DIE CASTING this process is for high volume, high detail, value added,

economy priced, cast parts. A metal tool is built, and it is attached to a furnace
of molten metal, this molten metal is mechanically poured, injected into the
metal mold, the mold cools for a brief time, it opens the parts come out the
process repeats, over and over and over. Advantage is very high production
with great duplication, with great tolerances.
Die casting is a manufacturing process that can produce geometrically
complex metal parts through the use of reusable molds, called dies. This
process is for high volume, high detail, value added, economy priced, cast
parts. A metal tool is built, and it is attached to a furnace of molten metal, this
molten metal is mechanically poured, injected into the metal mold, the mold
cools for a brief time, it opens the parts come out the process repeats, over
and over and over.
Advantage is very high production with great duplication, with great
tolerances. The metal, typically a non-ferrous alloy such as aluminum or zinc,
is melted in the furnace and then injected into the dies in the die casting
machine. There are two main types of die casting machines - hot chamber
machines (used for alloys with low melting temperatures, such as zinc) and
cold chamber machines (used for alloys with high melting temperatures, such
as aluminum). However, in both machines, after the molten metal is injected
into the dies, it rapidly cools and solidifies into the final part, called the casting.

The castings that are created in this process can vary greatly in size and
weight, ranging from a couple ounces to 100 pounds. One common
application of die cast parts are housings - thin-walled enclosures, often
requiring many ribs and bosses on the interior. Metal housings for a variety of
appliances and equipment are often die cast. Several automobile components
are also manufactured using die casting, including pistons, cylinder heads,
and engine blocks. Other common die cast parts include propellers, gears,
bushings, pumps, and valves.

Die casting hot chamber machine

Zinc Die castings - poured from Zamak #3,#5 or #7 or a zinc-aluminum alloy

casting made from ZA-8, are made very similar to aluminum die casting. The
molten metal is injected into a closed vessel called a casting die or mold
under high pressure and at a controlled temperature.
The metal is cooled rapidly until the solidified part is sufficiently solid enough,
to permit it to be ejected from the mold. The mold has sections which include
the "cover" or hot side and the "moveable" or ejector side. The die may also
have additional moveable segments called slides, or pulls which are use to
create features such as undercuts or holes which are parallel to the parting
line.
Zinc die casting dies or molds operate in hot chamber die casting machines.
These machines run at the required temperatures and pressures to produce a
quality part, to net-shape or near net-shape specifications. Zinc die castings,
can be readily machined, plated, painted or powder coated.

Examples of usage would be: all general

hardware

type

parts,

hardware

drawers,

and

furniture,

for

plumbing

doors,
fixtures,

automotive products, parts for the lighting

industry, all hand tools, power tools, sporting
goods list is endless

Die casting cold chamber machine

Aluminum Die Casting - is a process where molten aluminum alloy is

injected into a closed vessel called a casting die or mold, under high pressure
and at a controlled temperature. The mold has sections which include the
"cover" or hot side and the "moveable" or the ejector side.
The die may also have additional moveable segments called slides or pulls
which are used to create features such as undercuts or holes which are

parallel to the parting line. Aluminum die casting molds operate in cold
chamber die casting machines.
These machines run at the required temperatures and pressures to produce a
quality part to net-shape or near net-shape specifications. Aluminum die
castings can be readily machined, anodized, painted or powder coated.
Examples of usage would be: cabinets for the
electronics industry, hand and power tools for
industrial and home use, general hardware
appliances, pump parts, plumbing parts, parts for
the automotive industry, sports and leisure, home
appliances, a lot of communications equipment,
the list is endless.

The Advantages of Die Casting

Die Casting is an efficient, economical process offering a broader range of
shapes and components than any other manufacturing technique. Parts have
long service life and may be designed to complement the visual appeal of the
surrounding part. Designers can gain a number of advantages and benefits by
specifying die cast parts.
Advantages
High-speed production - Die casting provides complex shapes within closer
tolerances than many other mass production processes. Little or no
machining is required and thousands of identical castings can be produced
before additional tooling is required.

Dimensional accuracy and stability - Die casting produces parts that are
durable and dimensionally stable, while maintaining close tolerances. They
are also heat resistant.
Strength and weight - Die cast parts are stronger than plastic injection
moldings having the same dimensions. Thin wall castings are stronger and
lighter than those possible with other casting methods. Plus, because die
castings do not consist of separate parts welded or fastened together, the
strength is that of the alloy rather than the joining process.
Multiple finishing techniques - Die cast parts can be produced with smooth or
textured surfaces, and they are easily plated or finished with a minimum of
surface preparation.
Simplified Assembly - Die castings provide integral fastening elements, such
as bosses and studs. Holes can be cored and made to tap drill sizes, or
external threads can be cast.

Review of the Process

The basic Die Casting Process consists of injecting molten metal under high
pressure into a steel mold called a die. Die casting machines are typically
rated in clamping tons equal to the amount of pressure they can exert on the
die. Machine sizes range from 400 tons to 4000 tons.
Regardless of their size, the only fundamental difference in die casting
machines is the method used to inject molten metal into a die. The two
methods are hot chamber or cold chamber.
A complete die casting cycle can vary from less than one second for small
components weighing less than an ounce, to two-to-three minutes for a
casting of several pounds, making die casting the fastest technique available
for producing precise non-ferrous metal parts.

Die Casting vs. Other Processes

Die Casting vs. plastic molding - Die casting produces stronger parts with
closer tolerances that have greater stability and durability. Die cast parts have
greater resistance to temperature extremes and superior electrical properties.
Die Casting vs. sand casting - Die casting produces parts with thinner walls,
closer dimensional limits and smoother surfaces. Production is faster and
labor costs per casting are lower. Finishing costs are also less.
Die Casting vs. permanent mold - Die casting offers the same advantages
versus permanent molding as it does compared with sand casting.
Die Casting vs. forging - Die casting produces more complex shapes with
closer tolerances, thinner walls and lower finishing costs. Cast coring holes
are not available with forging.
Die Casting vs. stamping - Die casting produces complex shapes with
variations possible in section thickness. One casting may replace several
stampings, resulting in reduced assembly time.
Die Casting vs. screw machine products - Die casting produces shapes that
are difficult or impossible from bar or tubular stock, while maintaining
tolerances without tooling adjustments. Die casting requires fewer operations
and reduces waste and scrap.

Compression molding

Compression molding is one of the original processing methods for

manufacturing plastic parts developed at the very beginning of the plastics
industry. In fact, it was widely used in the bakery industry for cookie or cake
molding before plastic materials existed. Although it is also applicable to
thermoplastics, compression molding is commonly used in manufacturing
thermoset plastic parts. The raw materials for compression molding are
usually in the form of granules, putty-like masses, or preforms.
Compression molding is a process of applying heat and pressure to a plastic
resin in matched dies. The resin melts due to the heat, then the pressure
causes it to form into a desired shape. This is done in a compression molding
press. 4It is mainly an application used for molding thermoset materials, and it
is the most common.

Thermoset plastic parts are made from polymeric resins that are capable of
forming chemical crosslinks." Curing is another term that crosslinking is often
called. Polymer molecules bind together through crosslinking creating a
complex network that will not melt. Thermoplastic materials can also be used
in the compression molding

Thermosets are synthetic materials that contain natural polymers molecules of

high molecular weight. The molecules are cross-linked to form elaborate
three dimensional structures. Because of the complex networks made by
thermosets, plastics made by this material are very hard to break down. They
do not lose their shape or structure until the temperature is raised
unreasonably high.
thermosetting

Then the result is burning or charring.

materials

are:

Phenolics,

Ureas,

Malamines,

Some
Alkyds,

Polyesters, and Epoxies.

Phenolics offer the widest range of use because they have good mechanical,
electrical, and thermal stability. Ureas and Melamines have good electrical
insulation properties and have many color capabilities. Some advantages of
using alkyds are: less likely to corrode, have good chemical and moisture
resistance, cheap, and cure quickly. Polyesters have a very small and
manageable shrinkage rate from the mold. Epoxies are used when producing
delicate electrical components.

Parameters:

Things to keep in mind when performing compression molding:

In compression molding there are six important considerations that an

engineer should bear in mind

Determining the proper amount of material.

Determining the minimum amount of energy required to heat the

material.

Determining the minimum time required to heat the material.

Determining the appropriate heating technique.

Predicting the required force, to ensure that shot attains the proper
shape.

Designing the mold for rapid cooling after the material has been
compressed into the mold.

The quantity of resin put into the mold.

This is a factor because if not enough resin is placed in the mold cavity, the
part will not be formed completely. If too much material is applied into the
mold, it may not melt completely or excess flash may be produced.
Pressure of the molding process.
The fluid plastic is held under pressure, often ranging upwards from 2000 psi,
for a sufficient length of time for the material to undergo polymerization or
cross linking, which renders it hard and rigid."

Different materials require

different forces to mold them. High-viscosity materials require more pressure

than materials with low-viscosities.

Down stroke or Upstroke of the machine.

A down stroke machine consists of a compression press in which the platen
moves downward to close the mold. An upstroke machine consists of a
compression press where the platen moves upward to close the mold.

Mold temperature.
The mold is subjected to high levels of heat, approximately around 300F to
375F. Appropriate heating is crucial to allow for the resin to soften for it to
flow into the mold cavity. If the temperature is too low the plastic material my
not melt completely and produce an unfinished part. If the temperature too
high, it can cause the part to get burned or warped.

Mold Closure Types:

There are three basic types of molds used when performing compression
molding. These are flash molds, positive molds, and semi positive molds.
Flash Molds are used for production of items when:

variation in wall

thickness, or eccentricity, is permissible; the radius is comparatively small or,

preferably, the corner is square on the outer edge of the open end of the
molding; the material is not full fabric; and the displacement of the mold cavity
is sufficiently large to contain the required molding material in powder form, or
in some cases preforms."
Positive Molds were used in the past when tools were made up of the die
shell, and the top and bottom plunger. A precise amount of material is needed
to make parts. Occasional use of positive molds is used when test pieces
need to be made.
Semi Positive Molds are a combination of flash and positive molds, and that
the flash is separated from the material. Semi positive molds are designed for

three purposes: to provide a powder cavity for bulky material; to provide a

powder cavity for bulky moldings in any material; and to provide a means of
escape for surplus material."

Advantages:
There are several advantages of compression molding. For instance, there is
little waste produced in the process. This is because there are no gates,
sprues, or runners. Because the molds lack these features, there is no extra
flash after the product is made. Therefore; the molds are easy to make, which
results in a much cheaper cost than other processing forms.

Other

advantages due to the mold not having gates, sprues, or runners are: Less
likely to disturb insert, be stressed, or erode. The waste that is formed from
thermoset materials can be recycled as fillers.

Disadvantages:
There are also disadvantages of performing compression molding to make
products. It is difficult to create intricate parts because the molds need to be
simple. Ejector pins or inserts are easily damaged when removing the part
from the mold. The time that some mold cycles need may be very long.
Because thermoset materials are typically used, rejected parts or scrap
cannot be reprocessed. (i.e., it cannot be melted down to be reused for the
same purpose)

Product Examples:
- Dinnerware
- Buttons
- Knobs
- Appliance Housings

- Radio Cases

This is the whole compression molding machine.

These are the controls where the temperature, time, and pressure can be set.
Checking the mold temperature with digital thermometer.

The top platen has been raised, relieving pressure, and the mold has been
extracted.
These are the two mold halves.
this is the resin that needs to be inserted in the female part of the mold.
After the designated time has passed, these are the products that are
produced. (In this case coasters were produced)
This is a side view of the product.

B.

Parameters of microstructure and their influence on friction and wear of

ceramics

Grain size

The main disadvantage of Ceramics as compared to Metals and Polymers is

their low fracture toughness.

Toughness is a bulk mechanical property of a material however it correlates

with its wear resistance particularly when the wear is a result of abrasive
action caused by cracking.

Finer grain structure results in increased toughness and better wear

resistance.
Grain size also determines the surface finish quality, which may be achieved
by grinding and polishing operations.

Fine grain structure allows to decrease the size of the surface microasperities
after the surface finish operation resulting in lower coefficient of friction.

Critical flaw size (the size of a flaw that results in rapid fracture)

Effect of flaw size on the fracture strength of a ceramic material is expressed

by the Griffith equation:

C =KIC /(Y( a))

where:
KIC stress-intensity factor, measured in MPa*m;

a the flaw size;

Y geometry factor.

According to the equation flaws of lower size result in increased material

toughness and higher wear resistance.

Flaw size is generally proportional to the grain size.

Homogeneity

Homogeneous distribution of the matrix particles size and pores size, second
phase particles (toughening particles) incorporated between the matrix
particles, aid phase (binders, etc.) locating at the grains boundaries results in
lowering the flaw size and consequently in increase of the fracture strength
(according to the Griffith equation).

Higher
Bulk

fracture
homogeneity

homogeneous

strength
of

surface

the

causes
microstructure

finish

with

low

higher
allows
content

wear
creating
of

resistance.
fine

surface

and
flaws.

High quality surface possess low coefficient of friction.

Manufacturing processes forming microstructure of ceramics

Powder preparation

Powder characteristics such as particle shape (spherical, irregular), average

particle size, size distribution determine the ceramic grain size and the
amount and size of the pores.

Compaction (shape forming)

The value of the applied pressure, the method of its application (Uniaxial (Die)
Pressing, Isostatic Pressing, Injection Molding, Extrusion, Slip Casting, etc.)
and the amount of binders and other additives (plasticizers, lubricants,
deflocculants, water etc.) determine the pores size and the residual internal
stresses.

Sintering

Diffusion proceeding during sintering process causes the pores to diminish or

even to close up resulting in densification of the ceramic material.
The bonding and other second phases are distributed between the grains of
the main ceramic phase.

The matrix grains may grow during the sintering process. Thus sintering
process determines the final grains and pores size and the physical and
chemical homogeneity.

Effect of surface characteristics on tribological properties of ceramics

Surface characteristics

Surface topography

Friction characteristics (coefficient of friction, wear) are strongly dependent on

the type of the lubrication regime (boundary lubrication, mixed lubrication,
hydrodynamic lubrication).

The lubrication regime is determined by the ratio of the lubricant film thickness
to the surface roughness Ra.

Rough ceramic surface with relatively large microasperities causes direct

contact between the rubbing surfaces and results in high coefficient of friction
and increased wear.

High surface finish quality allows to improve the tribological characteristics of

ceramics.
Ceramics are brittle and they wear by fracture mechanism, which is
characterized by formation of cracks in the subsurface regions surrounding
the wear groove. The volume of the lost material is higher than the volume of
the wear track. Thus wear of brittle ceramics results in roughening the
surface. The effect of roughening during friction is lower in toughened
ceramics.

Surface defects

Sintering defects, surface machining, impacts during friction, embedded

particles introduce surface flaws, which lead to fracture cracking and increase
wear.

Surface composition and tribochemical reactions

Ceramic surface may adsorb molecules of the environmental gases and

liquids. Such surfaces with modified composition may have different
coefficient

of

friction.

Coefficient of friction of ceramics in vacuum is commonly higher than that in

air.
Hydration of Oxide ceramics in a humid atmosphere also results in changing
their coefficients of friction and wear. Wear of hydrated silicon nitride and
silicon carbide is decreased. Wear of hydrated Alumina ceramics and Zirconia
ceramics

is

increased

due

to

chemisorption

embrittlement.

Surface of Non-oxide ceramics oxidizes in the presence of Oxygen in the

environment. The oxidation is enhanced at increased temperatures.

Oxide film on the surface of a non-oxide ceramic decreases the coefficients of

friction serving as a solid lubricant.