin ard Minimum by Means’ of Tajlor’s Fol sent eee nt nes + ne 18h 9. Convexity' and Concavily'of # Curve. Boinis of tatiection” S213 HO. Asymploles ee ee ee ee 9 1 General lan Jor investigating Fuvetions” ahd Consircting “GFephs 194 12 lnveligting carat Repeated Premeliely 199 Exercises on Chapter V voile 73 Chapter VI. THE CURVATURE OF A CURVE 1, The Length of an Are and Its Derivative «5... we = 208 2 Curvature. 5. Galeulation of Curva nt 4 Gileulation of the Curvature oi a Line Represenied Patametrically | | 215, 5, Galeulation of ‘the Curvature of a Line Given by am Equation of Polar Coordinates. ws eee nee 215 6. The Radius and Circie of Curvature. Centre of Curvature! Evolite and Involute st eee ete vee QT 7. The Properties of an Evoluie™ eee it 3. Approximating the Real Roots ofan Equation’ | 2... 15 Exercises on Chapter Vive ee eee a een ner 29 (Chapter Vil. COMPLEX NUMBERS. POLYNOMIALS, 1. Complex Numbers. Basic Definitions... . - er 2% Basle Operations on Complex Numbers 222222001 3. Bowers and Rools of Complex Numbers "© 4 Exponential Function with Complex Expose and its Broperties << & Euler's Formula. The Exponential Form of « Complex Number’. « « & Factoring’ s Polynomial enn ees Name et 7. The Multiple Roots of a Polynomial = ve 1 Factorisatlon of a Polynomial in the Caie of Compiex Rodis: ! 9, interpolation. Lagrange’s Interpolation Farmuly 0. 2: 10; On the Best Approximation of Functions by Polynomials. Chebyshev's Thory erste neces tentewtenetenees ves 282, Exercises on Chaplet VII oo es B58 (Chapter VItl FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES 1. Definition of a Function of Several Variables 7 255, 2 Geometric Representation of a Function of Two eee) 3. Partial and Total Increment of a Function... +. +: 1359 4 Continuity of 3 Funetion of Several Variables © 022< 222. 2 380 5, Pattial Derivatives of a Function of Several Variables «<2 2. 2S 208 6. The Geometric Interpretation ofthe Partial Derivatives of une: tion of Two Variables coe eee ee 264 7, Total Increment and Total Dimerentiais © << SpcoogoE.| 8 Approximation by Total Differentials... 2222222022205 258 9, Error Approximation by Differentials «<2. 0 2 2? Dilan 10; The Derivative of a Composite Function’ The Toial Derivative ¢ 2° 273 MI; The Derivative of & Function Deflved Implicit... = - =. ss 210 12! Partial Derivatives of Different Orders sss cts tree 29 6 Contents 13. Level Surfaces Pee 14! Directional Derivatives’ | 02222220025 eee 15. Gradient. 16. Taylor's Forindla fora Function of Two 'Variabies << 1111 1! 290 17. Maximum and-Minimum of a Function of Several Variables” <<<; 292 18, Maximum and Minimum of a Funetion of Several Variables Relaied by Given Equations (Conditional Maxima and Minima) ss s+» 300 19, Siogular Polnts of Curve ws wenn e tet oles 2 SB Exercises on Chapter VII eee errr 22310 Chapter 1X. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 70 SOLID GEOMETRY 1. The Equations of a Curve in Space. sv ew . 3M 2 The Limit"ang Desvaive gh the Veet, uli ‘i's’ Siar ‘zgument, ‘The Equation of a Tangent to a Curve. The Equation of a Normal Plane ss sas me ELEC e a 3, Rules for Differentiating Vectors (Véetor’ Functions) 721112 2 Sap 4. The First and. Second Derivatives ol Vector with’ Respect to ihe ‘Arc Length. The Curvature ofa Curve. The Principal Normal. =. 324 § Oseuiating Plane. Binormal. Torsion swiss wwe e+ Bobo 8 A'Tangent Plane and Normal toa Suiace’ 222222222222 335 Exercises on Chapter IX ov oe es beeen ee beens +0 (Chapter X. INDEFINITE. INTEGRALS. 1. Antiderivative and the Indefinite Integral... 2 Table of Integrals ee qpooGgG 5. Some Proprles ‘of an indedite infegal = 2 >: 4 Integration by Substitution (Change of Variable) " < 5. Integrals of Functions Containing @ Quadratic Trinomial + ° S @ Integration by Parts ese eee eee lt! 7 8 9 10. Rational Fractions. Partial Decomposition of s Rational onal’ Fractions and “Their ‘Integration $57 ction into Partial Fractions =. - 361 Teigrlion f Ratonl Bectiog on ue, Ett eee) Ougpadyemetion ewes SLIT LI IL! Ss TP ieee oPhnetonal Fuseins 22 TTTE LTT oH 12 Integrals of the Form (R(x, VaPRERO GE LLL LLL om 18 integration of Binomi Dileetigs vv =v vss sees 5 14, Integration of Certain Classes of Trigonometric ‘Functions’ <. <0 and let it be required to evaluate with an accuracy of + (Jor example, yy ql, and so forth). No matter what a is, it lies between two integral numbers N and W-£1. We divide the segment between Nand N+ into n parts; then a will lie somewhere between the rational numbers N+% and N+241, Since their difference is equal to 4, each of them expresses a to the given degree of accuracy, the former being smaller and the latter greater. Example. The trrational umber V2 is expressed by rational aumbers Ti and 15 to one decimal place, Tariand i: to two decimal places, Kai4"and 1415 to three decimal places, ete SEC, 2. THE ABSOLUTE VALUE OF A REAL NUMBER Let us introduce a concept which we shall need later on: the absolute value of a real number. The Absolute Value of a Real Number 8 Definition. The absolute value (or modulus) of a real number x (written |x) is a nonnegative real number that satisfies the con- ditions x ifs; ax ife<0. Examples. |2|=: 101=0. From the definition it follows’ that the rel for any x. Let us examine some of the properties of absolute values. 1. The absolute value of an algebraic sum of several real numbers is no greater than the sum of the absolute values of the terms letuls|xitlyl. Proof. Let x-+y=0, then lxtyl=xty<|xl+/yl (since x<]x| and y0 such that all subsequent values of the variable, after a certain one, satisfy the condition —Maxr0. Basic Elementary Functions. Elementary Functions 23 Power function y=", 1. a is a positive integer. The function is defined in the infi- nite interval —oo0 anda 1. This function is defined for all values of x. Its graph is shown in Figs. 13 and 14. ‘ aera ore of wee > aI Fig. 18. Fig. 14. Logarithmic function, y—log, x, a>0 and a% 1. This function is defined for > 0. Ils graph is shown in Fig. 15, Trigonometric” functions. In the formulas y=sinx, ete., the independent variable x is expressed in radians. All the enumerated F trigonometric functions are periodic. Let us give a general definition of a Periodic function. logy Definition 1. "The function y=/(x) is called periodic if there exists a con- stant C, which, when added to (or sub- tracted’ from) the argument x, does not change the value of the’ function f(e-+-C)=Ff (x). The least such number is called the period of the function; it Fig. 1. will henceforward be designated as 21 From the definition it follows directly that y= sinx is a periodic function with a period 2n:_sinx sin(r+2n). The period of cosx is likewise 2x. The functions y=tane and y=cotx have a period equal to x. The functions y= sinx, y=cosx are defined for all values of x; the functions y=tanx and y=seex are defined everywhere except the points x=(2k+1)F(k=0, 1, 2, ...); the functions y=cot x and y=cscx are defined for all values of x except the points x=kn(b=0, 1,2, ...). Graphs of trigonometric functions are shown in Figs.’ 16, 17,18, and 19. The inverse trigonometric functions will be discussed in more detail later on, Basic Elementary Functions. Elementary Functions 2 Fig. 18. Fig. 19. Let us now introduce the concept of a function of a function, If_y is a function of u, and w (in turn) is dependent on the var- iable x, then y is also dependent on x. Let y=F(u) u=9(x). We get y as a function of x y=F ip (4). This function is called a function of a function or a composite function. Example 1. Let y: function of =x The function y=sin (x4) is a composite Note. The domain of definition of the function y =F [(x)} is either the entire domain of the function, «= p(x), or that part % Number. Variable. Function of it in which those values of w are defined that do not go beyond the domain of the function F (u), Example 2, The domain of definition of the function y= Vi—s*(y= Vu, u=t—a) is the closed interval {—1, 1], because when | x]> Iu <0 and, conse” quently. the, function Vu is pot defined although the function w= t—? ig lefined for all values of x). The graph of this function is the upper hail of a circle with centre at the origin of the coordinate system and with radius tunity, The operation “function of a function”. may be performed any number of times. For instance, the function y=In [sin («*+-1)] is obtained as a result of the following operations (defining the following functions) 1 vexttlu Let us now define an elementary function. y Definition 2. An elementary function is a function which may be represented by a single formula of the type y=f(x), where the expression on the right-hand side is made up of basic elementary func- x tions and constants by means of a finite oy 72 number of operations of addition, Fig, 20 subtraction, multiplication, division and taking the function of a funetion. From the’ definition it follows that elementary functions are functions represented analytically. Inu, sinv, Examples of elementary functions: logx-+4 7e+2tane oo VFR fii a etiam, and the Tike. Examples of non-elementary functions: [The function y=1-2-3...n(y=f (n)}_ is not elementary because the ‘number of operations that must be performed to oblain y increases with 2, that is to say, it is not bounded 2. The function given in Fig. 20 is not elementary ellher because it is represented by meals of two formulas Hocxel, 1, exe, SEC. 9, ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS Algebraic functions include elementary functions of the following kind: Algebraic Functions 2 1. The rational integral function, or polynomial y=ar" tar" ...44,, where a,, a, ...,d, are constants called coefficients, and n is a nonnegative’ integer called the degree of the polynomial. It is obvious that this function is defined for all values of x, that is, it is defined in an infinite interval, Examples: 1. ymax is a linear Yh as Yas Junction, When’ 60, the linear function ° n yar expresses a8 being ditecly pro- artionsl to x. For t function is a, constant. De ymartebxte. Is a quadratic Junction. The graph of a quadratic func {ion isa ‘parabola’ (Fig. 21). These Fa functions are considered’ in detail in @ ® analytic geometry. Fig. 21. N. Fractional rational function. This function is defined as the ratio of two polynomials: on oe bays te YO BPE FO” For example, the following is a fractional rational function: w= it expresses inverse variation. Its graph is shown in Fig. 22. It is obvious that a fractional rational function is defined for all values of x with the exception yi of those for which the 00 denominator becomes zero. IMI. Irrational func- = tion. If in the formula y=f(x), operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division ® and raising to a power with rational non-inte- Fig. 22, gal exponents are per- formed on the right- hand side, the function y= f(x) is_called irrational. Examples y=Vi ete of irrational functions ar 8 Number. Variable. Function Note 1. The above-mentioned three types of ‘algebraic functions do not exhaust all algebraic functions. An algebraic function is any function y= f(x) which satisfies an equation of the form Prlx) yr +P, (xy +... +P, (2) = 0, QQ) where P,(x), P,(x), -.-» Py (2) are certain polynomials in x. It may be proved that tach of the enumerated three types of function satisfies a certain equation of type (1), but not every func- tion that satisfies an equation like (I) is a function of one of the three types given above. Note 2. A function which is not algebraic is called transcendental. Examples of transcendental functions are: y= Cos x; y= 10% and the like. SEC. 10. POLAR COORDINATE SYSTEM The position of a point ina plane may be determined by means of a so-called polar coordinate system. We choose a point O in a plane and call it the pole; the half- line issuing from this point is called the polar axis. The position of the point M in the plane may be specified by two numbers: the number @, which expresses the distance of M- from the pole, ‘and the number g, which is the angle formed it by the line segment OM and the polar axis, ° The positive direction of the angle @ is reckoned counterclockwise. The numbers @ 0 and @ are called the polar coordinates of the fe x point M (Fig. 23). We will always consider the radius vector Fig. 23. @ nonnegative. If the polar angle g is taken within the limits 00- 8) Construct the’ graphs of the functions: 10. yon 88, Me peeaty li yet 18 Wye 2F 0), Ans. x #0. €) are sintx. Ans a (a> 0). Ans. —w log : tat oak all subsequent values of x will s isly the relation [-l% (Fig, 29), aoe 4 Limit, Continuity of a Function Note 3. One should not think that every variable has a limit, Let the variable x take on the following successive values: 1 yael—ti yet Th 1 1 BF) Snes = GET (Fig. 30), For & sufficiently large, the value x,, and all subsequent values with even labels will differ from unity by as small a aay teat be bh hee ~ a He WaT 79 cag Fig. 29. Fig 2. number as we please, while the next value tao, and all subse quent values of x with odd labels will differ ftom zero by as. small a number as we please. Consequently, the variable x does not approach a In the definition of a limit it is stated that if the variable approaches the limit a, then a isa constant. But the word “appro- aches” is used also to describe another type of variation of a variable, as will be’ seen from the following definition. Definition 2. A variable x approaches ‘infinity if for every preassigned positive number M it is possible to indicate a value of x such that, beginning with this value, all subsequent values of the variable will satisty the inequality’ |.|>M, If the variable x approaches infinity, it is called an infinitely large variable and we write x— co. Example 3. The variable x takes on the values aeolian ‘This is an infinitely large variable quantity, since for an arbitrary M > 0 all Values of the variable, “beginaing ‘with s ceraia. one, "are, Ia absolute magnitude, greater than ‘©The variable x “approaches plus infinity’, x—-+0o, if for_an arbitrary M_>0 all subsequent values of the variable, beginning with a certain one, satisfy the inequality M -0, all subsequent values of the variable, beginning with 2 certain one, satisfy the inequality x<—M. For example, a variable x that assumes the values 2, ‘e approaches minus infinity SEC. 2, THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION In this section we shall consider certain cases of the variation of a function when the argument x approaches a cerlain limit a ot infinity. Definition 1. Let the function y=/(x) be defined in a certain neighbourhood of the point a or at certain points of this neigh- bourhood. The function y= f(x) approaches the limit 6(y—>b) as x approaches a(x—ra), if for every positive number e, no matter how small, it is possible to indicate a positive number 8 such that for ail x, different from a and satisfying the inequality *) |x—a|<6, we have the inequality V@)—b], it may happen that the function is defined only for positive integral values of x." And so. in this case x—. a, ‘sssuming only positive integral values. We shall. not. specify this when i comes up later on. 2 36 Limit, Continuity of a Function that are not more distant fi the point a than 8, the points -M. of the graph of the function y=/(s) lie within a band of width 2¢ bounded by the lines y=b—e and y=b-+e. Note 1. We may define the limit of the function f(x) as x—a as follows. Let a variable x assume values such (that is, ordered in such fashion) that if |e—a|>|x"—al, then x** is the subsequent value and x* is the preceding value; but if |P—a|=|F*—a| and Pc then X* is the subsequent value and x* is the preceding value. In other words, of two points on a number scale, the subsequent one is that which is closer to the point a; at equal distances, the subsequent one is that which is to the right of the point a. Let a variable quantity + ordered in this fashion approach the limit alx—+a or lim: Let us further consider the variable y= f(x). We shall here and henceforward consider that of the two values of a function, the subsequent one is that which corresponds to the subsequent value of the argument. If, as x—+a, a variable y thus defined approaches a certain limit 6, we shall write and we shall say that the function y=f(x) approaches the limit b as xa. It is easy to prove that both definitions of the limit of a function are equivalent, Note 2. If f(x) approaches the limit 6, asx approaches a certain number a, so that x takes on only values less than a, we write lim f(x)=6, and call 6, the limit of the function f(x) on the left of the point a. If x takes Fig. 92 on only values greater than a, we write lim f(x)=6, and call 6, the limit of the function on the ‘right of the point @ (Fig. 32). it can be proved that if the limit'on the right and the limit on the left exist and are equal, that is, 6,=6,=6, then 6 will be The Limit of a Function a the limit in the sense of the foregoing definition of a limit at the point a. And conversely, if there exists a limit 6 of a function at the point c, then there exist limits of the function at the point a both on the’ right and on the left and they are equal Example 1. Let us prove that lim (@x-1)=7. Indeed, let an arbitrary. >0 be glven forthe inequality (Se —7| A the inequality |f(x)—6|N, where W is determined by the choice of e. Inequality (3) in arbitrary e, the following inequality Segue! the aowing eqs |] co wh wl be ale li>t And this east tin (14) = tn EL re Fig. 23. Knowing the meanings of the symbols x» @ and x—¢—a the mea cof the follewing expressions are obvious: id S/(G) approaches 6 as 2-0" and *1) approaches © as so ‘or, In symbols, SEC. 3, A FUNCTION THAT APPROACHES INFINITY. BOUNDED FUNCTIONS We have considered cases when the function f(x) approaches a certain limit 6 as x—+a oF as x-+ oo. Let us now take the case when the function y= f(x) approaches infinity when the argument varies in some way. A Function that Approaches Infinity. Bounded Functions 9 Definition 1, The function f(x) approaches infinity as x— a, ie, it is an’ infinitely large quantity as x--a, if for each positive number M, no matter how large, it is possible to find a 850 such that for all values of x different from a and satisfying the condition |z—a| <9, we have the inequality |f (x)|>M. If f(x) approaches infinity as x— a, we write Jim f) oF f(x) + 00 as xv a. If [() approaches infinity as x—+ a and, in the process, assumes only positive or only negative values, the appropriate notation is, lim f(x)= + 08 or limf(x)=—co. Example 1. We shall prove that tim eo. Indeed, for any ‘M>O we will have >My ¥ provided an Hox< 0 we will nave provided [xl=12—01 < apt. vite (= 1) 0 tr <0 and (— )

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