Q. 1.

Explain with diagram the structure and function of

environment?
Ans. Environment is a collective term for all the conditions in which an
organism lives. It includes biotic and abiotic components whereas habitat
is a place where an organism lives. The different components of
environment are inter-linked and interdependent.

The organisms interact with physical environment composed of

atmosphere,
hydrosphere and lithosphere
Environment is usually divided into two parts, physical and biotic. The
physical environment consists of (i) forces of nature like wind and gravity
(ii) conditions like temperature and light (iii) time and (iv) nonliving
materials like soil and water. The biotic environment is made up of all
living beings including their reactions, interactions and inter-related
actions.
Q. 2. What is biosphere?
Ans. Biosphere. The entire inhabiated part of earth and its atmosphere
including the living components is called biosphere.
The three main sub-divisions of biosphere are hydrosphere, lithosphere
and atmosphere.
1. Hydrosphere. It includes all the water components of oceans, seas,
rivers and other inland water.
2. Lithosphere. It comprises the solid components of the earths crust
which support life.
3. Atmosphere. It is formed of gaseous cover which envelops the
hydrosphen and lithosphere.
Q. 3. What are the components of environment? Differentiate
between the two.
Ans. Components of environment.
1. Biotic components
2. Abiotic components

Difference between Biotic and Abiotic components

Q. 4. Define parabiosphere and eubiosphere. Give examples.

Ans. Biosphere. It is the part of earth above and below the surface which
support life is called biosphere. Biosphere is recognised as a combination
of eubiosphere a parabiosphere.
Parabiosphere. It is that part of biosphere which is not inhabited and is
harsh to
life.
Examples: Regions of volcanoes, cold ice caps, arid hot deserts, heavily
polluted areas of a land and water.
Eubiosphere. The regions which support life which comprises
hydrosphere, lithosphere and atmosphere.
Q. 5. Explain how the three components of biosphere interact to
support and influence life.
Ans. Atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere interact and influence life.
Illustrations. For example, a tree serves as a food for leaf eating insect
which in turn serves as a food for bird and so on. At the same time that
tree is being held in position by the pedosphere and supported by the
water (contained in the soil) and the air of the atmosphere. By transpiring
water into the atmosphere it lowers the temperature of the atmosphere
and animals by breathing pass out CO2 which is used by plants during
photosynthesis. It thus, becomes clear that the biotic and abiotic
components of the atmosphere, lithosphere and the hydrosphere interact
and influence the performance of each component directly or indirectly.
Q. 6. Explain the terms : Habitat, Ecological niche, Ecosystem,
Biome.
Ans. Habitat. It is the place or locality in which an organism lives.
Ecological niche. A restricted situation or a set of area where individual is
confined are called ecological niche. It is the address of organism.
Ecosystem. Interaction between abiotic and biotic components of an area
constitute

ecosytem.
Bionic. A distinct large area with relatively homogeneous climate, flora
and fauna (plants and animals, respectively) is called a. biome that
means biological home. For example, desert is a biome for cacti or forest
is a biome for lion or lake or pond is a biome for water hyacinth.
Short Answer Type Questions
Q. 1. What is meant by environmental impact assessment? Now is
it conducted?
Ans. In a natural state, living organisms on earth live in equilibrium with
their environment. The populations and activities of every species are
governed by the Environment Impact Assessment (EIA). It is one of the
proven management tool to integrate environment concern in developing
project and for improved decision making. Its objective to make
assessments and address environment problem and concern at
an early stage of project planning and design.
Procedure for Conducting Environment Impact Assessment (EIA)
1. Any person or group of persons who desire to underline any new
project in any part of India or the expansion or modernization of any
existing industry/ project listed in the schedule shall submit an application
to the secretary, Ministry of Environment and Forest (MOEF) New Delhi on
prescribed form.
2. The project can be rejected due to submission of insufficient or
inadequate data and plans may be reviewed as and when submitted with
complete data and plans. Submission of incomplete data plan for the
second time would itself a sufficient reason for the Impact Assessment
Agency to reject the case.
3. The project authorities will intimate the location of the project site to
the central government. The MOEF while initiating any investigation and
surveys, the central government in the MOEF will convey a decision
regarding suitability or otherswise of the proposal site within a maximum
period of 30 days. The said clearance shall be granted for a sanctioned
capacity and shall be valid for a period of 5 yrs for commencing the
construction, operation! timing.
4. The expert committee setup by IAA announces the project proposal
through public media invites objection giving minimum of 60 days for
filing objections. The prospective affected parties may file objections
before the EAC (Environment Appraisal Committee.)
5. The Impact Assessment Agency shall prelare a set of recommendation
based on technical assessment of documents and data, furnished by the
project authorities, supplemented by data collected during visits to
sites/factories undertaken, and details of public hearing. V
6. The assessment should be completed within a period of 90 days from
receipt of request documents and data from project authorities and

compilation of public hearing and decision conveyed within 30 days

thereafter.
7. The clearance granted shall be valid for a period of 5 years for
commencement of the construction/operation of the project.
8. The project authority shall submit a half yearly report to the IAA.
9. If no comments from the IAA are recited within the time limit, the
project would be deemed to have been approved as proposed by project
authorities.
Q. 2. How does value education help environmental protection?
Ans. Effectiveness of Environmental Education.
Environmental educators have formulated a basic framework for how to
improve environmental education.
1. Reinforce individuals for positive environmental behaviour over an
extended period of time for the welfare of all.
2. Provide students with positive, informal experiences outdoors to
increase
their
environmental
sensitivity
and
attitude
towards
environment.
3. Focus instruction on the concepts of ownership and empowerment.
Ownership means that the learner has some personal interest in the
environmental issues being discussed or the problem faced. Perhaps the
student can relate more readily to concepts of solid waste disposal if there
is a landfill in the neighbourhood. Empowerment gives learners the sense
that they can make changes and help resolve environmental problems.
4. Design an exercise in which students thoroughly study the
environmental issues and then develop a plan for citizen action to address
the issue, complete with an analysis of the social, cultural and ecological
consequences of the action.
5. It motivates the learners to guide and motivate the others about
sustainability of environment.
Q. 3. What is ecology? Explain.
Ans. Ecology. The two components of nature, organisms and their
environment are not only much complex and dynamic but also
interdependent, mutually reactive and interrelated. Ecology, relatively a
new science, deals with the various principles which govern such
relationships between organisms and their environment.
However, the recent development in study of ecology has been the
recognition of the fact that biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living)
components of nature are not only interrelated but both these
components function in an orderly manner as a definite system. Thus
structure and functions should be studied together for a complete
understanding of this vast nature.
In Haeckels definition of ecology, he refers to the surrounding outer
world, which we now call the environment of an organism. His organic

and inorganic conditions, we call biotic and abiotic environmental factors,

respectively. Biotic factors are the other organisms encountered, whether
of the same or different species. Abiotic factors are the physical and
chemical conditions such as temperature, moisture, respiratory gases,
and substrate. Odum with such an approach put forth a new definition of
ecology and in his own words As you know ecology is often defined as
the study of inter-relationship between organisms and environment.
Q. 4. List the basic principles of ecology.
Ans. Basic principles of ecology.
1. Environment in a habitat comprise the non-living and living
components.
2. Anything and everything that influences the life processes of organism,
directly or indirectly, constitutes its environment.
3. An organism cannot exist in vacuum.
4. Sun is only and ultimate source of energy.
5. There is always a range of environmental factors above or below which
the performance of a function of a living organism decline.
6. There is a flow of energy in any ecosystem from producer to consumer.
7. Carrying capacity of a habitat is the ability to sustain a set of life.
Q. 5. What are the objectives of environmental education?
Ans. Objectives of environmental education.
The main objectives of environmental education are to help social groups
and individuals towards following
1. Awareness. Acquiring an awareness of and sensitivity to the total
environment and its allied problems.
2. Knowledge. To gain a variety of experiences and acquire a basic
understanding of the environment and its associated problems.
3. Attitude. Acquire a set of values and feelings of concern for the
environment and the motivation for active participation in environmental
improvement and protection.
4. Skill. Acquire skills for identifying and solving environmental problems.
5. Evaluation ability. Evaluate environmental measures and education
programmes in terms of ecological, economic, social, aesthetic and
educational factors.
6. Participation. To provide an opportunity to be actively involved at all
levels in working towards the resolution of environmental problems.
Long Answer Type Questions
Q. 1. What are the two main components of an environment ?
Describe the physical factors which affect the distribution of
organisms in different habitats.
Ans. Abiotic (physical) and Biotic components are the two main
components of an environment.

Abiotic components or Physical environment.

The physical environment embraces everything that is not associated
directly with
the presence of other organisms.
1. Temperature. The physiological and behavioural adaptations of most
animals depend upon the changes in the environmental
temperature. The rates of photosynthesis and respiration in plants
also fluctuate depending upon the change in temperature.
2. Water. The extent to which an organism is dependent on an abundant
water supply depends on its requirements and its ability to conserve it in
adverse conditions. Organisms living in dry habitats generally have good
water conservation such as in camels.
3. Light. This is essential for all green plants and photosynthetic bacteria,
and for all the animals dependent on the plants. Plants have numerous
adaptations
for obtaining optimum illumination.
4. Humidity. This is important because it can affect the rate at which
water evaporates from the surface of an organism, which in turn influence
its ability
to withstand drought.
5. Wind and air currents. This particularly applies to plants. Only plants
with strong root system and tough stems can live in exposed places
where winds
are fierce. Wind is also instrumental in the dispersal of spores and seeds.
6. pH. This influences the distribution of plants in soil and fresh water
ponds. Some plants thrive in acidic condition others in neutral or alkaline
conditions.
Most are highly sensitive to changes in pH.
7. Soil nutrients. These particularly affect the distribution of plants in the
soil. Plants living in soil deficients in a particular element must have
special methods of obtaining it. These methods include the harbouring of
nitrogen-fixing bacteria and the carnivorous habit.
8. Water currents. Only organisms capable of stemming or avoiding
strong currents can survive particularly in rivers and streams. For this
reason animals incapable of actively swimming generally live under stones
or in burrows and crevices in the bank.
9. Topography. When looking at the distribution of organisms one finds all
the difference between, for example, the centre and edge of a stream, the
topside and under-side of a stone, a north-facing and south-facing wall.
This may be explained by differences in illumination, temperature,
moisture, etc. Minor topographical differences may be just as important in
influencing the distribution of organisms as wide geographical separation.
10. Background. The distribution of organisms whose shape or colouration
are such that they are camouflaged when viewed against a particular
background is related to the general texture and pattern of the

environment. A good example of cryptic colouration is provided by the

white and black varieties of the peppered moth which are protected
against light and dark coloured tree trunks respectively.
Q. 2. What do you understand by environmental health ? Explain.
Ans. Environmental health.
The mad rat race among nations over the globe for development
jeopardised the
health of man itself. Progress in agriculture and industry is taken a
general criterion of development of any country. This craze resulted into
unlimited exploitation of every bit of natural resource. The splendid
plentifulness of nature is a heritage that should be conserved for future
generations and not to be spoiled.
Such activities of man had adverse effect on all forms of living organisms
in the biosphere. The earth planet along with atmosphere (air, land,
water) that sustains life is called the biosphere. Biosphere extends into
about 7 km of the earth surface itself downward into the ocean to depths
of about 10.67 km and vertically into the air to about 10 km. where life is
found to exists.
Unlimited exploitation of nature by man disturbed the delicate ecological
balance between living and non-living components of the biosphere. The
unfavourable conditions created by man himself threatened the survival
not only of man himself but also other living organisms.
The pollution in air, water, land has health effects. The health status of
individual, a community or a nation is determined by the interplay and
integration of two ecological universes The internal environment of man
himself and the external environment which surround him. The word
sanitation is The science of safeguarding health.
Actually it is a way of life. It is the quality of living that is expressed in the
clean neighbourhood and the clean community. So, being a way of life, it
must come from the people, nourished by knowledge and grow as an
obligation and an ideal in human relations.
Q. 3. What is environmental education? Why there is need for
environmental education?
Ans. Environmental education is fast emerging as one of the most
important disciplines in the world. The first seeds of enviror1mental
education were planted roughly a century ago and are found in the works
of Marsh, Muir, Thoreau and Leopold. Their writings served to bring the
worlds attention to the depletion of natural resources and the often
detrimental impact of humans on the environment. Nature education
expanded the teaching of biology, botany and other natural science out
into the natural world, where students learned through direct observation.
Teacher training programmes were developed to meet the increasing
demand. The Conservation Education Association found to consolidate
these efforts and help solidify citizen support for natural resource
management goals. The third pillar of modern EE is outdoor education

which refers more to the method of teaching than to the subject taught.
The idea is to hold class-rooms outdoors, the topics are not restricted to
only environmental issues but include art, music and other subjects. The
EE programmes should be incorporated in all public school curricula.
Environmental Education
EE is also defined as, education process dealing with peoples
relationships and their natural and man made surroundings and includes
the relation of population, pollution, resources allocation and depletion,
conservation, transportation, technology and rural and urban planning to
the total human environment.
Need for Environmental Education
Most people recognise the urgent need for environmental education, but
only some have clear ideas about what needs to be done, and very few
have either the actual experience or the knowledge about the courses
that need to be taught. The chief objective of environmental education is
that individual and social groups should acquire awareness and
knowledge, develop attitudes, skills and abilities and participate in solving
real-life environmental problems. The perspective should be integrated,
inter-disciplinary and holistic in character. The public in rural, tribal, slum
and urban areas, women and students and teachers in schools, colleges
and universities as well as planners and decision and policy makers,
programme implementors and R & D workers need to be educated about
environment.
The area of environmental education includes both, formal and nonformal education. In the formal education four distinct but interrelated
components are recognised : awareness, real-life situation, conservation
and sustainable development. These are to be suitably matched with
Primary, Lower Secondary, Higher Secondary, College and Higher
University levels. Under the University system, there should be four major
areas Environmental Engineering, Conservation and Management,
Environmental Health and Social Ecology. The non-formal education must
cater to adult education, rural youth and non-student youth, tribals and
forest dwellers, children public representatives, senior executives and
administrators and foundation courses for probationary officers from
different services including armed forces and trained manpower (teachers,
professionals, technicians, legal experts etc.)
There are several governmental and non-governmental organisations and
to
generate awareness towards environment. Dept. of Environment was set
up in 1982
and Environmental Information System (ENVIS) for this purpose. There is
a Centre
for Environmental Education (CEE) at Ahmedabad. There are over 200
non governmental organisations involved in environmental education,
nature conservation, pollution control, afforestation and social forestry,
rural development, wildlife conserciation, waste utilisation, ecodevelopment and floristic and faunal studies.

Chapter 2
Q. 1. Describe fertilizers and pesticide problems?
Ans. Problems due to use of fertilizers and pesticides.
1. If they are not applied with caution, artificial fertilizers cause
contamination and fail to give their full potential.
2. Exercise levels of nitrates (NO3) in groundwater and surface water are
increasingly a problem in Europe, USA and other parts of the world.
3. Phosphates have been accumulating in soils, river and lake sediments
for decades, as a consequence of the use of phosphatic fertilizers,
disposal of sewage and leaching of poorly sealed landfill sites. This poses
a serious threat for domestic water supply and for the ecology of rivers,
lakes and other water bodies. Increased levels of phosphates in water
bodies (particularly lakes) are responsible for entrophication.
4. Pesticites are harmful chemicals employed to kill pests but their use
cause following problems
(a) toxicity and slow breakdown.
(b) pesticide resistance and pest resurgence.
(c) tendency to be concentrated by foodweb.
(d) misuse or unsafe methods of application.
(e) creation of new pests due to the killing of beneficial predators that
previously kept a number of pests under control.
5. The effects of pesticides on human health can be
(a) Short-term, including acute poisoning and illness caused by relatively
high doses and accidental exposures; and
(b) long-term : including, cancer, birth defects, immunlogical problems,
Parkinsons disease and other chronic degenerative diseases. The long
term health effects are caused by very low doses of variety of different
chemicals and are difficult to tie to a specific source.
Q 2 Discuss effects of dams on forests and tribal people?
Ans.
1. The effects of dams on forests and tribal people.
The most significant environment effect of dams results from the
displacement of human pollutions. Because people normally settle along
rivers, where water for drinking, power, irrigation and transport are
readily available, reservoir flooding can displace huge populations. A
series of dams on Indias Narmada river will inundate the homes of 1.5
million people along with 6,00,000 acres of farm land. In such cases,
people will need to find new places to live and clear new land to grow
food.
2. Dams and reservoirs change sediment deposit in rivers.
3. Riparian or stream side habitats suffer both above and below dams.
4. They can be habitat loss, erosion and declining water quality.
Q. 3. Differentiate soil erosion and so desertification.

Ans. Soil Erosion: Loss of top layer of the soil by natural and man-made
processes is called soil erosion. Soil loss is maximum in regions with high
population density. Continuous cultivation of same crop also adds to soil
loss. The present rate of soil erosion is over 2500 millions tonnes per year.
India is faced with severe silting problems in Bhakra and other
multipurpose dams. River Ganga carries about 1.5 billion tonnes of soil to
ocean every year.
Kinds of Soil Erosion : Based on the rate at which soil loss takes place,
there are two main types of soil erosion
1. Normal or Geological Erosion : It occurs under natural conditions
without any interference of man. It is a very slow process and there is
equilibrium between loss and build up.
2. Accelerated Soil Erosion : The loss of soil is very rapid and never keeps
pace with the soil formation. It is generally caused by an interference of
an agency like man and other animals.
3. Desertification : The process of formation of deserts either due to
natural process linked to climatic change or due to excessive use of land.
Q. 4. Discuss benefits of Dam?
Ans. Benefits of Dams: More than 45000 dams all over the world are
estimated to support about 30-40% of land worldwide and supply 19% of
total worlds electric power. Thus, they play major role in development of
communities and economies.
1. Dams provide water for intensive planned irrigation.
2. Dams are source of hydroelectric energy to meet urban and industrial
consumption.
3. Dams check floods.
Q. 5. Discuss the use of bio energy as a non-conventional source
of energy.
Ans. Biomass energy is obtained from those materials whose origin can
be traced to photosynthesis i.e. trapping of solar energy, dried residues,
fresh water and marine algae, agricultural and forest residue. Fuel wood
provide energy for domestic use. Biogas obtained from biomass is used
for domestic and commercial purposes. Biogas produces a fewer
pollutants.
Q. 6. What are ill effects of deforestation?
Ans. Deforestation : The unplanned cutting off the forests is called
deforestation.
The main causes of deforestation are explosion of human and livestock
population of increased demand for timber, fuel wood, expansion of
croplands, construction of roads and dams. Deforestation causes
deterioration of the quality of life in a society, because of the following
factors

1. It results in reduced shade and there is quick run off which causes
erosion and floods.
2. it causes decreased rain fall which ultimately leads to drought.
3. It also reduces the water retention power of soil which leads to
drought.
4. Deforestation causes increased convection which again leads to
drought.
5. Floods and drought caused by deforestation disturbs plant and animal
life.
Q. 7. What are causes of formation of waste land?
Ans. Waste land. The various purposes for which land can be used,
include agriculture and horticulture for food production, energy
production, human dwelling and industrial/commercial purpose. But its
overuse makes it unfit for human use termed waste land.
Causes for formation of wasteland
Wastelands include degraded forests, overgrazed pastures, drought struck
pastures, eroded valleys, hilly slopes, waterlogged marshy lands, barren
land etc. The main causes of wasteland formation are as
1. Indiscriminate and over utilization of forest produce.
2. Overgrazing of grasslands.
3. Salination.
4. Water logging
5. Desertfication.
6. Side-effects of development projects.
7. Misuse and unscientific land management.
Q. 8. What are impacts of human activities on watershed ?
Ans. Impacts of human activities on watershed : Watershed is defined as
the land area from which water drains under gravity to a common
drainage channel. Thus watershed is a delineated area with a well defined
topographic boundary and one water outlet. Watershed comprises
complex interactions of soil, landform vegetation, land use activities and
water.
People and animals are an integral part of a watershed having mutual
impacts on each other.
1. Human activities like uncontrolled, unplanned and unscientific land use
are degrading the watershed.
2. There is increased concentration of soluble salts in the soil due to
intesive agricultural practices.
3.
Overgrazing,
deforestation,
mining,
contruction
activities,
industrialization, shifting cultivation, natural and artificial fires also result
in forming water shed.
4. Soil erosion and ignorance of local people have been responsible for
degradation of various waterlands.
Q. 9. Define deforestation and to causes?

Ans. Deforestation. Destruction of forests is termed deforestation. The

present forest cover of India and compare it with that of the past, we will
realise that it has shrunk and at present it is about 20% of the total land
area.
Inspite of the fact that we are very poor as regards this precious resource
for economic development and environmental stability, yet unfortunately
the rate of deforestation at 2.3% (1,500,000 ha/year) is much high,
compared to reforestation at 0.22% (138000 ha/yr)
Causes of deforestation in India
1. Increased demand of timber, fodder and fuel wood.
2. Expansion of cropland and enhanced grazing by livestock.
3. Construction of roads through forests.
4. Development of industries.
5. Extensive work for mining, quarrying, irrigation and agriculture.
6. Falling of trees to meet the demand of fuelwood, paper and wooden
crates.
7. Poor forest management.
Q. 10. Narrate the advantages and disadvantages of hydropower?
Ans. Hydroelectric power. In this technique, potential energy of stored
river water in high dams is converted into kinetic energy to run the
turbines at the bottom that generate electric power. Between 1950 and
1970, hydropower generation in the world increased seven times. The
important hydel power projects of India are Bhakra Nangal, Hirakud dam,
Damodar Valley, Them Dam, etc.
In India, hydel power plays a great role in electricity generation and has
the potential to generate 10,000 MW of electricity.
Advantages of hydroelectric power
(i) It is a pollution free and renewable source of energy.
(ii) Its operational cost is low.
(iii) It helps in checking floods and the stored water can be used for
irrigation, fisheries, drinking water and for recreational (eg, boating,
water sports) purposes.
Disadvantages of hydroelectric power
(i) There is problem of planning and construction of dams at suitable
sites.
(ii) Construction of dams may change the topography of an area and may
harm local flora and fauna.
(iii) Dams can block routes of fish migration required for their survival and
reproduction.
(iv) There is problem of silting of water reservoirs of dams due to soil
erosion of catchment areas, particularly, by their deforestation.
Q. 11. Why is water a unique resource?
Ans. Water plays a vital role in supporting system as follows:
1. It has an influence in regulating climate.

2. Ocean acts as heat bank for coastal regions releasing and absorbing
heat.
3. Water falls, tides and river currents are used to move machine and
generate hydroelectric power.
4. Water is essential for agriculture and industry.
5. It provides surface for navigation.
6. Water provides hydrogen required in living system. Thus water is a
unique resource.
Q. 12. What are fossil fuels and why they are non-renewable?
Ans. Fossil Fuels. They are non-renewable conventional energy resources
found inside earths crust where they have been formed through heat and
compression on forests and other organic matter buried underneath due
to earthquakes, landslides, lava, etc. Since they were formed in particular
periods, their presence underneath can be known from specific
palynofossils/ microfossils.
Fossil fuels can be solid (coal, lignite), liquid (petroleum) or gaseous
(natural gas) They meet 70% of total energy needs of the world and
87.4% of all commercial energy. Per capita index of energy consumption
is MTOE (metric tonnes of oil equivalent). It is maximum for Canada (9.15
MTOE), high for U.S.A. (7.3 MTOE), mediocre for Briti& and France (3.8
MTOE) and low for India (0.5 MTOE). In India 58% of commercial energy
is got from coal and .38% from petroleum along with natural gas.
Coal is used for cooking, heating, in industry and thermal power plants.
Petroleum is used fo transport, agriculture and some industries. LPG is
liquefied petroleum gas. Natural gas is employed both in cooking and in
industry. Fossil fuel resources are, however, limited. Coal resources and
natural gas may last for over 100 years. Good coal reserves occur in
U.S.A., China, Russia and India (Bihar, Bengal, Orissa and M.P.). In future,
it may be liquefied. A lot of natural gas goes waste (some 24% in India).
Known reserves of petroleum are expected to last upto 2030 A.D.
In India, petroleum reserves are low, being mainly present in Assam,
Gujarat, Bombay High and Narmada Basin. They do not meet even 50%
of total petroleum requirement. Despite limited reserves, demand for
fossil fuels is rising, annually by 6% on global basis and 15% in India.
Therefore, conservation of fossil fuels, prevention of their wastage and
alternate
sources of energy are urgently required. Gasification of coal, compressed
natural gas (CNG), gasohol (petrol + alcohol) are being tried.
Q. 13. Define desertification and underline the causes.
Ans. Desertification. It is a process whereby the productive potential of
arid or semiarid lands fall.
Causes of Desertification
1. Deforestation. The process of deforestation initiates a desert producing
cycle that continues of its own. Since there is no vegetation to hold back
the surface run off, water drains off quickly. It can not be soaked into the

soil to nourish the plants or to replenish the groundwater. This increases

soil erosion, loss of water.
2. Overgrazing. Due to overgrazing of grass lands and forests by cattle,
the land is denuded. Its vegetation cover is removed. When the earth is
denuded, the microclimate near the ground becomes unsuitable to seed
germination. The top fertile layer is lost and plant growth is hampered in
such soil. The dry barren land reflects more of the suns heat, changing
wind patterns, driving away moisture laden clouds leading to further
desertification.
3. Drought Conditions. Desertification usually begins in areas made
susceptible by drought or overuse by human population. Deserts are
found to occur in the arid and semiarid areas of all the continents.
4. Mining and Quarrying. These activities are also responsible for loss of
vegetal cover and denudation of extensive land areas leading to
desrtification.
Q. 14. Give two examples of successful Indian attempts in water
conservation.
Ans. The need of the hour is to make people aware of the dangers of
water scarcity and to launch a save water campaign. Following measures
may be taken for the better mane ement of worlds water resources
sustainably
1. Building several small reservoirs instead of few large projects,
developing small catchment dams and protecting waterlands.
2. Ganga Action Plan.
3. Rain water harvesting.
Q. 15. Differentiate between renewable and non-renewable
natural resources?
Ans. Renewable resources are those which are being continuously
consumed by man but renewed by nature e.g. water, wood, natural
pastures, soil and living organisms etc. The resources reappear by the
quick replacement, recycling and reproduction in a particular time.
Non-renewable resources. They are not reneiable after use and are not
replenished
by nature e.g. fossil fuel, metallic ores viz. copper. iron etc. Fossil fuels
include coal, petroleum etc.
Q. 16. Differentiate between water logging and salinity.
Ans. Water logging. When excessive irrigation is done with brakish water,
it raises the water table gradually leading to water logging and salinity
problems. Salinity. It refers to the increased concentration of soluble salts
in the soil due to wrong agriculture practices. The carbonates, chlorides
and sulphates of sodium and traces of calcium and magnesium form a
layer on the surface of soil and poses a threat to the survival of plants.
Q. 17. Explain solar air conditioning ?

Ans. Solar Air-Conditioning. It includes solar-powered refrigeration

systems of Rankine cycle systems1 absorption refrigerator systems and
solar-regenerated desiccant cooling systems. Out of these, open-cycle
absorption desiccant cooling systems seemed to offer the best prospects.
In a typical desiccant cooling cycle, ambient air is adiabatically cooled,
dehumidified, cooled both sensibly and evaporatively, and then ducted to
the living area. In the regenerative stage, air is evaporatively cooled,
heated as it cools the supply air stream, heated again by solar collectors,
and humidifed. Simulation and analysis of desiccant cooling systems
suggest that solar-regenerated systems can be cost-competitive with
conventional vapour-compression or absorption systems. Desiccant
cooling seems best suited for regions with about equal heating and
cooling loads and high humidity.
Short Answer Type Questions

Q. 1. Discuss role played by non-conventional energy resources

towards the protection of environment ?
Ans. A source of energy is one that can provide adequate amount of
energy in a usable form over a long period of time fossil fuels are the
common sources of energy but they are non-renewable. Thus there is
need for non-conventionl sources of energy and that can by used again
and again in a endless manner.
Energy Resources. Daily per capita requirement of energy was 2000-4000
kcal in hunting and food gatherer stage. Fire was then used for cooking
and keeping warm. In agriculture stage, animal power was added. In
developing countries per capita energy consumption is 10,000 kcal (6000
kcal in 1970). In industrial stage of 19th century, r capita consumption of
energy rose to 70,000 kcal in advanced countries. Present day per capita
energy consumption of U.S.A. is 250,000 kcal. Industrialised countries
with 30% of world population are consuming 80% of energy.
1. Animal Power. It is a renewable conventionl energy resource got from
draught animals. Draught animals are used in transport, drawing water
and agriculture, e.g., bullocks, buffaloes, camels, horses.
2. Firewoo4fFuelwood. It is a renewable conventional resource used for
cooking and heating in villages, remote areas, urban poor, wayside
dhabas, crematoria, etc. More than two billion persons employ wood as
fuel, consuming 1-8 billionm3 of it.
3. Organic Wastes. They constitute a newable resource. Availability in
India is over 3000 million tonnes. Out of this 1650 million tonnes is
animal dung, night soil and wastes from food processing industry. Dried
dung cakes are used for heating and cooking. The amount is over 200
million tonnes. It is a wasteful use of a resource.

4. Biogas. Organic wastes can be more profitably used in generation of

biogas. India can produce 48 billion m3 of biogas and 400 million tonnes
of manure per year through biogas technique.
5. Energy plantation. It is growing of firewood trees on non-forest and
nonagricultural lands.
6. Energy Corpping. It is growing crop which yield fuel. Alcohol can be
obtained from Potato, Sugarcane, Maize and Tapioca. Latex having long
chain liquid hydrocarbons is present in plants called petroplants, e.g.
Jatropha, Euphorbia lathyrus, Brickellia.
7. Tidal Energy. Tidal waves of the sea can be used to generate electricity.
It is an alternative source of energy to reduce the dependence on fossil
fuels.
8. Wind Power. It has been used for centuries to run the wind mills for
grinding grains in certain areas. It is being now developed on scientific
lines. The limitation is that the wind does not always blow with required
intensity all the year round and in all areas. Hence, it can be used in
certain regions and on certain days only.
9. Geothermal Energy. Steam and hot water coming out of the earth in
some places can be used for heating buildings and water and for
generating electricity. However, the geothermal resources are limited.
10 Solar energy. It is used for cooking air conditioning.
Q. 2. Critically examine the use of alternative energy sources.
Ans. Refer to Q. No. 1 (SAQ).
Q. 3. Discuss the causes for desertification and its measures ?
Ans. Desertification : In drier parts of the world, deserts are increasing
rapidly from a combination of natural processes and human activities, a
process known as desertification or land degradation. An annual rainfall of
less than 25 cms will produce a desert anywhere in the world. In the
semi-arid areas along the desert margins, where the annual rainfall is
around 40 cms, the ecosystem is the desert margins, where the annual
rainfall is around 40 cms, the ecosystem is inherently fragile with
seasonal rains supporting the temporary growth of plants. Recent changes
in the climate of these regions have meant that the rains are now
unreliable and the lands that were once semi-arid are now becoming
deserts. The process of desertification is precipitated by prolonged
droughts, causing the top layers of the soil to dry out and blow away. The
aeroded soils become unstable and compacted and do not readily allow
for seeding. This means that desertified areas do not regenerate by
themselves but remain bare and continue to erode. Desertification of
grazing lands or croplands is accompanied, therefore, by a sharp drop in
the productivity of the land.
Factors affecting desrtification and effects
1. Natural desertification is greatly accelerated by human activities that
leave soils vulnerable to erosion by wind and water. The drier grasslands
with too little rain to support cultivated crops have traditionally been used

for grazing livestock. When semi-arid land is overgrazed (by keeping too
many animals on too little land), plants that could survive moderate
grazing are uprooted and destroyed altogether. Since plant roots no
longer bind the soil together, the expossed soil dries out and is blown
away as dust. The destruction and removal of the topsoil means that soil
productivity drops drastically. The obvious solution to desertification
caused by overgrazing is to limit grazing to what the land can sustain.
2. Over-cultivation, deforestation, salting of the soil through irrigation and
the ploughing of the marginal land.
3. These destructive practices are intensfied in developing countries, rapid
population growth, high population density, poverty and poor land
management. The consequences of desertification in some countries
mean intensified drought and famine and lowered standards of living.
4. In marginal areas throughout the world, traditional farming practices
can lead to desertification. Ploughing turns the top layer of the soil upside
down, burying and killing weeds but exposing bare soil to erosion. In arid
areas, the exposed soil dries out rapidly and is easily lost through wind
erosion.
Measures to restore land
1. Mulching of soil to hold moisture and protection of seedling.
2. Reforestation is another way.
Q. 4. Why is dependence of man on nature greater than that of
any other organism?
Ans. Mans dependence on the environment is greater than that of other
organisms because he 1. has developed curiosity for more comforts and security.
2. consumes large amount of material and energy.
3. has developed a new kind of socio-economic environment which
consists of things developed by man through his tools and techniques.
Q. 5. Explain soil as a resource.
Ans. Soil as resource. Land forms about 1/5th of earth is a major
constituent of lithosphere and is the source of many materials, which are
used by man.
All the terrestrial plants obtain their water and mineral nutrients from the
soil. Yield of all biotic products in terrestrial ecosystem depends upon soil.
Numerous microbes (bacteria and fungi) and many animals which are
involved in the decomposition process live in soil. All of them form humus
by accumulation of partially synthesised organic materials. Soil is the
most important component of land. It is the fertile surface layer of the
earth capable of supporting plant growth. It is a mixture of mineral
matter, air, water, organic matter (humus) and organisms. Soil provides
water and minerals to plants and serves as a habitat for bacteria, fungi
and many kinds of animals. Human activities have aggravated soil
erosion, salinisation water logging, acidification, alkalination, leaching,
impoverishment and silting. These phenomena are a serious threat to

land as a resource. Productive land is reducing due to coming up of dams,

roads, railways, urban settlements, factories, canals, mines, playgrounds
and other things. Man should seriously take effective steps for the
conservation of soil. Nature also restores soil fertility in various ways.
Q. 6. Enumerate the importance of soil.
Ans. Importance of top soil
Soil plays a multiple role in the life of organisms
1. It provides water and mineral nutrients to the terrestrial plants.
2. It is the medium in which plant and animal materials are decomposed.
The inorganic components, namely CO2 and H20, formed as the end
products of decomposition are released into the environment for reuse by
plants.
3. It provides habitat for microbes.
Q. 7. Discuss the agents of soil erosion.
Ans. Agents of soil erosion
1. Water erosion. This type of soil erosion is caused by water. The rain
drops fall on the superficial layers and erosion takes place due to the flow
of water.
2. Wind erosion. In deserts soil erosion takes place continuously due to
wind and cyclones.
3. Land slides or Slip erosion. Due to heavy rains, edges of hills are
washed away and due to gravity they fall.
4. Stream bank erosion. Due to floods the banks of rivers are eroded.
Q. 8. Give a brief account of principles of soil erosion.
Ans. Principles of soil erosion.
1. Normal or geological erosion. This is a slow process. It is a common
natural phenomenon. A balance is maintained between formation and
erosion.
2. Accelerated soil erosion. In this type of erosion, a balance is not
maintained between erosion and formation. The speed of erosion is so
fast due to man or any other reason that it is impossible to have a similar
formation speed. Due to this type of soil erosion, man has to face many
problems.
Q. 9. Write the names of biological methods of soil conservation.
Ans. Biological methods of soil conservation.
1. Contour agriculture
2. Mulching
3. Crop rotation
4. Dry farming.
Q. 10. How will you restore soil fertility?
Ans.
1. Application of biofertilizers is useful in enhancing the soil fertility.

2. Various organic farming measures, which provide increase input to soil

have long term beneficial effects on soil fertility.
Q. 11. What are the major sources of water on earth?
Ans. Sources of water. The sources of water on earth are oceans, rivers,
lakes,
soil moisture and ground water.
Oceans contain 97% 1.4 billion cubic kilometre (km3) of remaining water.
Ice in the polar ice caps and permanent glaciers had about 3% of
remaining water. Rest of the water is in the form of water vapours, lakes,
rivers and ground water. Q. 12. Write a note on fresh water available.
Ans. Fresh water. Out of the 3%, 77.2% is stored in glaciers and icecaps
and 22.4% is ground water and soil moisture. The remaining 0.36% is
present in lakes, rivers, streams, swamps etc. This fresh water is available
for drinking and irrigation purposes. In the atmosphere there is 0.00 J of
water.
Though ocean water is also very important for mankind. Mans direct
relation is more with fresh water. Rainfall is due to evaporation of ocean
water and as a result of this fresh water is available. 90% of the total
evaporated oceanic water reaches back into the ocean through rivers.
Q. 13. What are methods of conserving water resources?
Ans. Conservation of water resources. For conservation and management
of fresh water, following methods can be employed
1. Reducing agricultural water wastage by increasing efficiency of
irrigation system.
2. Afforestation and protection of watersheds to improve economy.
3. Formation of artificial clouds, so that a change can be brought in the
atmosphere.
4. Changes in the vegetation of a particular area, so that even in the dry
season maximum amount of water can be stored. In addition to this,
dams should be constructed to stop the drainage of rain water.
5. Control the distribution of water by constructing big dams.
6. Desalinization of sea water and saline ground water.
7. Proper utilization of underground water.
8. Attempt to extract minerals from water.
9. Melt the glaciers and snow for using as a fresh water resource.
10. Regular dredging and desiltation of water bodies.
Q. 14. What do you understand by Forest, Forestry, Jungles and
Silviculture?
Ans. (i) Forest. It is an ecosystem comprising living and non-living
components.
Or

Forest is land outside the fences and boundaries of village covered with a
closed canopy of trees and shrubs.
Or
Forest is any area set aside for timber, climatic or protective purposes.
(ii) Forestry. The branch of knowledge concerned with scientific, rearing
and tending of forest trees in order to derive the maximum benefit is
known as forestry.
(iii) Jungle. It is an unmanaged area of land lying outside human
settlements. It is covered over by trees and shrubs.
(iv) Silviculture. It is the programme for establishment, development,
care and reproduction of pure crops of valuable timber trees.
Q. 15. Comment Forest as a resource.
Ans. Forest as a resource. Forests provide medicinal plants, food, fodder,
fuel, fibres, tools, shelter to majority of biota, timber, non-wood products
apart from protection of environment are all provided by the forests.
Forests also serve as home to diverse plants and animals besides serving
as a sink to polluting gases and maintaining the balance of atmospheric
carbon dioxide and oxygen.
Q. 16. Write a brief note on Indian Forests.
Ans. Indian Forests. In India the forests cover an area of about 8 lakh
square km. There are about 15000 species of flowering plants and almost
3000 species of nonflowering plants are present. From the forests, timber,
fuel wood, bamboo, medicines, fibres, gum, resins, rubber, aromatic oil,
colours, oil, seeds and number of other small products are obtained,
without which our daily life cannot be imagined.
Indias main forest areas are : Himalayan area, valley area, Ganges
Sindhu plains,
Rajasthan, Sundarban and eastern and western ghats, south India,
Andaman Nicobar
and Lakshdeep and eastern India.
Q. 17. What is the importance of forest resources?
Ans. A. Productive functions
1. Forests provide wood. Indian forests yield valuable timber wood like
teak, sal,
deodar, shisham etc.
2. Forests provide paper. The conifers and bamboos are used as raw
material to prepare paper.
3. Medicinal plants of forests provide medicine of great importance.
4. Forests provide number of products like resins, gums, rubber, food and
insecticides.
5. Forest provide shelter to variety of animals.
6. Forests also provide the cork e.g. oak (Quercus)
B. Protective functions

Role of forests in the protection of lands. Forests play a vital role in the
life and economy of all tribes living in the forests.
1. Forests prevent erosion of soil by wind and water.
2. Large trees provide shade which prevents the soil from becoming dry
and friable during the summer.
3. They check the velocity of rain drops or wind striking the ground and
reduce dislodging of the soil particles.
4. The root system of plants firmly binds the soil.
C. Role of forests in retaining sub-soil water. Forests improve the quality
of soil by increasing its porosity. The forest soil absorbs water during rains
like a giant sponge and does not allow it to evaporate or run off quickly. It
ensures perennial supply of subsoil water in springs and wells. Thus the
hill slopes with vast forest cover in the catchment areas conserve water
and gradually release it into streams, rivers and subsoil springs.
Q. 18. Name the forest products of economic importance.
Ans. Forest products of economic importance.
Name of products
(a) Gum (b) Tannin (c) Resin
(d) Oil (e) Beverage (f) Rubber
(g) Medicines (h) Paper
Q. 19. How does deforestation cause deterioration of the quality
of life in a society?
Ans. Deforestation. The unplanned cutting off the forests is called
deforestation. The main causes of deforestation are explosion of human
and livestock population of increased demands for timber, fuel wood,
expansion of croplands, construction of roads and dams. Deforestation
causes deterioration of the quality of life in a society, cause of the
following factors
1. It results in reduced shade and there is quick run off which causes
erosion and floods.
2. It causes decreased rain fall which ultimately leads to drought.
3. It also reduces the water retention power of soil which leads to
drought.
4. Deforestation causes increased convection which again leads to
drought.
5. Floods and drought caused by deforestation disturbs plant and animal
life.
Q. 20. Write a note on any three schemes of afforestation
launched by Union and State governments.
Ans. The Union and State governments have launched several schemes of
afforestation and forest conservation.
1. The Social Forestry Programme is one such scheme. In this scheme,
the common lands and public places are utilised to produce fire wood,

fodder and small timber in order to meet the demand of rural population
and thus decrease the pressure on the forests.
2. Agroforestry is another programme of forest conservation according to
which the old practice of growing trees, cultivation of agriculture and
animal
husbandry are simultaneously carried out in the same area.
3. Urban Forestry programme is yet another scheme according to which
the shade trees, flowering trees and fruit trees -are planted along the
roads, around and within the parks, inside the compounds and vacant
lands in urban areas. It adds to the aesthetic beauty of the place and
tones down the harshness of the urban environment besides giving
protection against scorching heat to the travellers.
Q. 21. Write a short note on Chipko movement.
Ans. Chipko Movement. The Chipko movement was born in March 1973,
in the remote hill town of Gopeshwar in Chamoli district of then Uttar
Pradesh. Chipko movement reached its climax in 1974 when the women
of village Reni led by Gaura Devi barred the path to the forest which went
through the village.
The genesis of the Chipko movement has both an ecological and an
economic background. Two leaders-Chandi Prasad Bhatt from Gopeshwar
and Sunder La! Bahuguna from Tehri region have contributed immensely
in making it a big success and also spreading it amongst people. It is
confined to. tree protection and plantation only, but also concerns itself
with the safety and preservation of environment as a whole including the
habitat and the wildlife.
Q. 22. Write a note on Appiko movement.
Ans. Appiko movement. It is a successful conservation movement on
South India and originated in Uttara Kannada. About fifty years ago as
much as 82 per cent of district was covered with forests rich in teak trees.
There was excessive use of the teak trees and in 1983-84 forest cover
dropped to 20 per cent. As a result not only soil in the area degraded but
also water resources and water cycle was affected.
Then the local people especially youths were motivated into direct action.
They requested the people to stop clearing the forests, and the appeal
was ignored by those persons involved in utilization. Then the activists
took oath to protect the trees the same way as the Chipko movement
activists did. This movement was led by Pandurang Hegde.
Appiko movement has created a mass awakening about conservation of
forests in
South India.
Q. 23. Write a note on forest conservation,
Ans. Forest conservation. Before mans evolution 70% of the land was
covered by forests, which is now only 16%. The forests were depleted due
to river valley projects, commercial use, agriculture development etc. To

stop the destruction of forests, forest management, social forestry and

public efforts are also necessary.
Forest management should be such that along with protection of forests,
the production should also increase.
Q. 24. What is wetland ? What are its types ?
Ans. Wetlands. Wetlands are low lying areas usually covered by shallow
water and have characteristic soils and water-tolerant vegetation.
Wetlands may be either fresh-water or salt water (coastal). Freshwater
wetlands include marshes (where grasslike plants dominate), swamps
(where trees or shrubs dominate), and periodically flooded riverine forests
found in lowlands along streams.
Wetlands occupy almost 6% of the worlds land surface and provide
crucial environmental services. Wetlands are often drained, dredged or
filled up for housing and industrial purposes. They are increasingly
threatened by agriculture, pollution and engineering constructions (such
as dams).
Q. 25. Why are wetlands considered ecologically important?
Ans. Importance of wetlands.
1. They serve as ground water recharging areas.
2. To help clean and purify water run off.
3. They are highly productive area.
4. In salt water wetland as the mangroves hold sediment and accumulate
soil along shore line.
5. An mangroves expand into ocean other plants colonize the soil left
behind.
Q. 26. What are the various ways of conserving non-renewable
natural resources ?
Ans. The conservation of non-renewable natural resources. The
availability of minerals for human use along the time scale is called life
time of earth minerals. The project life span of various minerals can be
extended by recycling, substitution and synthesis.
The conservation of fuel is possible only by their judicious use and by
finding out
the new resources of energy such as (a) hydro-power (b) wind power and
(c) nuclear power.
Sun energy is also a useful form of energy. Indian scientists have been
able to invent the sun basket, solar cooker in which the suns rays are
utilised directly to cook meals. It will save fossil fuel.
Q. 27. Discuss the role of water as essential component of life
supporting system.
Ans. Water is the major constituent of hydrosphere and covers four-fifths
of earths surface. Water form about 60-95% of living material i.e.

protoplasm is an essential substance for carrying out various vital

processes of life. It plays a role in vital supporting system as follows
1. It has an influence in regulating climate.
2. Ocean acts as heat bank for coastal regions releasing and absorbing
heat.
3. In stream use water falls, tides and river currents are used to move
machine and generate hydroelectric power.
4. Irrigation water is essential for agriculture.
5 It provides surface for navigation.
6. Water provides hydrogen required in living system.
7. Domestic use. The domestic use includes drinking, bathing, washing,
cleaning, air-conditioning, cooking, washing dishes, flishing toilets,
watering lawns and gardens. Per person use of water increases with his
economic status. In India it ranges from 10 to 200 litres per person per
day. More domestic water is wasted than used. Over and above about
20% loss of water is on account of leaking water pipes and casual public
attitude towards it.
8. Industrial Use. Most of wter use for industries is for cooling. For
example electric power generating plants use ater to cool steam for
recovering the water back. It is also used to dissipate and transport the
waste products. Both community, and industrial use contaminate water,
and treatment is required before returning it to the river.
Q. 28. What is water cycle ?, How do humans interfere in water
cycle?
Ans. Water Cycle. It is a highly complex natural system. t is never ending
circulation of water. It is a combination of evaporation, precipitation,
interception, transpiration, infiltration seepage, storage and run off. It is
powered by solar energy and force of gravity. It shows the dynamic
nature of water movement in the total hydrosphiere. It illustrates how
water can occur in form of three natural states i.e. liquid, solid and gas.
Human interference in water cycle
Water cycle is dynamic. It is highly complex natural system. But in the
present time, it is becoming more complex due to interference by man
knowingly or unknowingly.
Human interference can be discussed as follows
1. Man has been trying to make artificial rain making to ensure better
water resources in time and space
2 Construction of dams
3. Canal network created by man for irrigation.
4. Artificial recharge of ground water reserve.
Q. 29. List the important marine resources.
Ans. List of marine resources:
1. Through the global hydrological cycle ocean maintain a regular flow of
fresh water to be used by man, various animals and plants.

2. Ocean is a reservoir of many substances of biological cycles and many

other materials.
3. Marine vegetation acts as producers.
4. Kelps and a few marine animals are used as food.
5. Iodine and industrial gums are produced from sea weeds.
6. Agar is produced from green algae.
7. Algin is derived from Sargassum and Turbilaria.
8. Pearls obtained from pearl oyster are used as valuable jewellery.
9. Shells of molluscs are used to obtain quick lime.
10. Sodium chloride, magnesium and bromide are extracted from sea
water.
11. Petroim and natural gas are obtained from continental shelves.
12. Oceans are also sources of deuterium, uranium, gold, manganese,
iron, lead and sulphur.
Q. 30. Give brief account of global distribution of water.
Ans. Global distribution of water. It is believed that life originated
(present plants and animals) in sea-water in the form of a unicellular
cyanobacteria (blue-green algae.) Over a long period of time, these single
called organisms formed multicellular organisms which resulted in the
evolution of present day plants and animals.
The total quantity of water on our planet is fixed and its distribution is
highly uneven. Almost 95% of the total water present on this earth is
chemically bound into rocks and does not cycle. Of the remainder, about
97.3% is in the ocean, about 2.1% exists as ice in the polar caps and
permanent glaciers and the rest is fresh water present in the form of
atmospheric water vapour, ground water, and inland surface water. Thus,
less than one per cent of the total fresh water participates in the
hydrological cycle
Water occurs in springs, ponds, rivers and seas. Water exists as snow in
Antarctica. Water vapours exist in the atmosphere.
Long Answer Type Questions

Q. 1. (a) Derive an equation to find out the number of years (T)

required to deplete a quantities of reserve (R) when the present
rate of consumption of P0 and exponential growth rate of
consumption is r.
(b) Consider the fossil fuel scenario by 2020 in the present rate of
population growth.
(May, 2007)
Ans. The equation to find out the number of years required to deplete a
reserve, is as follows

where
T is time in years
R is quantity of reserve
P0 is the rate of consumption
r is the exponential growth rate of consumption
As the quality of modern life goes to a betterment the T decreases rapidly.
T is going down at a frightening rate because available supplies can only
go down as consumption goes up. Even if available resources could be
kept constant by recycle or other means, the situation deteriorate as long
as population and especially per capita consumption increases at a rapid
rate.
(b) Refer to Q. No. 12 VSAQ.
Q. 2. Write an essay on the impact of dams on people ? What are
the benefits and negative impacts on people?
Ans. Most dams are built to control flood hazards, to store water for
irrigation or other uses or to produce hydroelectricity. In India, where
nearly 75 percent of the population depends on agriculture, the execution
of River Valley Projects and dam building are some important steps of
growth strategy of the country.
Benefits of Dams
1. Dams are needed for power, they can have a positive effect in
offsetting environmental costs associated with other power sources.
Hydropower is cleaner and safer than nuclear power. Water turbines are
also cleaner than coal-fired generators. Furthermore, both nuclear and
coal power require extensive mining with great damage to .environment.
2. The dams have tremendous potential for economic upliftment and
growth.
3. They can help in checking floods and famines, generate electricity and
reduce water and power shortage.
4. Provide irrigation water to lower areas
5. Provide drinking water in remote areas and promote navigation, fishery
etc.
Negative Impact of Dams
1. Displacement due to Dams. The big dams are being constructed
everywhere in tribal or hilly areas. The people of these regions are being
uprooted to provide power to big cities, industries and irrigation water to
comparatively more prosperous area. This is unethical. Big river valley
projects like Hirakund dam (Orissa) Bhakra Nngal dam (Punjab), Tehri
dam (Uttaranchal), Sardar Sarovar Project (Gujarat) and Damodar Valley
project (West Bengal) etc., have caused large scale displacement of local
people. In the last 50 years more than 20 million people have been
displaced by dams.
2. Loss of forests, flora and fauna
3. Changes in fisheries and the spawning grounds
4. Siltation and sedimentation of reservoirs
5. Loss of non-forest land

6. Stagnation and water logging near reservoir

7. Breeding of vectors and spread of vector-borne diseases
8. Reservoir induced seismicity (RIS) causing earthquakes
9. Growth of aquatic weeds.
10. Changes in the micro climate
11. Reduced water flow and slit deposition in river
12. Flash floods
13. Salt water intrusion at river mouth
14. Loss of land fertility along the river since the sediments carrying
nutrients get deposited in the reservoir.
Q. 3. Write short note on renewable and non-renewable energy
resources.
Ans. Natural Resources/Earth Resources. They are those living and
nonliving components of atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere which
can be drawn upon for supporting life or have potential of being used by
humans for their requirements. Resources may vary from society to
society. Resources may be inorganic (e.g. minerals, water), organic
(organisms or their products) or mixed (e.g., soil). They can be national
(minerals, land), multinational (certain rivers, migratory animals), or
international (e.g., sunlight, air).
Inexhaustible Resource. It is a natural resource which is found in such
abundance that it is unlikely to diminish or get exausted, e.g., air, clay,
sand. The quality of resource may deteriorate due to pollution.
Exhaustible Resource. It is a natural resource which is likely to diminsh
and then get exhausted due to continuous use or exploitation e.g. ,
minerals, fossil fuel, forests, pastures, aquatic organisms. Exhaustible
resources are of two types, renewable and non-renewable. Renewable
Resources is a natural resource which gets replenished recylced or
reproduced and should not be used beyond its renewability e.g., forest,
underground water, wildlife, aquatic organisms. Non-renewable Resource
is a natural resource which is likely to get exhausted with use because of
its lack of recycling (e.g., fossil fuel) or very long recycling time (e.g.,
minearls).
Conservation of non-renewable resources
Conservation of minearis
The following methods have been suggested for the conservation of
minearis.
(i) There is a need for the development of techniques for the extraction of
minearis from the sea.
(ii) Use of atomic energy for extraction of metals from mineral ores.
(iii) Scraps and waste products of minerals should be recycled for use.
Conservation of fossil fuels
Existing fuel will finish altogether one day or another. Therefore, there is
need for alternative sources of energy. The alternative energy resources
are
(i) Hydroelectric power

(ii) Wind energy

(iii) Atomic energy
(iv) Solar energy.
Need to conserve the non-renewable resources. If worlds population
remains at its present level and if the current rate of consumption of the
various minerals does not increase, the following changes are possible:
1. The world reserve of crude oil, natural gas, uranium-235, tungsten,
copper, lead, zinc, tin, gold, silver and platinum wifi be exhausted until
about 2590- 2800 A.D.
2. The world reserves of coal, iron and chromium are likely to be available
until about 2500-2800 A.D.
3. Aluminium, cobalt, manganese and molybdenum are likely to last until
about
2106-2200 A.D.
4. The worlds known oil and natural gas reserves are likely to be
depleted by the end of this, century while that of coal is likely to last
much longer but certainly not indefintely.
Q. 4. What is soil ? Give an account of soil erosion. Discuss
methods for conservation of soil.
Ans. Soil. The top layer of the land constitutes soil. It is the region which
supports vegetation by providing enormous water and mineral nutrients.
However of the total land area of 13,393 million hectares, only 11% is
available for agriculture, the rest covered by human dwellings, roads,
canals, railways, meadows, pastures and forests.
Soil erosion. Damage or removal of top soil renders the soil infertile.
Erosion may occur in many ways
1. Top soil is carried away by wind sweeping across ploughed soil left
unused in dry season.
2. Loss of forests by felling or fire starts erosion. Soil is carried away by
rivers and streams and deposited in the oceans. No doubt, the forests are
renewable, it takes many decades to have full grown forests again.
Erosion continues till then.
3. Unprotected fields are erode4 by wind and water.
4. Burrowing animals contribute to soil erosion. They make the soil loose
and liable to be carried away by water.
5. Ocean waves and glaciers also cause soil erosion.
6. Human activities, such as felling of trees, overgrazing, overcropping
and faulty tilling accelerate soil erosion.
Methods of soil conservation. The various means of soil conservation are:
(a) Bio-technology. Under this different types of agricultural methods are
used. For example, contour agriculture, mulching, crop rotation, dry
farming and other agricultural practices.
(b) Engineering methods. Making basins for collection of water on land
suitable for agricultural purposes. Soil conservation can be done even by
making contours, on the surface.

(c) Other Methods. The plantation, making drainage lines, planting trees
at certain al3gles in the desert area (which will decrease the speed of
strong winds).
Decreasing soil pollution is also a method which helps in soil conservation.
Q. 5. What steps would you propose for sustained development
without depletion of available resources and ecodegradation ?
Ans. Mans increasing economic activities have atremendous impact on
the physical and biological resources of the world. For sustained
development with depletion of available resources and ecodegradation
following steps should be taken:
1. Use of alternative for fossils fuels as source of energy such as solar
energy, wind mills, tidal energy etc.
2. Stop over-exploitation of natural resources to save for future.
3. Conservation of forests is essential.
4. Conservatic of wild life and to maintain gene pool.
5. Planned industries to avoid pollution of urban areas.
6. To check pollution of land, water and air.
7. Maintain environment balance.
8. Changes in: landscape have gradually attend the regional and global
climate, thus to avoid changes in landscape.
9. To control increase in human population.
10. Overgrazing results into degradation of grasslands. it may lead to
formation of deserts.
11. Misuse of land by digging of sediments for brick making and shifting
cultivation should be stopped.
Q. 6. Discuss the policies for conservation of environment.
Ans. Policies for Conservation. Man has caused great harm to
environment in the last two centuries. So efforts are on to conserve
environment at global level. In 1972, a conference on conservation of
environment was held at Stockholm between 5th and June. From this day,
June 5 is celebrated as World Environment Day all over the world. Main
suggestions for conservation of environment are as following:
1. Every man has a right to live in clean and self sustaining environment.
Alongwith this, conservation of environment is his primary duty.
2. Environment affects quality of life and economic development in an
area. So people of the area should conserve environment.
3. Use of resources should be rationalised as it affects environment and
causes water and air pollution.
4. Natural habitat of wild animals should be protected.
5. We should use renewable resources instead of non-renewable so that
development is sustainable.
6. Non-renewable resources should be used judiciously so that these can
be used for a long period of time. Alternative resources should also be
developed.

7. Natural ecosystems should be protected.

8. Oceans should not be made dumping grounds. We should not throw
garbage and industrial effluents in water bodies.
9. National institutes should be established to conserve environment and
utilize natural resources.
10. Science and technology should be used to conserve environment.
11. Every country should take care that industries and other work in his
territory do not affect environment of a neighbouring country.
12. Every citizen should be educated and guided to conserve
environment.
After the Stockholm conference, many efforts were made to conserve
environment. In 1976, 42nd amendment was made in the Constitution of
India. In this amendment, attention was focussed on forests, wild life and
other related environmental issues.
Directive Principles and Basic Duties were formulated. Department of
Environment was established in 1980. It was converted into Ministry of
Environment and Forests in 1985. Various government policies were
changed keeping in view the environment conservation such as
1. Agricultural Policy. Since Independence, the govt. of India laid
emphasis on increase of foodgrains by increasing per hectare yield. It was
possible with use of chemical fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides etc. After
42nd amendment, the government stressed to increase yield and stabilize
production of food grains by using green manure, biofertilizers, integrated
post management etc.
2. Urbanisation Policy. Satellite towns were established around all major
cities to ease out traffic and provide better facilities. Under this policy
Noida and Gurgaon were established near Delhi. Similarly, Mohali and
Panchkula were established near Chandigarh. Sewage system was
provided in all major cities. In some cities, such as Delhi, solid waste is
being used to prepare manure and gas.
3. Industrial Policy. Industries pollute air, water, soil etc. New Industrial
policy was formulated in which industrial focal points and Industrial
centres were established away from existing industrial complexes so that
pollution in these complexes can be controlled. New guidelines were
issued regarding smoke emissions, height of chimneys and discharge of
industrial effluents.
4. Energy Policy. Use of energy resources is increasing day by day.
Burning of fossil fuels causes air pollution. Under this policy, compressed
natural gas (C.N.G.) was made a compulsory fuel in autorickshaws, taxis,
buses and other public vehicles in Delhi and other cities. Similarly,
emphasis is being laid on use of solar, tidal, hydro power, biogas etc. so
that use of traditional sources of energy can be reduced.
Q. 7. Discuss the economic importance of forests.
Ans. Economic importance of forests. Forest is considered an industry
which plays a significant role in strengthening the economy of a nation.
The followings are the important uses of forests

1. Conserve fertility of the soil. The forests check -the soil erosion and
conserve the fertile soil. They also improve the soil by increasing porosity.
2. Climate of a nation. The climate is considerably affected by forests
which protect life from hot winds and dust storms. Forests also cause
rains.
3. Forests provide wood. Indian forests yield valuable timbers wood like
teak, sal, deodar, Shisham etc.
4. Forests provide paper. The conifers and bamboos are used as material
to prepare paper.
5. Medicinal plants of forests provide medicine of great importance.
6. Forests provide number of products like resins, gums, rubber, food and
insecticides.
7. Forest provide shelter to variety of animals.
8. Forests also provide the cork e.g. oak (Quercus).
9. Rayon and artificial silk are obtained from cotton linters.
10. Plastics are also prepared from cellulose nitrate.
11. Natural rubber is also obtained from the forests e.g. Hevea.
12. The other useful products which are obtained from the forests e.g.
shellac, natural dyes, lac, honey, wax.
13. Forests provide fuel wood.
14. Forests provide essential oils which are obtained from rosha grass,
Khas and sandal wood. They are used in the manufacture of soaps,
cosmetic, pharmaceuticals, confectionary, pipe, tobacco and incence.
15. Soap substitute such as ritha and shikakai are important commercial
products.
16. Forests have a great aesthetic value.
Q. 8. What steps would you suggest for conservation of forests ?
Ans. Conservation of forests. The increasing demand of timber in the
world needs and intensive utilisation and management of forests. A
planned and well managed forests will yield trees for regular cuffing. The
following methods may be applied in forest management.
1. Improvement cutting. Weed trees, damaged trees, crowded trees,
crooked trees and diseased trees are removed in improvement cuffing. As
timber trees mature they are removed by selective cutting.. Extraction of
timber should not interfere with watershed protection.
2. Block cutting. In block cutting, stands of timber are left around the
block for natural residing and protection of the exposed land. When small
trees are established another block can be cut.
3. Pest control. Parasitic fungi such as rusts, smuts, mildews, viruses and
insects affect the forests trees. Sprays containing DDT and other powerful
pesticides are effective against these pests. Biological control is also a
method to control pests by using natural enemies of forest insects.
4. Grazing and rearing animals in forests. Grazing of cattle, horses, sheep
or
hogs in wood lots will completely destroy trees with the passage of time.

Thus grazing and rearing animals in forests should be checked.

5. The effect of weather on forests. Wind, ice and snow are beyond our
power to
control. But damage done to forests by natural forces should receive
attention.
6. Reforestation. The establishment of a forest on previously cleared land
is
called reforestation. The regrowth of a forest in an open area is a slow,
lengthy and costly process, but it is a vital part of conservation
programme.
7. Control of forest fires. Forest fires destroy the standing timber and
consume
the seeds and young trees of the future forest. In protected forests the
fire
towers are placed at strategic points. Trained rangers survey the forests
from
the forest and report any evidence of fire to headquarters. Fire lines,
which
resemble roads, penetrate the forest at regular intervals. They serve as
avenues
for reaching a fire and provide gaps at which a fire can be stopped.
8. The use of forest wood should be discouraged to reduce pressure on
more
valuable natural forests.
9. The various afforestation programmes launched by union and state
govern
ments should be practised. They are social forestry programme,
Agroforestry
programme and Urban forestry programme.
Q. 9. Describe sources of water supply.
Ans. Sources of water.
Rain. It is the prime source of water. When it seeps into the ground, it
forms ground water. Part of it evaporates back into the atmosphere and
some runs off to form streams and rivers which ultimately flow into the
sea. Some part of it is taken by the plants and is transpired by the leaves.
It is the purest form of water. Chemically, it is soft water containing only
traces of dissolved solids. Normally, the rain water does not carry disease
causing bacteria. But as it falls through the atmosphere, it tends to get
impure. It picks up impurities, such as dust, soot, bacteria and gases like
carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen and ammonia.
Surface Water. It originates from rain water. Rivers, streams, tanks,
ponds, lakes etc. are different sources of surface water. In general,
surface water supplies possess a high probability of organic, bacterial and
viral contamination.
Brackish Water. The content of dissolved salts in brackish water is higher
than the fresh water and ranges between 0.5 to 35%. These waters of

intermediate salinity range are distinct from fresh or marine waters. In

estuary which represents that tail end of a river, mixing of fresh water
with sea water results in brackish water. The salinity in an estuary
increases from upper middle to lower reaches and at the mouth of the
estuary the salinity is nearly equal to that of the sea.
Marine Water. The sea water is highly salty. The average salinity of sea
water remains almost constant at 35 parts of salts per 1000 parts of
water by weight and written as 35%. Some salt lakes may also have
salinity between 25% to 35%. Salts present in the sea water includes
chlorides of sodium, potassium, magnesium; sulphates of magnesium,
calcium and strontium. Also present in sea water are calcium carbonate
and sodium fluoride. The biotic activity in such habitats is greatly
restricted.
The absence of many fresh water animals and plants from the marine
environment is largely due to their inability to tolerate the high salinity of
the sea water. Insects are mostly absent from marine environment.
Ground Water. Ground water represents a major subterranean reservoir of
fresh water. In general, it is not tapped by plants as it is too deep and
does not suffer from loss due to evaporation. It slowly flows through the
underground porous substratum from one place to another under the
influence of gravity. Its flow may vary from a few millimeters to as much
as a metre or so per day. At some places ground water reappears at the
surface in the form of a spring.
Wells are the major forms of ground water. They may be shallow or deep.
The zone of sub-surface formation that provides water to wells is called
an aquifer. Some aquifers exhibit an unusually high hydrostatic pressure
to force water upto the soil surface when a well is dug. Such a well from
which water is pushed automatically to the soil surface is called an
artesian well.
In areas deviod of lakes and rivers ground water is the most important
source of
water.
The total exploitable potential of ground water amounts to 42.3 x 1010
cubic metres in India. A quarter of it is already being used in the country
for irrigation, industries and domestic uses. In many places ground water
withdrawals have already exceeded the recharge rates causing serious
problems.
Chapter 3
Q. 1. Define forest and desert ecosystem.
Ans. Forest ecosystem
Forests are extensive wild natural self-sustained wooded tracts of land
with a
biotic community predominated by trees and shrubs with close canopy.
Word jungle is used for thick evergreen tropical rain forests.
The different components of a forest ecosystem are as follows

(i) Abiotic (Non-living) Component. It includes inorganic as well as organic

substances present in the soil and atmosphere. Other factors affecting the
type of vegetation are latitude (distance from equator of earth), altitude
(height from sea level), soil type, rainfall and the local temperature.
(ii) Biotic (Living) Component. Each type of forest has its own kind of
community of plants and animals. For example, coniferous trees occur in
the Himalayas with animals like snow leopard, bear, wild goats and sheep,
and many types of peculiar birds. The evergreen rain forests of the
Western Ghats and North-east India has the richest diversity of plant and
animal species.
Desert ecosystem
Deserts and semi-arids are located in western india (Thar Desert), Deccan
plateau
where climate is warm and dry, and high plateaus of Himalayas as Ladakh
which are cold and dry. The various biotic components are:
(a) Producers. Rajasthan is in the Thar Desert and has sand dunes. These
areas are covered with spasse grasses and few shrubs (especially
bushes). Some areas receive rain oily once in few years. In the adjoining
semi-arid areas, vegetation consists of a
few shrubs and trees like Kher and Babul. Stems and branches of shrubs
are variously
modified. Few succulents like cacti are also present. Lower plants like
lichens and
xerophytic mosses may also be present.
(b) Consumers. A number of highly specialised insects and reptiles occur
in desert and semi-arid regions. The rare animals are wolf, desert cat,
desert fox, and birds like Great Indian Bustard and the florican. Common
birds are partridges (Tittar), quails and the sandgrouse. Other animals are
nocturnal rodents and ship of the desert camel.
Q. 2. What is ecological succession?
Ans. Ecological Succession (Biotic Succession). The organisms interact
among themselves. They not only influence their community but also
change their physical or abiotic environment. The alteration in the
physical environment is such as to continually favour another set of
organisms till a stable community is formed. Such a biologically controlled
modification in the composition of a community of particular area is called
biotic succession or ecological succession. Biolic succession is also known
as a successive development of different communities in a particular area
till a climax community is formed.
Q. 3. What is ecosystem ? Write the importance of ecosystem also.
Ans. Ecosystem. A stable, self-supporting ecological unit resulting from
an interaction between biotic community (living organisms) and its abiotic
environment is called ecosystem. The term ecosystem was introduced by
Tansley (1935). Before him, Mobius (1877) had used the term biocoenosis
while Forbes (1887) coined the term microcosm for the community of

organisms. Sukachev (1944) employed the term biogeocoenosis

( geobiocoenosis, life and death) as synonym of ecosystem. It is used in
Russian and German literature.
An ecosystem comprises two main components : (i) biotic including
plants, animals and microorganisms : and (ii) abiotic mainly including
substratum, water, minerals, carbon dioxide and oxygen. It must also
receive a constant supply of energy (light).
Importance
1. Ecosystem study gives information about the amount of available solar
energy
in an area.
2. It gives data about the availability of mineral elements, their utilisation
and recycling in the environment.
3. Inter-relationships between various types of organisms as well as
between organisms and abiotic environment can be determined.
4. Productivity of producers and consumers is known.
5. The maximum number of producers and consumers of various
categories which can be supported in the ecosystem is known.
6. Information can be gathered about ways to increase productivity,
shortage of
inputs if any, effect of pollution, degree of exploitation alongwith
conservation of resources.
Q. 4. What are types of ecosystem?
Ans. Types of ecosystem: Ecosystem may be as small as a drop of pond
water. It may be as large as ocean. Each ecosystem has a distinct
community with a distinct environment. Therefore, different ecosystems
are identified as follows : fresh water ecosystem (pond, river), marine
ecosystem, desert ecosystem, grassland ecosystem, tropical ecosystem.
However, these ecosystems are not isolated. All the ecosystems of the
world are inter-related and exchange materials amongst themselves.
Ecosystem can be natural or man-made, large or small, permanent or
temporary, complete or incomplete.
Natural ecosystem. It is an ecosystem developed under natural conditions
without any appreciable human interference. Natural ecosystem can be
terrestrial (e.g., forest, desert, grassland) or aquatic (e.g., fresh water,
lake, pond, river, sea). Oceans constitute the most stable ecosystem.

Man-Made Ecosystem. It is an ecosystem which is created and maintained

by human beings, e.g., garden, orchard, crop land, aquarium, darn,
village, town, city, apiary, piggery, poultry, etc.
Agroecosystem is the single largest man-made ecosystem which has a
large number of variations.
Mega-Ecosystem. A very large ecosystem such as marine ecosystem.
Macro-Ecosystem. A large ecosystem such as forest.
Micro-Ecosystem. A small specific part of a large ecosystem with its own
specialisation, e.g., sub-alpine ecosystem, valley ecosystem.
Nano-Ecosystem. A very small ecosystem such as wooden log.
Temporary Ecosystem. An ecosystem which persists for only a short
duration like rain water, pond.
Incomplete Ecosystem. It is an ecosystem which lacks one or the other
component, e.g., cave, sea bottom, city (all lack producers), rain water
pond with bloom of toxic
algae (lack consumers).
Short Answer Type Questions
Q. 1. Describe Ecosystem. Write short note on forest ecosystem
and grassland ecosystem.
Ans. Ecosystem. A stable, self-supporting ecological unit resulting from
an interaction between biotic community (living organisms) and its abiotic
environment is called ecosystem.
An ecosystem comprises two main components -: (1) biotic including
plants, animals and microorganisms : and (ii) abiotic mainly including
substratum, water, minerals, carbon dioxide and oxygen. It must also
receive a constant supply of energy (light).
Biotic components. Of an ecosystems biotic components, the plants are
producers as they introduce food materials and energy into the living
world. The animals are consumers because they get food and energy by
consuming plants directly thus called primary consumers (herbivores)

secondary/tertiary consumers (carnivores) obtain energy and food

indirectly from plants; and microorganisms are decomposers for they
flourish by breaking dead organic matter to simple substances that are
returned to environment for reuse by plants.
In an ecosystem, nutrients are used again and again in a cyclic manner,
whereas
energy trapped from sunlight is lost as heat.
Abiotic components. The abiotic ccrnponents of an ecosystem are of two
types:
(i) Climate including temperature, light, wind, gases, humidity, rain and
water (also wave action, water currents); and (ii) edaphic including soil,
substratum, topography, background, minerals and pH.
Forest ecosystem. Refer to Q. No. 1 VSAQ.
Grassland ecosystem. Grasslands develop where rainfall is usually low
and/or the soil depth and quality is poor. The low rainfall is unable to
support the growth of trees and shrubs but is sufficient to support the
growth of grass cover during the monsoon. The grass species and herbs
show vigorous growth during favourable conditions. In dry seasons or
summer months, above ground part of the plant dies or their seeds lay
dormant in the soil. In the next monsoon, the grass cover grows back
from underground parts (rhizomes or root-stock) and herbs grow from the
seeds of previous year. Thus, the grasslands have highly seasonal
appearance, with periods of increased growth followed by a dormant
phase. The various components of a grassland ecosystem are explained in
Q. No. 2 ahead.
Q. 2. Explain the characteristics and functions of grassland
ecosystem.
Ans. Grassland ecosystem. Refer to Q.No. 1 SAQ.
Components of Grassland ecosystem
A. Abiotic component. This includes nutrients present in soil and aerial
environment. The essential elements like C, H, 0, N, P. S. K, Mg, Ca, Fe,
etc. are supplied by CO2. H20, nitrates, phosphates, suiphates, etc.
present in air and soil. Other essential elements are mostly provided by
soil.
B. Biotic component. (a) Producers. They are mainly grasses, e.g. species
of Dichanthium, Cynodon, Desmodium, Digitaria, Dachjloctenium,
Brachiaria, Setaria, Sporobolus, etc. Few shrubs and herbs (especially
legumes) also contribute to primary production.
(b) Consumers. (i) Primary consumers. Important herbivores are grazing
animals like cows, buffaloes, deer, sheep, goats, rabbit, mouse, etc.
Others are insects like Leptocorisa, Oxyrhachis, Dysdercus, Cicincella,
Cocci nella,, termites, millipedes that feed on leaves of grasses.
(ii) Secondary Consumers. Carnivores include jackals, frogs, lizards,
snakes, birds, etc. Sometimes the hawks feed on secondary consumers,
thus, completing the food chains as tertiary consumers.

C. Decomposers. Important decomposers are fungi like species of Mucor,

Aspergillus, Peniciflium, Rhizopus, Cladosporium, Fusarium, etc., and
some baceria and actinomycetes. They recycle the minerals and make
them available to producers.
Q. 3. Explain with neat sketch about the energy and nutrients flow
through an ecosystem.
Ans. Ecosystem. Refer to Q. No. 1 SAQ
Energy and Nutrient flow.

.
A typical food chain with Energy flow and Cycling of materials.
Examples of food chains
(i) Grass Cow Man
(ii) Grass Deer Lion Man
(iii) Algae Zooplankton Fish Man
(iv) Seed Rat Cat Dog Hawk
(v) Algae Insects Frog Snake Peacock, etc.
Q. 4. What do you know about estuary? Explain the importance
and features of ecosystem.
Ans. Estuary
The part of the wide lower course of a river where its currents net by the
tides. Or they are partially enclosed body of water formed where fresh
water from rivers and streams flow into the oceans, mixing with the salty
sea water. It is a place of transition from fresh to salt water.
Features of Estuary ecosystem
1. The composition of biological community including species, numbers,
biomass, life history and distribution in space etc, vary
2. The quality and distribution of abiotic materials, such as water, soil,
nutrient
etc.
3. The range of conditions of existence, such as temperature, light,
huniidity and wind etc.
Importance of Estuary ecosystem
1. The rate of biological energy flow.

2. The rate of nutrient cycles.

3. Biological/ecological regulation including both regulation of
environment by the organisms and regulations of organisms by
environment.
Q. 5. Explain the significance of geoenvironmental cycle in balance
of ecosystem.
Ans. Geoenvironmental Cycle! Cycles of Matter/Biogeochemical
cycles/Recycling
of materials.
They are exchanges/ circulation of biogenetic nutrients between living and
nonliving components of biosphere.
Biogenetic Nutrients/Biogeochemicals. They are essential elements
required by organisms for their body building and metabolism which are
provided by earth and return to earth after their death and decay.
Reservoir Pool. It is the reservoir of biogenetic nutrients from which the
latter are slowly transferred to cycling pool, e.g., phosphates.
Cycling Pool. Pool of biologenetic nutrients which is being emptied and
filled repeatedly by exchange between biotic and abiotic components of
biosphere.
Gaseous Cycles of Matter. Here the materials involved in circulation
between
biotic and abiotic components of biosphere are gases or vapours and the
reservoir pool is atmosphere or hydrosphere, e.g., Carbon, Hydrogen,
Oxygen, Nitrogen, Water.
Sedimentary Cycles of Matter. Materials involved in circu1ation between
biotic and abiotic components of biosphere are I3ongseous and the
reservoir pool is lithosphere, e.g., Phosphorus, Calcium, Magnesium.:
Suphur has both sedimeptary and gaseous phases. Gaseous cycles are
rapid and more perfect as compared to :sedimentary cycles.
Q. 6. Name the fundamental trophic levels and describe the
general makeup of each.
Ans. The two fundamental trophic levels include the following:
1. Producers (Autotrophic organism). The green plants are the producers
in any ecosystem. They also include photosynthetic bacteria. The
producers use radiant energy of the sun during photosynthesis whereby
carbon dioxide is assimilated and the light energy is converted into
chemical energy. This energy is locked up into the energy rich carbon
compounds i.e. carbohydrates. The energy contained in the organic
compounds is in the chemical form. Only producers are able to change
raidant energy into chemital form. They are, therefore, also called
converters or transducers. About 99% of the living matter of the earth is
made up of producers, the rest being: consumers, parasites, scavengers,
etc. The oxygen that is evolved as a by-product in photosynthesis is used
in respiration by all living organisms.

All other organisms depend upon the producers for getting their food and
the
energy contained in it.
2. Consumers (Heterotrophic organisms). They are the living members of
the ecosystem which consume the food synthesized by the producers. All
living animals are thought to be consumers. The consumers may be of the
following types:
(i) Primary consumers (also called first order consumers) which are purely
herbivorous and depend upon green plants i.e. on producers for their food
e.g.,
Cow, Goat, Rabbit, Deer, Grasshopper and other insects.
(ii) Secondary consumers (also called second order consumers) which are
carnivarous animals and eat flesh of herbivorous animals e.g., Dog, Cat,
Frog etc.
(iii) Tertiary consumers are the carnivorous animals that eat other
carnivores e.g. Snake eats a frog, birds a fish.
(iv) Top consumers are carnivores of an ecosystem which are not killed
and eaten by other animals e.g. Lions, Vultures etc.
3. Detrivores and Scavengers. Scavengers are animals which feed on
dead bodies, e.g., Vulture, Carrion Beetle. l?etrivores feed on organic
fragments, e.g., termites, earthworms, woodlice, millipedes, etc.
Scavengers and detrivores seem to be essential for quick breakdown of
dead bodies of organisms. It was found that in their presence a carrion of
baby pig required only 6 days for 90% decomposition while in their
absence 70% decomposition occurred in 50 days.
4. Decomposers. They include bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi. In their
feeding habit, the decomposers are saprotrophs or osmotrophs. They
have been named saprophages. Decomposers excrete digestive enzymes
in the surrounding decaying organic matter. The enzymes convert the
complex organic substances into simple and soluble compounds. A
number of minerals and raw materials are released during the process.
The phenomenon is called minerailsation. Some of the simple and soluble
compounds are absorbed by the decortiposers for their body building and
energy liberation.
Decomposition often begins before the actual death. A leaf becomes
infested with several micro-org4nisms before it reaches the ground.
Decomposition also occurs in steps, each step requiring different types of
organisms.
Both detrivores and decomposers are important organisms for the
removal of detritus or dead bodies of organisms. They are, therefore, also
called reducers. As compared to the term macro-consumers for
phagotrophs, the reducers are also termed as microconsumers. The
degree of detritus removal depends upon the climate, type of vegetation,
pH, number and kind of detritus feeders. The complete decomposition of
organic matter takes two to a few months in tropical region.

Q. 7. List the important differences between producers and

decomposers.

Q. 8. What are Trophic Levels ? Explain a generalised food chain of

each category.
Ans. Trophic Levels : The various steps through which food energy passes
into an ecosystem are called trophic levels. A trophic level is a functional
grouping of organisms based on the similar mode of nutrition. All
autotrophic plants or producers belong to the first trophic level or T1
herbivores or consumers of the first order constitute the second trophic
level or T2. Consumers of the second order or primary carnivores form
third trophic level or T3. There may be 2-3 levels of carnivores. All of
them are called predators. The ultimate carnivores which are not eaten by
others are called top carnivores. They may belong to T4 or T5.
Decomposers form the ultimate or detritus trophic level (T6).

Various Trophic Levels in an Ecosystem

Q. 9. Briefly give an account of oceanic or marine food chain.

Ans.
Oceanic or Marine Food Chains
Oceanic
(i) Phytoplanktan Zooplankton Crustaceans Small Fish Large Fish
Sharks.
(ii) Phytoplankton ZooPlankton Crustaceans Small Fish Whale.
Detritus Food Chain
It is a food chain based on organic wastes, dead parts (e.g., fallen
leaves) and
dead bodies.
A common terrestrial detritus food chain is:
Detritus Earthworm Sparrow Falcon.
A common aquatic detritus food chain is:

Auxiliary Food Chain (Subsidiary or Accessory Food Chain)

A common auxiliary food chain is parasitic food chain. It is terminated by
parasite.
Parasite is an organism that feeds on another living organism called host.
Depending upon the trophic level of the host, the chain may be long or
short, e.g.,
Green Plant Sheep Liver Fluke.
Q. 10. Explain the meaning of food web and illustrate with a ray
diagram.
Ans. Food web. In nature the food chains are not strictly linear, but are
interrelated and interconnected with one another. Generally, the various
food chains in a community are so interlinked as to form as sort of web.
With the result, one animal may be a link in more than one food chain. A
network of food chains in a community are referred to as a food web. A
food web may have all or some of the three types of food chains i.e.
Detritus, predator and parasitic. The food webs become more complicated
because of variability of taste and preference, availability and compulsion
and several other factors at each level. For example, tigers normally do
not eat fish or crab, but they are forced to feed on them in the
Sunderbans.

Differences between a food chain and a food web.

Food web in an ecosystem.

Q. 11. Write a note on Solar Energy and show fate of solar
radiation incident on plant canopy.
Ans. Solar Energy. Energy from sun is the ultimate source of energy in all
the
living systems of earth.
Enormous energy is released at every moment from the sun and it is
spread out in the space. Just 1% total suns energy reach on the earth. It
is near about of 12.3 x 1024ca1 each year. But it is also true that all of
this quantity does not reach on the earths surface and the reason behind
is the components of atmosphere like clouds, smoke and dust particles
which change the nature of solar radiations. Some of the amount of
energy of the sun which reach on the earth go back to nature, just a
small quantity fall on the plants. Thus it is estimated that only the tenth
part of 1% of energy of the sun reaching on the earths surface is used by
the plants in photosynthesis and this energy is

cal per second.

Q. 12. Define decomposition and describe the processes and

products of decomposition.
Ans. Decomposition 5 defined as the process by which complex organic
compounds
are broken down into simpler inorganic substances that can be reutilized
by the plants for their growth.
Decomposition involves the following processes:

1. Fragmentation of detritus by detritivorous invertebrates which are

microscopic organisms. This increases the surface area of detritus
particles for the microbial action. These detritivores also add certain
growth substances which stimulate the microbial growth. Some of these
detritivores are coprophagic (kopros = dung) and cause breakdown of
faecal pellets of animals. It is estimated that one gram of soil may contain
one billion bacteria, 5 million members of Actinomycetes, 500,000
protozoans and 200,000 moulds of different types.
2. Catabolism. In this, decomposers release extracellular enzyme in their
surroundings to breakdown detritus into simple organic compounds and
inorganic substances. Specific decomposers perform specific chemical
actions on specific complex compounds through specific enzymes e.g.
Pseudomonas bacteria decompose the proteins into ammonia and simple
nitrogen compounds. But the percolating water may carry downward
certain soluble substances like sugars from the fragmented detritus, and
is called leaching.
3. Humification. It is process by which simplified detritus is changed into
dark coloured amorphous substance called humus. It is highly resistant to
microbial action so undergoes low decomposition. Humus acts as a
reservoir of nutrients.
4. Mineralisation. It involves the release of inorganic substances (e.g.
water, CO2 etc.) and other nutrients

in the soil.

Q. 13. Show the processes involved in decomposition of detritus.

Ans. Processes of decomposition.

Processes involved in decomposition of detritus

Q. 14. Give an account of factors affecting the rate of
decomposition.
Ans. Factors affecting decomposition.
1. Upper layer of soil is the main site of decomposition processes in the
ecosystem.
2. The rate of decomposition of detritus is affected by climate factors and
chemical quality of detritus.
3. Temperature and soil moisture affect the activities of root microbes.
4. The chemical quality of detritus is determined by relative proportion of
water soluble substances, polyphenols, lignin and nitrogen.

Q.15. What are eo1ogical pyramids ? Sketch pyramid of number

and pyramid of biomass.
Ans. Ecological pyramid. The idea of ecological pyramids was advanced
by C. E. Elton (1927). The trophic structure of an ecosystem can be
indicated by means of ecological pyramid. At each step in the food chain a
considerable portion of the potential energy is lost as heat. As a result,
organisms in each trophic level pass on lesser energy to the next trophic
level than they actually receive. This limits the number of steps in any
food chain to 4 or 5. Longer the food chain the lesser energy is available
for final members. Because of this tapering off of available energy in the
food chain a pyramid is formed that is known as ecological pyramid. The
higher the steps in the ecological pyramid the lower will be the number of
individuals and the larger their size.
There are different types of ecological pyramids. In each ecological
pyramid, producer level forms the base and successive levels make up the
apex. Three types of pyramidal relations may be found among the
organisms at different levels in the ecosystem. These are as follows
1. Pyramid of numbers,
2. Pyramid of biomass (biomass is the weight of living organisms), and
3. Pyramid of energy.
(1) Pyramid of number.

A Pyramid of numbers in a grass land ecosystem only three tap

carnivores are
supported in an ecosystem based on production of nearly 6
millions plants.
(2) Pyramid of biomass.

Pyramid of biomass shows a sharp decrease in biomass at higher

trophic levels.
Data from a bog ecosystem.

(3) Inverted Pyramid of Biomass

Inverted pyramid of biomass.

phytoplankton supports large
standing crop of zooplankton.
(4) Pyramid of energy.

Small

standing

crop

of

An ideal pyramid of energy. Observe that primary producers

convert only 1% of the energy in the sunlight available to them
into NPP.
Q. 16. Give a generalised mode of ecosystem nutrient cycling.
Ans. Generalised model of ecosystem nutrient cycling.

A generalised model of ecosystem nutrient cycling Nutrients are

brought in (input),
moved dut (ouput) and cycled internally in the ecosystem. Boxes
represent ecosystem components and arrows show the pathways
of nutrient transfers.
Q. 17. Make a table showing typical climatic conditions in major
forest types in India.
Ans. Typical climatic conditions in major forest types in India.

Long Answer Type Questions

Q. 1. What do you know about ecological succession and explain
its types.
Ans. Biotic/Ecological Succession. It is the successive development of
different biotic communities at the same site till a climax community
develops there. Primary Succession (prisere). Biotic or ecological
succession on a primary bare area. It takes long time of 1000 years or
more. Secondary Succession (Subsere). Biotic succession on a secondarily
bare area, e.g., forest fire, deforestation. It takes 50100 years (for
grass land) and 100-200 years (for forest). Ferns are generally the first to
grow after forest fire because of their underground rhizomes. Secondary
succession is not completed if invaded by weeds, e.g., Sphagnum,
Eichhornia, Lantana, Eupatoriuin.
Pioneer Community. First biotic community on a bare area. Seral
Community. Transitional community appearing in an area at the end of
biotic succession Climax Community. Stable, self-perpetuating and final
community appearing in an area at the end of biotic succession which is in
perfect harmony with climate of the area hence climatic climax
community.
Dominant Species. It is the most numerous and generally the largest of
species present in a seral/climax community which exerts the maximum
influence. Sere. It is the sequence of developmental stages from pioneer
to climax communities, e.g., lithosere (on rock), psammosere (on sand),
hydrosere (in water). XerarclHydrarch. Series of developmental stages in
arid area/water body.
Biotic succession involves changes to long-lived plants, greater species
diversity, niche specialisation, increase in biomass, higher soil humus,
food webs, stable biotic community and mesic conditions. Causes of
succession are : (i) Baring of an area (ii) Changes brought about by
pioneer and seral communities not favourable to them but favourable to
next ones.
Succession on land/rock
1. Lichens and mosses are the pioneer community.
2. Soil is formed by action of linches.
3. There is deficiency of water.
4. The various stages as crustose lichen stage, foliose lichen stage, moss
stage, herb stage, shrub stage and forest stage.
Succession in Water
1. Plantation stage is pioneer community.

2. Water bodies are prone to silting due to soil erosion.

3. Water is abundant.
4. The various stages are plankton stage, rooted submerged stage, rooted
floating stage, reed swamp stage and woodland stage and forest stage.
Q. 2. What are the two main components of an ecosystem?
Describe the physical factors which affect the distribution of
organisms in different habitats.
Ans. Abiotic (physical) and biotic components are the two main
components of an
ecosystem.
Abiotic components or Physical environment
1. Temperature. The physiological and behavioural adaptations of most
animals depend upon the changes in the environmental temperature. The
rates of photosynthesis and respiration in plants also fluctuate depending
upon the change in temperature.
2. Water. The extent to which an organism is dependent on an abundant
water
supply depends on its requirements and its ability to conserve it in
adverse
conditions. Organisms living in dry habitats generally have good water
conservation such as in cacti, camels.
3. Light. This is essential for all green plants and photosynthetic bacteria,
and for all the animals dependent on the plants. It provides solar energy
to the
ecosystem for heating and photosynthesis. Maximum solar or light energy
is
available at equator. It decreases towards poles. In a tree, more energy is
available to upper leaves than the lower ones. Their rate of
photosynthesis is accordingly higher.
In a forest, trees have higher productivity than shrubs and herbs growing
underneath. Floating hydrophytes have higher photosynthetic rate than
the submerged hydrophytes. Besides photosynthesis, light controls
morphogenesis (photomorphogenesiS). Photoperiods influence leaf fall,
appearance of new leaves and flowering in plants. They control migration
and breeding in several animals.
4. Humidity. This is important because it can affect the rate at which
water evaporates from the surface of an organism, which in turn influence
its ability to withstand drought.
5. Wind and air currents. This particUlarly applies to plants. Only plants
with strong root systems and tough stems can live in exposed places
where winds are fierce. Wind is also instrumental in the dispersal of
spores and seeds.
6. pH. This influences the distribution of plants in soil and fresh-water
ponds. Some plants thrive in acidic conditions others in neutral or alkaline
conditions. Most are highly sensitive to changes in pH.

7. Soil. Its texture, pH and fertility determine the type of vegetation and
animal communities dependent on it.
8. Topography. Plain, slope, valley, north or south face of a mountain have
all different types of organisms due to differences in light, humidity, rain
and wind.
9. Background. Animals generally possess texture and colour similar to
that of background e.g. sand colour of camel, green colour of
Grasshopper, white colour of snow dwellers.
10. Rainfall. Amount and periodicity of rainfall determine the type of
terrestrial ecosystem e.g., evergreen forest, deciduous forest, scrub,
grasslands desert.
Q. 3. Give an account of a pond or lake ecosystem.
Ans. Pond and Lake as Ecosystems
Pond and lake are fresh water ecosystems in which, like other
ecosystems, there are two main components.
(A) Abiotic component. (B) Biotic component.
(A) Abiotic component. Abiotic component of pond consists of water,
dissolved minerals, oxygen and carbon dioxide. Solar radiations are the
main source of energy.
(B) Biotic component. It includes the following
(i) Producers
(ii) Consumers
(iii) Decomposers and transformers.

A pond ecosystem
AAbiotic component; P and P IProducers; C 1Primary consumers
(herbivores);
C 2Secondary consumers; C 3Tertiary consumers;
D Decomposers saprophytic bacteria and fungi.
(i) Producers. The main producers in pond or lake ecosystem are algae
and other aquatic plants, such as Azolla, Hydrilla, Potamogeton, Pistia,
Woiffia, Lemna, Eichhornia, Nymphaea, Jussiaea, etc. These are either
floating or suspended or rooted at the bottom. The green plants convert
the radiant energy into chemical energy through photosynthesis. The

chmical energy stored in the form of food is utilised by all the organisms.
Oxygen evolved by producers in photosynthesis is utilised by all the living
organisms in respiration.
(ii) Consumers. In a pond ecosystem, the primary consumers are tadpole
larvae of frogs, fishes and other aquatic animals which consume green
plants and algae as their food. These herbivorous aquatic animals are the
food of secondary consumers. Frogs, big fishes, water snakes, crabs are
secondary consumers. In the pond, besides the secondary consumers,
there are consumers of highest order, such as water-birds, turtils, etc.
(iii) Decomposers and Transformers. When aquatic plants and animals die,
large number of saprotrophic decomposing bacteria and fungi attack their
dead bodies and convert the complex organic substances into simpler
inorganic compounds and elements. These micro-organisms are called
decomposers. The chemical elements liberated by decomposers are again
utilized by green plants in their nutrition.
Q. 4. Give an account of food chains in an ecosystem.
Ans. Food chain in any ecosystem runs directly in which green plants are
eaten by herbivores. They in turn are eaten by carnivores and carnivores
are eaten by top carnivores. Man forms the terrestrial links of many food
chains.
Food chains are of three types:
1. Grazing food chain
2. Parasitic food chain
3. Saprophytic or detritus food chain.
1. Grazing food chain. The grazing food chain starts from green plants
and goes from herbivores (primary consumers) to primary carnivores
(secondary consumers) and then to secondary carnivores (tertiary
consumers) and so on. The gross production of a green plant in an
ecosystem may meet three fates it may be oxidized in respiration, it
may die and decay and it may be eaten by herbivorous animals. In
herbivores the assimilated food can be stored as carbohydrates proteins
and fats, and transformed into much more complex organic molecules.
The energy for these transformations is supplied through respiration. Like
autotrophs the ultimate disposition of energy in herbivores occurs by
three routes respiration, decay of organic matter by microbes and
consumption by the carnivores. The primary carnivores or secondary
consumers eat hefbivores or primary consumers. Likewise, secondary
carnivores or tertiary consumers eat primary carnivores. The total energy
assimilated by primary carnivores or gross tertiary production is derived
entirely from the herbivores and its disposition into respiration, decay and
further consumption by other carnivores is entirely similar to that of
herbivores. Thus, it is obvious that much of the energy flow in the
grazing food chain can be described in terms of trophic levels as outlined
below
Autotroph
Herbivore
Primary
carnivore
Secondary
carnivore etc.

Diagrammatic representation of a grazing food chain showing

input and losses of energy at each trophic level. Trophic levels are
numbered and used as subscripts to letters indicating energy
transfer. Aassimilation of food by the organisms at the trophic
level; F energy lost in the form of faeces and other excretory
products; Cenergy lost through decay; and Renergy lost to
respiration.
A schematic representation of detritus food chain showing input and
losses of energy has been presented in Fig.
2. Parasitic food chain. It goes from large organisms to smaller ones
without outright killing as in the case of predator.
3. Detritus food chain. The dead organic remains including metabolic
wastes and exudates derived from grazing food chain are generally
termed detritus. The energy contained in detritus is not lost in ecosystem
as a whole, rather it serves as a source of energy for a group of
organisms called detritivores that are separate from the grazing food
chain. The food chain so formed is called detritus food chain.

Diagrammatic representation of the detritus food chain showing

energy transfers between it and the grazing food chain, as well as
energy losses to the detritus food chain.
In some ecosystems more energy flows through the detritus food chain
than through grazing food chain. In detritus food chain the energy flow
remains as a continuous passage rather than as a stepwise flow between
discrete entities. The organisms in the detritus food chain are many and
include algae, fungi, bacteria, slime moulds, actinomycetes, protozoa, etc.

Detritus organisms ingest pieces of partially decomposed organic matter,

digest them partially and after extracting some of the chemical energy in
the food to run their metabolism, excrete the remainder in the form of
simpler organic molecules. The waste from one organism can be
immediately utilized by a second one which repeats the process.
Gradually, the complex organic molecules present in the organic wastes or
dead tissues are broken down to much simpler compounds, sometimes to
carbon dioxide and water and all that are left are humus. In a normal
environment the humus is quite stable and forms an essential part of the
soil. Schematic representation of detritus food chain is given, in Fig.
Q. 5. Briefly describe tropical forest biome.
Ans. Tropical forests occur near the equator. In India, they are distributed
mainly along the Western Ghats and in the north eastern region. Both
temperature and humidity in these areas remain high and more or less
uniform. The annual rainfall exceeds 200-225 cm and is generally
distributed throughout the year. Flora of tropical forests is highly
dominated by DipterocarpuS and Hopla. The extremely dense vegetation
of trophical forest is vertically stratified, into 4 to 5 strata and show 30-40
m tall canopy. These are often covered with vines, creepers and lianas
and epiphytic orchids. These forests have highest standing crop biomass
among all the biomes. The soils of these areas are highly leached.
Nutrients are stored in tall vegetation whereas in soil storage is low.
Q. 6. Give major characteristics of desert biome.
Ans. The major characteristics of desert biome are
1. Rainfall is extremely low, varying from 5-25 cm a year. So there is
scarcity of water.
2. Days are extremely hot (temperature about 50-60C) and nights are
cold. So evaporation from soil exceeds rainfall by 7 to 50 times.
3. Dust storms are of common occurrence as soil is generally sandy. Such
deserts are called hot deserts (e.g. Thar, Sahara) while Gobi desert is a
cold desert.
4. Deserts have very scanty flora and fauna.
5. The organisms in deserts have specialized structural, physiological and
behavioural adaptations to withstand extremes of temperature and arid
conditions.
6. Desert plants include different types of acacias, cacti, euphorbias,
hardy grasses and several types of succulents. The shrubs and small trees
are less in number and widely spaced. These include Acacia, Prosopis,
Taniarix etc. and. have deep root system. Some plants are shortlived
(Ephemerals) and occur only during rainy season e.g. Boerhaavia repens
(life span of 10-14 days only) of Sahara desert.
Some are with xerophytic adaptations against water loss e.g. hardy
grasses, Echinops, etc. Some are succulents and open their stomata only
at night e.g. cacti, euphorbias while some have well-developed root
system and are perennial e.g. Phoenix (data), Acacia, etc.

7. Animals include ants, locusts, wasps, scorpions, spiders, lizards like

horned lizard, Gila monster, collard lizard; snakes like coral snake, rattle
snake; insect eating birds, burrowing owls, Gambels quail, doves,
kangaroo rats, rabbits, camel, white-tailed deer, ground squirrel, skunk,
badger foxes, jackals and desert cats. Some 9f these animals are
beautifully adapted to face deserts extreme conditions e.g. Kangaroo rats
feeds on dry seeds and depend upon only metabolic water, while camel
can withstand a loss upto 40P/0 of water from its body cells.
Q. 7. What are biogeochemical cycles ? Give an outline sketch of
water cycle.
Ans. Biogeochenhical Cycles. Nearly 30 to 40 elements are required for
proper growth and development of living organisms. Most important of
these are C, H, 0, P, K, N, S. Ca, Fe, Mg, B, Zn, Cl, Mo, Co, I and F. These
materials flow from abiotic to biotic components and back to the nonliving component again in a more or less cyclic manner. This is known as
the biogeochemical cycle or inorganic-organic cycle. The flow of these
elements through the ecosystem must be cyclic, with matter being
consistently reused. Because the flow involves not only the living
organisms but also a series of chemical reactions in the abiotic
environments, these cycles are called biogeochemical cycles.
There are three types of biogeochemical cycles
(1) Hydrologic cycle or water cycle,
(2) Gaseous cycles and (3) Sedimentary cycles.
Hydrologic or Water Cycle

The water cycle, showing the major pathways f water through the
ecosystem.
Q. 8. Write important features of a sedimentary cycle in an
ecosystem. What is reservoir of carbon? Outline salient features of
carbon cycling in an ecosystem.
Ans. The important features of a sedimentary cycle in an ecosystem are:
1. The reservoir pool for a sedimentary cycle is rocks.
2. Their speed is slower than gaseous cycle and hence get completed
later.

3. They are generally imperfect in nature as bulk or nutrient remains

immobile on the earths crust.
The reservoirs of carbon are
1. Carbon dioxide present in air.
2. Carbon dissolved in water.
3. Carbonates in earths crust.
4. Fossil fuels like coal and petroleum.
5. Bicarbonates in oceans.
Carbon cycle is the simplest of all nutrient cycles. Its salient features are:
(1) CO2 utilization. Carbon dioxide is used by green plants for the process
of photosynthesis and oxygen is released as a byproduct. The fixed
carbon enters the food chain and passed to herbivores, carnivores,
decomposers.
(2) CO2 production
(a) Carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere by respiration of
producers and consumers.

Carbon cycle in nature.

(b) It is also released by decomposition of organic wastes and dead
bodies by decomposers by the action of bacteria and fungi of decay.
(c) Burning of wood and fossil fuels also produce CO2.
(d) Volcanic eruptions and hot springs also release CO2 into the
atmosphere.
(e) Weathering of carbonate-containing rocks by the action of acids also
add CO2 to the atmosphere.
Q.
9.
What
is
meant
by
sedimentary
cycle?
Depict
diagrammatically the phosphorus cycle or sulphur cycle.
Ans. Sedimentary cycle. There is exchange of materials between the
living and non-living world. This is called cycles of matter. The
sedimentary cycle involves minerals, such as phosphorus, sulphur and
calcium, the reservoir is lithosphere.
Phosphorus cycle. It can be graphically shown as in fig.

A generalised
ecosystem.

phosphorus

cycling

model

or

terrestrial

Q. 10. Give the graphic representation of nitrogen cycle.

Ans. Nitrogen cycle.

Nitrogen Cycle in Nature.

Q. 11. Describe the ecological succession of a bare land.
Ans. Interaction not only affects the community but also changes the
physical environment slowly. An example which is used as a sample or
model for the development of the community which attacks a bare rock
and sets up a colony.

As stated earlier small herb cannot grow on a bare rock because there is
deficiency of soil. Algae and fungi attack on those areas and set up their
colony. They make a community which is called as leading community.
These algae and fungi produce certain acid and decay the surface of the
rock and help in holding the small particles of rocky soil. Owing to
accumulation of dead and decayed organisms and erosion of rocks by
species of small plant like mosses attack and form the colony. Large
amount of soil is collected by these mosses to make colony. At last by the
interaction of biotic and physical factors, environment changes. As a
result of it a community like grasses and big root shrubs which requires
more nutrients grow up and develop.
Q. 12. What do you mean by desertification ? What are its
causes ?
Ans. It is such a process in which the production capacity of semiarid land
comes down to 10% or even less than that. During simple desertification
temperature decreases by 10-25%, but in severe conditions, this
decrease may reach upto 50% and in this desertification of big ditches
and dunes of sand are formed.
As a result of desertification, the production of agriculture decreases. Its
main characteristics are depletion of vegetation and destruction of
vegetation envelop, loss of underground water, salination and dreadful soil
erosion.
Causes Desertification can be due to change in climate or due to improper
use of
land. But change in climate is due to the following activities of man
(a) Deforestation : The causes of desertification is non-collection of rain
water and this situation is produced when forests are cleared. With the
de-forestation, the decomposition of soil takes place, soil erosion
increases and soil fertility and water holding capacity of soil decreases.
(b) Over grazing : According to the principle of ecological system, due to
over grazing the consumption level of plant increases and the production
level decreases. As a result of increase in number of animals and over
grazing soil become naked. When the soil becomes naked its micro
climate changes and its form does not remain the same for the seeds to
germinate. The possibilities of soil erosion increase in dry barren land The
top layer of the soil is destroyed and plants cannot grow in it.
(c) Mining: Owing to these activities, 900 lakh hectare of soil has become
desert during the last 50 years. Because of these activities, the
vegetation, envelop and large area of soil is destroyed. It results in
deserts because its factors become active.
In Indiaabout 62% deserts are found in Rajasthan, 19% in Gujarat, 9%
in Punjab and Haryana and 10% in Andhra Pradesh & Karnataka. The Thar
desert of Rajasthan was green before but due to slow changes in natural
environment like deforestation, over grazing and flood etc., this area
changed into dunes of sand. It is still increasing.
Chapter 4

Q. 1. Discuss threats to biodiversity.

Ans. Threats to biodiversity
1. Habitat loss. In order to utilize the resources, there occurs the
destruction of habitat.
2. Disturbance and pollution. Large number of organisms are destroyed
due to natural disturbances such as fire, tree fall, defoliation by insects.
Mans activities are causing pollution.
3. Introduction of exotic species. Introduction of new species into an area
cause disturbances which may lead to disappearance of native species.
4. Extinction of species is a natural process.
Q. 2 State biodiversity hot spot and on what basis a region is
designated as hot spot?
Ans. Hot spots of biodiversity. The concept of Hot-spots was developed
by Norman Myers (1988) to designate specific areas for in-situ
conservation. The hot spots are the richest and most threatened
reservoirs of plant and animal life on earth.
The criteria for determining hot spots are
1. Number of endemic species.
2. Degree of threat which is measured in terms of habitat loss.
There are 25 hot spots in the world out of which two are in India. They
are Western Chats and Eastern Himalayas.
Hot spot of Eastern Himalayas are active centres of evolution and rich in
diversity
of flowering angiosperms. Western Chats have semi evergreen forests.
Western Chats include two main centres of biodiversity i.e. A qastyamalai
hills and Silent valley.
Q. 3. What is the difference between Threatened species and
Endangered species?
Ans Threatened Species. A threatened species is the one that is liable to
become
extinct if not allowed to realise full biotic potential by providing protection
from exotic species/human exploitation/habitat deterioration/depletion of
food.
Endangered Species (E). The species is facing danger of imminent
extinction due
to:
(i) Reduction in habitat
(ii) Abundance of predator/pathogen/pollutant
(iii) Very few in number
Examples : Blue Whale, Asiatic Wild Ass (Asinus hemionus Khur in Rann
of Kutch), Lion Tailed Macaque (in Dipterocarpus forests of South India).
The number of Lion Tailed Macaque is only 195 because of destruction of
habitat, poaching for flesh and capturing.

Q. 4. Differentiate vulnerable species and rare species.

Ans Vulnerable Species (V1 Depleted Species) Abundant population at
present but threatened with depletion in number due to some
factor/factors, e.g., DDT in bird population. Addax nasomaculatus, a
member of Antelope family, was once common from Egypt to Mauritania.
It has become extinct from Egypt, Libya, Algeria and Sudan. Presently it
is found in Mauritania and Mali where it is hunted by nomads for its meat.
Consequently, the number of Addax antelope continues to decline.
Rare Species (R). They are species with naturally small populations, either
localised or thinly scattered, which are always at risk from pests!
pathogens/ predators! exotic species. Clouded Leopard (Neofelis
nebulosa) of Himalayas is a rare species because of poaching and loss of
habitat. Hawaiian Monk Seal (Monochus schauinslandii) is found only in
six small islands. Great Indian Bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps) is a rare
species of birds found in parts of Gujarat and Rajasthan due to
destruction of natural habitat and poaching.
Q.5. Write a note on Biosphere reserves.
Ans. Biosphere Reserves. They are multipurpose protected areas which
are meant for preserving genetic diversity in representative ecosystems
by protecting wild populations, traditional life style of tribals and
domesticated plant! animal genetic resources. There are some 243
biosphere reserves in 65 countries of the world. In India, 14 potential
sites were identified in 1979 by Core Advisory Group but 9 biosphere
reserves have been set up by now. Each biosphere reserve has a (i) Core
Zone. No human activity is allowed. (ii) Buffer Zone. Limited human
activity is permitted. (iii) Manipulation Zone. Human activity is allowed
but ecology is not permitted to be disturbed. (iv) Restoration Zone.
Degraded area for restoration to near natural form.
Q. 6. What is biodiversity ? Why has it become important recently?
What will be the consequences of loss of biodiversity?
Ans. Biodiversity. (Gk bios = life; diversity = form). Term biodiversity was
coined by W. G. Rosen in 1985. It is occurrence of different kinds of
organisms and the complete range of varieties adapted to different
climates, environments and areas being constituents of food chains and
food web of biotic interrelationship. Biodiversity refers to totality of
genes1 species and ecosystems of a region. Biodiversity differs from place
to place. Biodiversity is the biological wealth of world.
As there is continuous loss of biodiversity due to increasing population1
resources consumption, urbanization and pollution it is important to
conserve it. The basic reason for concern is that biodiversity is being lost
even before it attains its size. Loss of biodiversity would check
evolutionary capability of biota to cope up with environmental loss.
Consequences of loss of biodiversity.
1. It would check the evolutionary capability of biota to cope up with
environmental changes.

2. It would result into extinction of species.

3. As man is dependant for food and other necessities, its loss will be hard
pressed for mankind.
Q. 7. (a) What are three hierarchial levels of biodiversity?
(b) What is genetic diversity ? How many genes are present in
Myco plasma, E. coli, Drosophila, Oryza sativa and Homo sapiens?
Ans. (a) Hierarchial levels of biodiversity.
Biological diversity includes three hierarchial levels :
(i) Genetic diversity
(ii) Species diversity, and
(iii) Community and ecosystem diversity.
These levels of biodiversity are interrelated, yet distinct enough to be
studied separately to understand the interconnections that support life on
earth.
(b) Genetic diversity. All living organisms store genetic information and
functions according to the information coded in genes.
Genetic diversity refers to the variation of genes within species. The
differences could be in alleles (different variants of same genes), in entire
genes (the traits determining particular characteristics) or in chromosomal
structures. The genetic diversity enables a population to adapt to its
environment and to respond to natural selection. If a species has more
genetic diversity, it can adapt better to the changed environmental
conditions. Lower diversity in a species leads to uniformity, as the case
with large monocultures of genetically similar crop plants. This has
advantage when increased crop production is a consideration, but can be
a problem when an insect or a fungal diseases attacks the field and poses
a threat to the whole crop.
Genes present in Mycoplasma1 E. coli, Drosophila, Oryza sativa and Homo
sapiens

Q. 8. Explain what is meant by species diversity. Give the

approximate number of plant and animal species recorded in
India.
Ans. Species diversity. The diversity includes the whole range of
organisms found on earth. The number of identified species world wide is
between 1.7 and 1.8 million. However the estimates of total known
species may be 50 million. A large number of plant and animal species are
yet to be identified. There are many more species to be
present in the tropics.

Short Answer Type Questions

Q. 1. Explain the different types of biodiversity conservation
techniques and their benefits.
Ans. Conservation of biodiversity.
(a)In situ Conservation
(b)

The in-situ and ex-situ approaches of conserving biodiversity in

India.
1. In situ conservation is carried out through Biosphere reserves, National
parks
and wild sanctuaries and other protected area by Ministry of Environment
and Forest reserve,
2. The National Bureau of plants, animals and fish genetic resources
collect,
conserve and store germplasms of plants and animals in seed gene banks
or
field gene banks.
3. Botanical Gardens and Zoological Parks have large collection of plant
and animal
species.
Advantages of in situ conservation
1. It aids in maintaining gene banks.
2. It is vital for Maintenance of species and check its extinction.
3. It helps in preservation of genetic variability.
4. It helps in preserving the quality of life for millions of forest dwellers.
5. In situ conservation helps to supply materials to restore plants.
Limitations of in situ conservation. The forests are being destroyed to
make dams, reservoirs, and establish industries. By doing this we are
losing the wild plants which otherwise are so important for in situ
conservation.
(b) Ex-situ conservation.

The need to conserve a species offsite (called ex-situ) arises when its
population is so fragile or fragmented that its survival may no longer be
possible in the wild; or that for reasons of distance, logistics or legality, its
conservation in normal natural state may not be possible.
Advantages of ex situ conservation. 1. In such cases, representative
samples of threatened or endangered species can be (and are being)
successfully conserved and propagated in botanical and zoological
gardens, research centres, aquaria arid other such locations.
2. Ex-situ locations provide easy study sites and opportunities for raising
public awareness on conservation issues.
3. The species show good signs of recovery and propagation in such
places.
4. They can then be re-introduced back in the natural habitat.
Methods. For the conservation of genetic diversity, especially of plants,
gene banks in the fields and the laboratories and in vitro storage are
some of the methods often used for ex-situ conservation.
(c) Sacred forests. These are forest patches protected by tribal
communities in India and other Asian countries due to religious belief.
These are undisturbed forests having no human intervention and
frequently surrounded by highly degraded landscapes. Such forests are
located in many states of India and have a number of rare, endangered
and endemic species. Likewise, Khecheopalri which contains several
aquatic fauna and flora is declared as a sacred lake in Sikkim.
Q. 2. How did Green revolution affect diversity of food plants ?
Ans. Green Revolution. N.E. Barlavg and M.S. Swaminathan are pioneer
of green revolution in India. It signifies increase in agricultural
productivity resulting from the introduction of high yielding variety of
grains, the use of pesticides and inproved management techniques. Just
like the two sides of coin the brighter side is that green revolution helped
in increasing total food amount but on the other side (i.e. darkside)
affected the diversity of food plants in the following ways
1. It leads to extinction of traditional and more resistance variety.
2. It replaced mixture and rotation of crops like wheat, maize, millets,
pulse and oil seeds with monocultures of wheat and rice. Monoculture and
dual cropping reduce the nutritional value of our food also.
3. The introduced crops like wheat and rice varieties came from a very
narrow genetic base of the thousand of verities developed, only three
were found to be suitable for green revolution. On this narrow and alien
genetic base the food supplies of millions was affected.
4. Because of their narrow genetic base.. High Yielding Varieties (HYV) are
inherently vulnerable to major pests and diseases.
5. Large scale monoculture provide a large and permanent niche for pests
turning minors disease into epidemics; in addition, fertilizers have been
found to lower pests resistance in plants.
6. The new High Yielding Varieties (HYVs) reduce the supply of fodder and
organic fertilizers.

Q. 3. (a) List the three types of extinction processes.

(b) How is introduction of exotic species leading to endangering
the species?
Ans. (a) Types of extinction processes
Natural extinction. With the change in environmental conditions, some
species disappear and others, which are more adapted to changed
conditions, take their place. This loss of species which occurred in the
geological past at a very slow rate is called natural or background
extinction.
Mass extinction. There have been several periods in the earths geological
history
when large number of species became extinct because of catastrophes.
Mass extinctions occurred in millions of years.
Anthropogeflic extinction. An increasing number of species is disappearing
from the face of the earth due to human activities. This man-made mass
extinction represenis a very severe depletion of biodiversity, particularly
because it is occurring within a short period of time.
(b) Introduction of exotic species is endangering of species
Exotic species are having large impact especially in island ecosystem
which harbour much of the worlds threatened biodiversity. A few
examples are
(i) Nile perch, an exotic predatory fish introduced into Lake Victoria
(South Africa) threatens the entire ecosystem of the lake by eliminating
several native species of the small Cichlid fish species that were endemic
to this freshwater aquatic system.
(ii) Water hyacinth clogs rivers and lakes and threatens the survival of
many aquatic species in lakes and river flood plains in several tropical
countries including India.
(iii) Lantana camara has invaded many forest lands in different parts of
India, an
strongly competes with the native species.
Q. 4. Write a short note on three perspectives of community and
ecosystem level of diversity.
Ans. The three perspectives of diversity at level of community and
ecosystem are :
1. Alpha diversity 2. Beta diversity and 3. Gamma diversity.
1. Alpha diversity. It refers to diversity of organisms sharing the same
community. It has been found that there is increase in diversity with
decrease in latitude.
2. Beta diversity. The rate of replacement of species along a gradient of
habitat or communities is called beta diversity.
3. Gamma diversity. It is rate at which additional species are found as
replacement in different localities of the same habitat.
Q. 5. Write short note on the Protected areas.

Ans. Protected areas. These areas of land or sea are dedicated to

protection and maintenance of biological diversity. They include National
Parks, Sanctuaries and Biosphere reserve.
As on Sept. 2002, India has 581 protected areas.
National parks. A national park is an area which is strictly reserved for the
betterment of the wildlife and where activities like forestry, grazing or
cultivation are not permitted. In these parks, even private ownership
rights are not allowed.
Sanctuaries. A sanctuary is a protected area which is reserved for the
conservation of only animals and human activities like harvesting of
timber, collection of minor forest products and private ownership is
allowed so long as they do not interfere with well being of animals.
A biosphere reserve is a specified area in which multiple use of the land is
permitted by dividing it into certain zones, each zone being specified for a
particular activity.
Benefits of protected areas.
1. Maintaining viable populations of all native species and subspecies.
2. Maintaining the number and distribution of communities and habitats,
and conserving the genetk diversity of all the present species.
3. Preventing human-caused introduction of alien species.
4. Making it possible for species/habitats to shift in response to changes
in the environment.
Q. 6. What is biosphere reserve ? What are its zones? Explain role
of biosphere reserve. List a few biosphere reserves.
Ans. Biosphere Reserve. A biosphere reserve is a specified protected area
of land and or coastal environment in which multiple use of the land is
permitted by dividing it into zones, each for a particular activity.
Biosphere reserves are a special category of protected areas of land
and/or coastal environments wherein people are an integral component of
the system. These are representative examples of natural biomes and
contain unique biological communities.

The zonation in a terrestrial Biosphere Reserve

Recently, the concept of Biosphere Reserves has been evolved by
UNESCOS Man and Biosphere Programme (MABP). Till May 2002, there
are 408 biosphere reserves located in 94 countrieS out of which 13 are in
India. Of these, the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserves was declared in 1986.
Zones of Biosphere Reserve. A biosphere reserve is divided into three
zones core, buffer and manipulation.

(i) Core Zone. No human activi is allowed in the core zone.

(ii) Buffer Zone. Limited human activity is permitted in the buffer zone.
(iii) Manipulation Zone. Several human activities can occur in the
manipulatiOn
zone.
Role of a Biosphere Reserve. A biosphere reserve preserves (a)
Conservation of. wild population(b) Development, and (c) genetic
resources of domesticated plants
and animals carrying out scientific research, monitoring and education.
Biosphere reserves of India.
1. Nanda Devi 8. Nilgiri
2. Nokrek 9. Great Nicobar
3. Manas 10. Similipal
4. Dibru Saikhowa 11. Jchanghendzonga
5. Dehang Debang 12. Pachmarhi
6. Sunderbans 13. Agasthyamalai
7. Gulf of Mannar
Q. 7. Differentiate National Park, Wildlife Sanctuaries and
Biosphere Reserve.
Ans. Differences between National Park, Wildlife Sanctuaries and
Biosphere

Q. 8. (a) What is a wildlife? How does it help in maintenance of

the environment?
(b) Give the main causes of extinction of a species by human
intervention.
Ans. (a) Wild life. The living organisms in its natural habitat is termed
wildlife. It includes all plants, animals and micro organisms other than
cultivated plants and domesticated animals.
Role of wild life in the maintenance of environment. The wildlife is of great
value as it balances population and plays vital role in maintaining food
chains and natural cycles. Thus it preserves the environment as selfsustaining system.
(b) Causes of extinction of a species by human intervention.
1. Man made forest fires have caused the extinction of several species in
the past. With regard to India, in this century itself, of the mammals and
birds the Indian Cheetah, Lesser Indian Rhino, the Pink headed Duck, the
Forest Owlet and the Himalayan Mountain Quail and 20 species of higher
plants are reported to have become extinct
2. Habitats which protect wild life are being converted to human
settlement harbours, dams, reservoirs, croplands, grazing grounds,
plantation and mining
sites. Environmental pollution and deforestation have also resulted in the
degradation of important habitats.
3. The introduction of exotic species has affected many native species by
imposing new factors in competition for food and space, predation,
habitat degradation
and destruction.
4. Over-exploitation such as over-fishing is another cause of extinction of
wild life.
Q. 9. Why would it be unethical to destroy wild species?

Ans. It is an established fact that rich diversity of organisms today are

the outcome of natural evolution stretching about 3.5 billion years. A
species once lost cannot be retrieved. Therefore, it would be unethical on
the part of man to be responsible for destruction of a species. Man has an
evolutionary responsibility to conserve biological diversity for our
generations to come.
Q. 10. Discuss the role of wild life in modern agriculture.
Ans. Role of wild life in modern agriculture.
1. Maintenance of gene bank for breeding programme in agriculture.
2. To get high yield from crop plants is not with the simple application of
pesticides and fertilizers and proper irrigation but the crop plants must
have the genetic potentiality to respond to improved inputs. Thus by
examining wild relatives of crop plants useful genes can be selected and
introduced to breeding programme e.g. Resistance gene has been
successfully introduced to modern rice.
3. An average life of a crop variety is 515 years only. New varieties are
being produced to meet the changing conditions such as pathogens, pests
climate and soil etc.
Q. 11. Write a short note on Project Tiger.
Ans. A conservation programme named Project Tiger was launched in
1973 for the purpose of saving tiger population from extinction in India.
Management plans include the following aspects
(i) Elimination of all forms of human exploitation and disturbance from the
core area and rationalisation of such activities in the buffer area; (ii)
Limitation of the habitat management to repair damage done by man with
the aim of restoring the ecosystem as close to its natural functioning as
possible; and (iii) Researching facts about habitat and wild animals and
carefully monitoring changes in flora and fauna.
The number of Tigers in India in 1972 was reduced to 1200 from 40,000
in 1900. To
overcome this alarming state Project Tiger was launched with the help of
World Wild
Life Fund. Nine tiger reserves in nine states with total area of 13017 sq.
km were set
aside with a tiger population of 300. Today there are 11 reserves spread
over 11 states.
Out of the total area, an area of 4935 km is set apart as a core zone. The
core zone is free
from human interference. The population has increased to 3000. This
process is still
going on.
Q. 12. What is zoo ? Write a note.
Ans. Zoo. Zoo is a place where wild animals are housed in captivity. Since
everybody does not get an opportunity to go to the jungles to see the wild

animals in their natural habitats, they satiate their urge by visiting a zoo.
The Zoo (Zoological Park) is also a place for education and recreation.
Worldwide over 500 Zoos house about 540,000 individual animals many
of them from species not threatened or endangered. In India, there are
275 recognized Zoos, Deer Parks, Safari Parks, Aquaria etc. in addition to
a large number of mini-zoos.
Of late the Zoos have acquired a new role as centres for ex-situ
conservation. Towards this end the Government of India has set up a
Central Zoo Authority for proper management of zoos. Central zoo
authorities also co-ordinate the functioning of zoo.
Long Answer Type Questions
Q. 1. What is biodiversity ? Describe importance of biodiversity.
Ans. Biodiversity. It refers to totality of genes species and ecosystem of a
region. It is the occurrence innumerable number of different types of
organisms and the complete range of their varieties adapted to different
climates, environments and areas. Biodiversity is the biological wealth of
world.
Biodiversity as sources of food and improved varieties.
1. Use of biodiversity in agriculture:
(i) As a source of new crops.
(ii) As a source material for breeding varieties.
(iii) As a source of new biodegradable pesticides.
Only 20% of total plant species are cultivated to produce 85% of worlds
food.
Wheat, corn and rice, the three major carbohydrate crops, yield nearly
two third of the food sustaining the human population. Fats, oils, fibres,
etc. are other uses for which more and more new species need to be
investigated.
2. Ecological role of biodiversity
(i) Biodiveristy provides plant pollinators, predators, decomposers and
contributed to soil fertility.
(ii) It helps in the purification of air and water, management of flood,
drought and other environmental disasters.
(iii) Ecosystems with more diversity can withstand the environmental
challenges better because genetically diverse species present in the
ecosystem will have different tolerance ranges for a given environmental
stress, hence they cannot be easily eliminated by any single stress at a
time. However, if the ecosystem contains only few species, it will become
a fragile or unstable ecosystem.
(iv) The species with high genetic diversity and the ecosystems with high
biodiversity have greater capacity for adaptation against environmental
perturbations.
3. Drugs and Medicines from biodiversity. Several important
pharmaceuticals we originated as plant-based substances. Examples of
plant-derived substances eveloped into valuable drugs are : Morphine

(Papaver somniferum), used as an analgesic; and Taxol, an anticancer

drug obtained from the bark of the yew tree (Taxus brevifolia, T. baccata).
Currently, 25% of the drugs in the pharmacy are derived from a mere 12
species of plants. But, throughout the world, traditional medicines make
use of thousands of plant species. Plants can also be used for the
manufacture of innumerable synthtic products, called botanochemicals.
4. Role of biodiversity in Industry.
(E) Wild plants, animals and their products are of great importance to
industry as sources of tannins, resins, gums, oils, dyes, fragrance,
perfumes, waxes, lubricants, hydrocarbons, rubber, latex, and other
commercially useful compounds.
(ii) Some products of animal origin include wool, silk, fur, leather, waxes
and lubricants.
(iii) With the development of modern technologies the potential for new
industrial products from currently unknown or poorly known plant and
animal species is immense.
5. Aesthetic and cultural benefits. Examples of aesthetic rewards include
ecotourism, bird watching, wildlife, pet keeping, gardening, etc.
Throughout human history, people have related biodiversity to the very
existence of human race through cultural and religious beliefs.
6. Biodiversity is essential for the maintenance and sustainable utilization
of goods and services from ecological system as well as from individual
species.
Q. 2. Discuss Indias Mega diverse biodiversity.
Ans. Indias Mega diverse biodiversity
Biodiversity : There is much diversity of flora and fauna in the oceans
India has over 6000 km of coastline with an area of 20,13,410 km2. It
harbours a great variety of marine biota including sea weeds, fish,
crustaceans, amphibia, molluscs, corals, reptiles, mammals, etc.
India has 45,000 species of plants (15% of known world plants) and is an
important primary centre of origin of about 167 important cultivated plant
species like rice, sugarcane, jute, millets, cucurbits, legumes, mango,
banana, Dioscoreas, turmeric, spices, many ornamental plants like
orchids, medicinals and aromatics. India is also asecondary centre of
maize, red pepper, soyabean and rubber plants.
There are 15,000 species of flowering plants, 35% of which are endemics
and largely concentrated in Western Ghats, North-east and North-west
Himalaya, and Andaman and Nicobar islands. About 5000 plants species
occur on Western Ghats of Kerala, 235 being endemic. North-east India
contains 675 orchid species (1000 in India and 17,000 in the World).
India has about 75,000 species of animals, 80% of which are insects.
India has many endemic animal species 53% fresh water fish, 60%
amphibians, 36% reptiles and 10% of mammals. India has wide diversity
in domestic animals like cows, buffaloes, sheep, goats, pigs, camels, yaks,
horses, poultry etc.

Characteristics of Indias biodiversity. Biodiversity is not uniformly

distributed
in space and time. It is rich in tropics. Indias biodiversity is characterised
by the following
1. India contains 10 bio-geographic regions which include the Himalayan,
TransHimalayan, the Indian desert, the Semi-arid zone, the WesternGhats, the Deccan Peninsula, the Gangetic Plain, North-East India and the
Islands and Coasts which possess different biodiversity levels.
2. India is one of the worlds 12 leading biodiversity centres of the origin
of cultivated plants.
3. India has 5 natural world heritage sites, 14 biosphere reserves, 89
national parks, 492 wildlife sanctuaries and 2 hotspots. Heritage sites are
the places
that attract tourists.
4. About 33 per cent of the countrys recorded flora are endemic to India
and concentrated in the North-East, Western-Ghats, North-West Himalaya
and
Andaman and Nicobar islands.
Q. 3. Define IUCN Red list. What are its uses 7 Give definition of
different IUCN-Red list categories.
Ans. IUCN Red List. It is a catalogue of taxa that are facing the risk of
extinction.
IUCN has recognized eight red list categories of species. They are
(i) Extinct, (ii) Extinct in wild (iii) Critically endangered (iv) Endangered
(v) Vulnerable (vi) Lower risk (vii) Data deficient and (viii) Not evaluated.
The 2000 red list contains assessment of more than 18,000 species,
11,000 of which
are threatened.
Uses of IUCN Red list categories.
The uses of the Red Lists are
(i) Developing awareness about the importance of threatened
biodiversity;
(ii) Identification and documentation of endangered species
(iii) Providing a global index of the decline of biodiversity
(iv) Defining conservation priorities at the local level and guiding
conservation action.

Q. 4. What are the main reasons for extinction of biodiversity?

Ans. Reasons for Extinction of Biodiversity
1. Habitat loss. The natural habitat may be destroyed by man for his
settlements, grazing grounds, agriculture, mining, industries, dam
building etc. As a consequence of this, the species must adapt to the
changes, move elsewhere or may succumb to predation, starvation or
disease, eventually dies. In India, several rare butterfly species are facing
extinction with the uncannily swift habitat destruction of the Western
Ghats.
2. Hunting. Man has always hunted the animals for its food, wild animals
are hunted for their products such as hide and skin, tusk, for meat,
pharmaceuticals, perfumes, cosmetics, decoration purposes.
In our country, rhinoceros is hunted for its horns, tiger for bones and skin,
musk
deer for musk, elephant for ivory etc. One of the most published
commercial hunts is that of whale.
3. Over exploitation. This is one of the main causes of the loss of not only
economic species but also biological curiosities like the insectivorous,
primitive species and other taxa needed for teaching of lab work.
Commercial exploitation of wild plants has invariably meant its overuse,
eventual destruction.
4. Collection for zoo and research. Animals and plants are collected
throughout the world for zoo and biological lab for study and research in
science and medicines.
5. Introduction of exotic species. Native species are subjected to
competition for food and space due to introduction of exotic species. For
example, introduction of goats and rabbits in the Pacific and Indian

regions has resulted in destruction of habitats of several plants, birds and

reptiles.
6. Control of pest and predators. Predators and pest control measures,
generally kill predators that are a component of balanced ecosystem and
may also indiscriminately poison non target species.
7. Pollution. Pollution alters the natural habitat. Water pollution especially
injurious to the biotic components of estuary and coastal ecosystem. Toxic
wactes entering the water bodies disturb the food chain and so to the
aquatic ecosystems. Insecticides, pesticides sulphur dioxide, nitrogen
oxides, acid rain, ozone depletion and global warming too, affect
adversely the plant and animal species.
The impact of coastal pollution is also very important it is seen that coral
reefs are being threatened by pollution from industrialization along the
coast, oil transport and offshore mining. Noise pollution is also the cause
of wildlife extinction.
8. Deforestation. One of the main causes for the loss of wild life is
population explosion and resultant deforestation. Deforestation mainly
results from population settlement, shifting cultivation, development
projects, demand for fuel wood, demand of wood as a raw material for
many industries such as paper and pulp, match, veneer and plywood,
furniture etc.
9. Other factors. Other ecological factors that may also contribute to the
extinction of wildlife are as follows
(i) Distribution range. The smaller the range of distribution, the greater
the threat of extinction.
(ii) Degree of specialization. The more specialized an organism is, the
more vulnerable it is to extinction.
(iii)Substitution. During the process of evolution an existing species may
be replaced by ecological another one.
(iv) Position of the organism in the food chain. The higher the position of
the organism is in food chain, the more susceptible it becomes.
(v) Reproduction rate. Large organisms tend to produce fewer offspring at
widely spaced intervals.
(vi) Outbreak of diseases. It is also one of the major causes for the
decline in wildlife species.
(vii) Loss of gene flow. The individuals of plant and animal life may
decline to significant level as aresult of loss of gene flow.
Q. 5. What is biogeographical classification of India?
Ans. Biogeographic Classification of India
Biogeographical Regions: India is one of the 12 megadiversity countries of
the World with about 120,000 identified species of plants and animals.
The Indian territory (80_300 N and 600_97.50E) with a total area of 329
million hectares having large variety of ecological habitats like High
Himalayas, warm coast of Peninsular India, humid tropical Western Ghats,
hot desert of Rajasthan, cold desert of Ladakh etc. There are 10
biogeographical regions of India

1. TransHimalaYa, 2 Himalaya, 3. Desert, 4. Semi-arid, 5. Western Ghats,

6. Deccan Peninsula, 7. Gangetic Plain, 8. Coasts, 9. North East, 10.
Islands.

Biogeographical regions of India

Q. 6. Extinction is the ultimate fate of all species ? Why then we
are concerned about decline of biodiversity
Ans. Extinction or the elimination of a species, is a normal process in
nature. Species die, and are replaced by other, generally by their own
descendants, as part of evolutionary change. The rate of extinction in
undisturbed ecosystem is estimated to be high in the last many decades.
Human impact in the populations ecosystems have accelerated that rate,
causing hundreds of species, subspecies and varieties to become extinct
every year and if the present trend continue, millions of kinds of plants,
animals and micro organisms may be destroyed in the next few decades.
Classification of extinction processes.
1. Natural extinction. It is due to change in environmental condition. It is
a very slow rate.
2 Mass extinction. Mass extinction occurs due to catastrophes. In this
case, large number of species became extinct in millions of years.
3. Anthropogeflic extinction. Extinction of species due to mans activities.
It is occurring in a short period of time.
Consequences of extinction of species.

1. Climate change. Climate change simply bring shift in distribution of

species (which is largely determined by climate).
2. Natural catastrophe. Means a sudden change in the environment
brought by nature. it includes fire, storm, floods, earthquakes etc.
3. Pollution. Pollution leads to changes in natural habitat. Toxic pollutants
can have disastrous effects on local populations of organisms.
Example : DDT, PCB, dioxins etc.
4. Diseases. The incidence of diseases in wild species may increase due to
human activities. The extent of diseases increases further when animals
kept in captivity. Animals as compared to plants, are more prone to
infections when they are under stress.
Q. 7. India is a country of biodiversity. Comment on the
statement.
Ans. India has a rich heritage of biodiversity as it is rich in all three types
of biodiversity genetic species and ecosystem. A wide range of diverse
habitats starting from tropical rain forests to Alpine region and
temperate forest to coastal land make this country a rich source of
biodiversity
India is one of the twelve mega diversity nations of the world, 7.31% of
the global fauna and 10.88% of global floral species.
Some Interesting features of Indian Biodiversity are:
(i) In India about 1,15,000 species of plants and animals have been
identified.
(ii) Many crops like rice, sugarcane mango originated in India and spread
throughout the world.
(iii) In flora, India has 45,000 species which account for about 15 percent
of known world plants.
(iv) India has about 75,000 animal species, about 80 percent of which are
insects.
(v) India has 10 biogeographical regions.
Q. 8. Write a detailed note on Biogeographical regions of India.
Ans. The Department of forest and wildlife has divided India into 10
biogeographical areas keeping in mind animal species biodiversity.
1. Trans Himalayas. Ladakh (1 & K) and Lahol Spiti (Himachal Pradesh).
This area is situated at an average of height of 4500 to 6000 m from sea
level. The area of this region is 1,86,200 sq. km. Here Tibeti donkey, wild
yak etc. are found.
2. Himalaya (North, West, Central & East). About 2,36,300 sq. km area
situated at different heights in Himalayas comes in this category. In these
areas there is diversity in species and habitat are found. Here 56 areas
are protected areas. In these areas, there are more endangered species
than in other areas of India.
3. Desert (KachChh_GUjat Thar_RajaSthan). This area is spread up in
2,50,100 sq. km. This area is delicate ecological system. Here only 89 sq.

km area is protected area. Here wild ass, desert cat, desert fox etc. are
found.
4. Semi Arid Area (Punjab, Gujarat and Rajasthan). This area is spread
over 5,08,000 sq. km. The leopards of this area are conserved in sariska
and Ranthambor National Park. Here 52 protected areas are spread in
11,675 sq. km. Gir lioi is its special species.
5. Western Ghat, Coastal Plain and Hills of Maharashtra, Kerala &
Karnatka. This area is spread over 1500 sq. metre long hill chain from
evergreen forests to dry deciduous forests. Here about 1,800 special local
species are found. Here 44 protected areas are spread over 15,955 sq.
km.
6. Deccan Peninsula, Deccan Plateau, Southern Central Plateau, NorthEastern Plateau, ChhotaNagpur, Central High lands. This area is spread
over 14,21,000 sq. km and has 115 protected areas spread over 4610 sq.
km. The 43% of whole earth part is Deccan island.
7. Gangetic plain/ Plains of Ganga (Upper & lower plains of Ganga). It is
spread over 3,59,400 sq. km area which has 25 protected areas. Because
cultivation is done in this area from centuries, rare wild animals are found
here.
8. Sea Coast (Western and Eastern Coast). Biological rich lash vegetation
is found here. In it sea and eustary both type of plants and animals are
found. Sunderban Sanctuary has many more leopards than in any other
area.
9. Northern Eastern Area (Brahamputra Valley, Hills of Assam). Here
biological rich sources of varied diversity of plants and animals are found.
It has 17 protected areas spread over 1880 sq. km.
10. Indian Island Group (Andaman, Nicobar and Lakshdeep Island). This
is a group of 348 islands rich in biodiversity. It has 225 species of animals
in which 112 are special areas. It has 100 protected areas spread over
708 sq. km.
Chapter 5
Q. 1. What are causes of soil pollution?
Ans. Soil Pollution. It is resulted due to human activities, such as
dumping of wastes, use of agrochemicals, mining operations and,
urbanization. Alteration in soil by addition and removal of materials
leading to reduced productivity is called soil pollution. Here, soil
productivity includes both the quantity and the quality of the produce.
Causes of Soil pollution.
Types of Soil Pollutants /Sources of Soil Pollution. Many materials
adversely affect the physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil
and reduce its productivity. These include (1) Municipal wastes (2)
industrial wastes (3) pesticides, (4) fertilizers and organic manure (5)
radio-active wastes, (6) discarded materials and mining operation.
Q. 2. Differentiate marine pollution and water pollution.

Ans. Water pollution. Addition of harmful materials to water is termed as

water pollution. The sources of inland water pollution are community
waste water (sewage) and water from industries -and agricultural
practices. Water pollutants include organic matter, pathogens, chemicals
and minerals, solid particles, radioactive wastes and heat. Marine
pollution. This type of pollution is common in sea water. The pollution of
sea water is due to following reasons
(i) Due to spilling of oil from naval transport.
(ii) Accidents of oil transporting naval transports.
(iii) During loading and unloading of oil in naval transports.
(iv) Leakage of oil from the oil wells located nearby sea shore.
Q. 3. What are problems associated with e-wastes?
Ans. Problems associated with e-wastes
Irreparable computers and electronic goods are known as electronic
wastes or e-wastes. Most of them are shipped to developing countries for
metals like copper, nickel, silicon, gold are recovered by recycling.
Recycling the environmental friendly technologies are the methods for
treatment of defunct ships and e-wastes. International treaty called Basel
Convention drafted in Basel (Switzerland) was result of great demand
from developing countries.
Q. 4. What is particulate matter? Give prime sources of particulate
matter.
Ans. Suspended Particulate Matter (5PM). The solid particles or liquid
droplets (aerosols) remain suspended in air. For example smoke, soot
dust, asbestos etc. SPM above the size of 10 mm is trapped by nasal hair,
pharyngeal, tracheal and bronchial mucus. The same are coughed out or
deposited in nose as nasal scales. Smaller particles of SPM reach the
alveoli. There they may be attacked by phagocytes or pass into living
cells. SPM causes irritation in respiratory tract, bronchitis and lung
diseases. These particles may cause asbestosis, pneumoconiosis. They
also result in reduced visibility.
Q. 5. What is equitable use of resources?
Ans. The countries of north are more developed whereas the countries of
south are less developed. The developed countries have only 22% of
worlds population but they use 88% of its natural resources, 73% of its
energy and command 85% of its income. Whereas the less developed
countries have 78% of worlds population and use about 12% of natural
resources and 27% of energy. Problems of unemployment, poverty and
hunger in less developed countries can only be tackled through
development. Solution to this problem is to have more equable
distribution of resources and wealth. A global consensus has to be
reached for balanced distribution of basic resources like safe drinking

water, food, fuel, etc. So that the poor in the less developed countries are
at least able to sustain their life.
Q. 6. What is smog and why is it caused?
Ans. Smog (Des Voeux, 1905). Smog is opaque or dark fog having
condensed water vapours, dust, smoke and gases (SO2, H2S, NO2 etc.).
It causes silvering! glazing and necrosis in plants, allergies and
asthma/bronchitis in humans. Some famous smogs of the world are Los
Angeles smog (1946), London smog (1952), Tokyo, Rome, New York,
Sydney (1970). Smog is of two types:
(i) Classical (London) Smog. It occurs at low temperature, contains
sulphur gases (hydrogen suiphide, sulphur dioxide), smoke and dust
particles.
(ii) Photochemical Smog. It is secondary pollutant. It is yellowish brown
smog which is formed under oxidising conditions and high temperature
over cities and towns that are releasing a lot of nitrogen oxides and
unburnt hydrocarbons. In still air the two interact photochemically to
produce photochemical oxidants-ozofle, PAN, aldehydes and phenols.
Photo-chemical smog does not have, any appreciable amount of primary
pollutants. It is also called Los Angeles smog.
Effect on biological world. It causes bleaching of foliage of certain plants.
It also
causes silvering, glazing and necrosis of the leaves.
Q. 7. Describe the three measures of water quality.
Ans. Water pollution means the introduction into natural water of
anything that
is foreign to them. It is undesirable change in physical, chemical or
biological characteristics of water that may harmfully affect the human
life, our industrial processes, living organisms.
Three measures of water quality
1. Prevent run-off manure, agrochemicals, like fertilizers and pesticides.
Divert such run-off to basin for settlement. The nutrient rich water can be
used as
fertilizer in the fields.
2. Developing of sewage treatment plants and industrial effluent
Treatment system so that all types of pollutants can be removed from it
and pure water may be
made available for recirculation.
3. Bathing, washing etc. should be prohibited in the vicinity of sources
and public awareness regarding water pollution should be treated.
Q. 8. What is thermal pollution?
Ans. Thermal Pollution. Hot effluents and hot water (e.g., thermal
plants/atomic reactors) bring about rise in water temperature. Warm
water contains less oxygen, has lower rate of putrescibility resulting in
increased organic loading, replacement of green algae by blue-green

ones. Many animals fail to reproduce e.g., Trout, Salmon. El Nino is warm
ocean or Peru current that recurs after 58 years. It kills marine animals
and planktons over large tracts along Peru and Ecudor coasts.
Q. 9. Differentiate primary air pollutants and secondary air
pollutants.
Ans. Differences between primary air pollutants and secondary air
pollutants

Q. 10. What does Environmental (protection) Act 1986 of India

mean ? List the major categories of pollutant.
Ans. In environmental (protection) Act, 1986 of India environmental
pollutant means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in such
concentration as may be or tend to be injurious to environment and
environmental pollution means the presence in the environment of any
environmental pollutant. There are two basic types of pollutants:
Pollutant Categories
Pollutants may be categorised in several ways. Some major categories of
pollutants are
(i) Organic pollutants. Such as DDT, polychiorinated biphenyls (PCBs), oil.
(ii) Inorganic pollutants. Such as nitrates, acids found in acid rain, metals.
(iii) Acid pollutants. Found in run off from coal mining, Cl formed by a
reaction of HC1 gas with moisture.
(iv) Radiological pollutants. Which are radioactive chemicals found
naturally in rocks, soil and water.
(v) Biological pollutants. Are pathogenic micro-organisms such as
infectious bacteria, viruses and Protozoa.
(vi) Multiple pollutants. These are many pollutants that affect the
organism at one time e.g., xenobiotics (foreign chemicals.)
(vii) Physical pollutants. Which may have both inorganic and organic
component e.g., soil carried in rain water run off from agricultural fields.
Q. 11. What is air pollution? List various air pollutants and their
sources.
Ans. Air pollution. Release of harmful materials into the air is called air or
atmospheric pollution. It is the degradation of air quality and atmosphere
condition. Air pollutants include gaseous materials, suspended particles
and radioactive substances.
(a) The gaseous pollutants of air come from combustion in motor vehicles
and industries. These include CO, GO2, NO, NO2, SO2, so3,

hydrocarbons1 fluorides and photochemical oxidants, such as peroxyacyl

nitrate (PAN), ozone (03), and aldehydes. PAN is formed in the air by
interaction between nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons in the presence of
sunlight. It is more toxic than the primary pollutants. Increase in toxicity
by reaction among pollutants is called synergism.
(b) The particulate contaminants of air also come from industries and
automobiles. These include fly ash, soot, metal dust, cotton fibres,
asbestos, fibres, lead, aerosols (chloroflUorOCarb015 or CFCs),
polychiorinated biphenyls (PCBs), tobacco smoke, smog, pollen, spores,
cysts and bacteria.
(c) Radioactive substances are released by nuclear explosions and war
explosives.
Main sources of air pollution
1. Fixed sources. Which include large factories, electrical power plants,
mineral smelters, small industries.
2. Mobile sources. They include all sorts of transports.
Atmospheric pollutants and their sources

Air pollution
Short Answer Type Questions
Q. 1. (a) What is acid rain?
(b) What are adverse effects of acid rain?
Ans. (a) Acid rains. Sulphur dioxide and sulphur trioxide are produced by
oxidation of sulphur in the fossil fuels. These gases react with water and
form sulphuric acid or sulphurOus acid. These acids when precipitated as
rain or snOw create acid rain or acid precipitation. The pH of acid rains is
less than 5-6 and could be as low as 4.
(b) Effects of acid rains.
1. Acid rain adversely affect plant vegetation by causing chlorosis,
necrosis, defoliation and die back.
2. It causes leaching of essential minerals of soil. Toxic minerals left in the
soil further kill the plants. 50% of natural forests have been destroyed by
acid rain in Germany, Sweden, north east U.S.A., Romania, Poland, etc.
3. Acid rain has also ruined fresh water reservoirs of most industrialised
countries, e.g. 80% in Norway, 25% in Sweden, 20% in U.S.A.
4. Acidity dissolves toxic metals like Hg, Pb, Zn, Al. Both acidity and toxic
metals kill all types of aquatic life except some algae and fungi.
5. Acid rain corrodes metals, marble, painted surfaces, slate, stone, etc.
The phenomenon is called stone leprosy.
Q. 2. Explain different stages of solid waste management.
Ans. Solid Waste. Because of various human activities, millions of tonnes
of waste is produced every day all over the world. Waste is produced in
the households, offices, factories, industries, etc. Household wastes
include newspapers, bottles, cans, broken crockery, broken glass, plastic
containers, ash, polythene bags, dust or domestic garbage. The discarded
solid material after use is called Garbage, Refuse, Rubbish or Solid
waste
The constituents of solid wastes are similar all over the world but the
proportion varies widely from country to country and city to city.
Nevertheless, more waste is generated in urban areas as compared to
rural areas.
Management of Solid Waste

Solid waste management involves activities including collection, transfer

and transport to suitable sites, and safe disposal of wastes by methods
which are environmentally compatible.
Collection of Waste. In poor countries like India, collection methods are
poor or even absent. Most of the waste remain near the place of source.
Domestic garbage is generally thrown in streets or dumped on any
available land. The heaps of garbage produce foul smell and are usually
spread by stray cattle, pigs, rodents and rag pickers who search some
reusable items. The clearance by municipalities is usually irregular.
Proper planning demands the provision of collection bins in streets and
along roads which must be cleared at least once or twice a day. In
developed countries, there are automatic machines for collection of waste.
Transfer and Transport of waste. It is the second step of waste
management which needs a fleet of transporl vehicles for the transfer of
heaps of garbage from street corners or municipal dustbins to disposal
sites or places of processing. India cities have only few vehicles (2-5 in
city of 10 lakh population) as compared to the amount of waste.
Disposal of Solid Wastes
1. Municipal solid wastes are burnt to reduce the volume.
2. Sanitary landfills have been adopted as an alternative to open-burning
dumps.
3. Municipal wastes are incinerated and the heat-emitted is used to
generate electricity.
4. They are also recycled for various components.
5. Fly ash is used in construction industry or buried as landfills; it is also
used for soil amendment as in increases water retention and aeration of
soil.
6. e-wastes are buried as landfills or incinerated ; they are also recycled.
Q. 3. Taj Mahal is reported to be threatened by Mathura Refinery.
Discuss the possible threats that the refinery poses.
Ans. The acid depositions react with lime stone, marble and other
materials to cause deterioration and disfigure the building material. A
good example is Taj Mahal in danger of being destroyed by the
components of polluted atmosphere due to pollutant released from the
nearby Mathura Refinery. The Refinery is using low sulphur fuels, emits
about 25-30 Tornies of SO2 daily. The emitted SO2 results in acidic
precipitation - (both dry and wet) under condensation a flow of wind
combined with humidity, in the surrounding area. The acid deposition
reacts with calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in the marble to form calcium
sulphate (CaSO4) which causes deterioration. Some of the visible signs of
deterioration of the Taj Mahal are as follows
1. Discoloration of the grey or brown rust like stains, especially in the
niches and
xarches.
2. Chipping and breaking of the edges of the marble slabs.
3. Formation/appearance of cracks in marbles.

4. It can also lead to reduction in brightness contrast between objects.

Q. 5. Write a note on secondary air pollutant.

Ans. Secondary air pollutants. The primary air pollutants (gases,
particulates) take part in a wide range of photochemical reactions,
forming secondary pollutants. Such new products often cause greater
damage than is caused directly by the primary pollutants.

The main products that result from light striking the hydrocarbons from
exhaust are the olefins (also known as alkenes), ethylenes or unsaturated
hydrocarbons, carbon compounds containing double bonds, the aldehydes
and the aromatics. The aromatic compounds created photochemically
appear to be among the most serious of all air pollutants. One of these
compounds benzpyrene, has been proved to induce cancer. Two other
photochemical pollutants that appear to cause serious problems are
peroxybenzoyl nitrate and peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN).
Important examples of secondary pollutants are :

The smog is a harmful mixture of smoke plus fog. The word was first used
in 1905 to describe the combination of smoke and fog that was observed
in London and totally obscured visibility for a few hours. This smog
resulted from SO2, soot and tarry materials released into the atmosphere
by burning of high-sulphur coal.
The photochemical smog results from the reaction of nitrogen oxides and
volatile organic chemicals in summer sunlight to form ozone. In addition
to ozone it contains other photochemical oxidants, including peroxyacetyl
nitrate (PAN) and NO2. It also contains the particulates.
Some other secondary pollutants are : (a) NO: It is formed by dissociation of NO2 to atomic oxygen and NO.
(b) NO2: It is formed in sunlight from NO (NO + O
NO2)
(c) Hydroxyl radical (OH) : It is formed in sunlight from hydrocarbons and
nitrogen oxides. It reacts with other gases to form acid droplets.
(d) Nitrous acid (HONO) : It is formed from NO2 and water vapours.
(e) Nitric acid (HNO3) : It is formed from NO2 and is a major component
of acid rain.
Q. 6. Write the effects of hydrocarbons (HCs), SO2 and NO2.
Ans. Effects of hydrocarbons : 1. Benzene and its derivatives are
carcinogens.
2. Formaldehyde causes indoor pollution.
3. Some reactive HCs contribute to formation of secondary pollutants.
Effect of SO2
SO2 is released into atmosphere from various factories which use ores of
Cu, Zn,
Pb, Ni and Fe. The sulphur present in these ores is oxidised and SO2 is
given out. Besides this vehicle exhaust, burning of coal and oil refineries
also give out SO2.
SO2 have harmful effects on man and plants. High concentration of SO2
destroys chlorophyll in plants (Chiorosis disease), lysis of the cell occurs,
parts of the plant are destroyed and it may result in the death of the

whole plant (Necrosis). Even if death does not occur, it results in

prevention of growth and productions plasmolysis and various metabolic
diseases.
Effects of Oxides of nitrogen
Nitrogen monoxidc lowers the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.
Hence NO2 irritates the eyes, nose, bronchial tubes and lungs. Its high
concentration proves fatal. Being a strong reducing agent, NO2 attacks
metals, textiles and other materials. Nitrogen oxides damage plants also.
Q. 7. Write a note on the air pollution caused due to combustion.
Ans. The mobile combustion sources are the main sources of air pollution
especially in the cities. They include the locomotives, automobiles and
aircrafts.
The air pollutants from these are
1. (i) Carbon monoxide (ii) oxides of nitrogen and (iii) a mixture of
hydrocarbons.
2. If the petroleum used as fuel in these sources contains lead as an
impurity in the form of tetraethyl lead Pb(C2H5)4 and tetramethyl lead
Pb(CH3)4 the gaseous discharge mentioned above contains particulate
lead compounds.
Even if not inhaled, lead is absorbed by the body and causes serious
damage to the tissues. It also hampers the haemoglobin formation.
3. Smog. In the presence of sunlight, various unburnt hydrocarbons
produced from the automobile combustion react with oxides of nitrogen to
form ozone,
peroxyacyl nitrates and aldehydes. They are called photochemical
oxidants. Together with smoke and fog they constitute smog which has a
harmful effect on mans respiratory and nervous system; it also harms the
plants and rubber
goods.
4. Aerosols. Aerosols are certain chemicals released in the air with force
in the form of mist or vapour. The important source of aerosols is the jet
aeroplane
emissions in the outer atmosphere. The aerosols contain fluorocarbons
which deplete the ozone layer in atmosphere.
Q. 8. What is water pollution? List various water pollutants.
Ans. Water pollution
Addition of harmful materials to water is termed water pollution. The
sources of inland water pollution are community waste water (sewage)
and wastes from industries and agricultural practices.
Water pollutants include organic matter, pathogens, chemical and
minerals, solid
particles, radioactive wastes and heat.
(i) Organic matter reaches water in sewage and effluents of certain
industries.

Decomposers breakdown organic matter, using up the oxygen of water.

This kills the animals. Anaerobic bacteria then produce foul-smelling
gases.
(ii) Pathogens are also brought by sewage. They include bacteria,
protozoans and
helminth eggs. They cause diseases if taken up with polluted water.
(iii) Chemicals and minerals reaching water include fertilizers and
pesticides in farm run-off, detergents in bathroom water, and toxic
materials (arsenic,
cadmium, lead, zinc, copper, mercury and cyanides) in effluents of some
industries.
(iv) Detergents and Fertilizers. The term detergent is applied to washing
materials.
Detergents are composed of complex phosphates, which eventually break
down
into phosphates usable by aquatic plants. The use of detergents has been
responsible for increase in the phosphorus in sewage effluents.
Although detergent are not highly toxic to fishes, they do damage to gills
and
remove protective mucous from gills, skin and intestine. Aquatic
invertebrates and cray fish may also be affected by detergents.
(v) Toxic metals. Wastes containing different concentration of heavy
metals, either individually or in combination, may be toxic to aquatic
organisms. For example, Cd is toxic to many organisms after their
exposure to low concentration toxicity of chromium

to insects and

other aquatic forms also varies. Copper

is relatively quite acutely
toxic to fishand its toxic effect also depends on the hardness of water.
Toxic metals responsible for air pollution (e.g., lead, nickel, Cd) may also
reach water and harm the aquatic organisms. Lead poisoning of children
has been reported from many countries. Adult may also suffer adverse
effects including damage to kidney and nervous system and high blood
pressure other serious adverse effects are infertility and anaemia.
Mercury is also an important toxic pollutant. The Hg (mercury) of waste
products is converted by anaerobic bacteria into CH3Hg (methyl mercury)
and (CH3)2Hg, (dimethyl mercury), which are poisonous molecules. The
effects of mercury poisoning include thermosomal damage and toxic
effects on liver, kidney and gills of fishes.
(vi) Solid particles of clay and metal dust settle in water from the air.
They reduce light needed for photosynthesis and this may disturb food
chains and result in loss of water life.
(vii) Radioactive dust from mining and processing of uranium enters
water.
(viii) Thermal pollution of water is caused by the discharge of hot water
from power plants and other industries.
Q. 9. What are the effects of water pollution?
Ans. Effects of Water Pollution

1. Water pollutants reach the sea directly from the coastal cities and
ships, and
indirectly with river water from distant places. Oil spilled in tanker
accidents is a major
threat to ocean life.
2. Pollutants impart colour, turbidity, unpleasant smell and taste, and
foaminess
to water, making it unfit for use. They are detrimental to aquatic plants
and animals.
Some of them are highly toxic and kill the aquatic organisms. Many
infectious diseases
spread through contaminated water.
Diseases caused by polluted water.
1. Bacterial diseases. Cholera, Typhoid, Diarrhoea, Dysentery.
2.. Viral diseases. Jaundice, Polio etc.
3. Protozoanal diseases. Diseases associatd with stomach and intestines
e.g.
Amoebic dysentery, Giardiasis etc.
4. Helminthic diseases. Infection of some intestinal parasites like Ascaris
lumbricoides
is through drinking water only. Guinea worm diseases is through Cyclops
present in
the drinking water. Through contaminated water they reach to another
host i.e. man.
5. Some Elements and their Toxicity

6. Water ways become biologically barren. Aquatic organisms can tolerate

poisons and other pollutants only in low concentrations. Excesses may
prove lethal. Different (a) Eutrophication (b) Biological magnification

organisms have different levels of tolerance or sensitivity to various

effluents or poisons and toxicity of most poisons is also affected by
environmental factors such as temperatures pH, oxygen content, calcium
contets etc. Water ways polluted with zinc and
often become biologically barren.
Q. 10. Write critical notes on
(a) Eutophication.
(b) Biological magnification
(c) Ground water depletion and ways for its replenishment.
Ans. (a) Eutophication. The process by which a body of water becomes
barren either by natural means or by pollution extensively rich in
dissolved nutrients. It results in the increased primary productivity that
often leads to seasonal deficiency in dissolved oxygen.
Phosphorus and nitrates dissolved in water acts as nutrients and
accelerates the growth of algae that may form a mat on the water
surface. The algae use oxygen at night and may deoxygenate the water
enough to kill the fish and other animals. The algal mat at the water
surface may block light to the submerged plants. The algae may die and
sink, and feed the oxygen consuming bacteria. They may be pushed on to
the shore by wind and decompose, releasing foul gases such as hydrogen
sulphide. Silt and decaying matter may accumulate and finally fill the lake
or pond. This process is called senescence. It is a natural stage in the
change of a lake into dry land and it becomes barren.

Biological magnification of DDT in an aquatic food chain.

(b) Biological magnification. The phenomenon in which the harmful
pollutants (such as pesticides) enter the food chain and get concentrated

more and more at each successive trophic level of organism is called

biological magnification.
This phenomenon is well known for mercury and DDT. Figure on the side
shows biomagnification of DDT in an aquatic food chain. Zooplankton (tiny
floating animals) in the food chain, accumulated modest levels of DDT.
However, small fish, forming the next level of the food chain, must eat
zooplankton several times their own weight and thus they accumulated
more of DDT. In this manner, the concentration of DDT magnified at
successive trophic levels, starting with 0.003 ppb (ppb = parts per billion)
in water it ultimately reached 25 ppm (ppm parts per million) in fisheating birds. High concentrations of DDT disturb calcium metabolism
birds, which causes thinning of egg shell and their premature breaking
eventually causing decline in bird population.
(c) Ground water depletion and ways for its replenishment. Underground
water is more pure and safe for drinking. It is getting polluted particularly
in industrial towns. The common sources of underground water pollution
are sewage and industrial effluents spilled over the ground. The fertilizers
and pesticides used in fields also act as pollutants. Pollution is also
increased due to seepage from refuse dumps, septic tanks and seepage
pits.
Method to control. Sewage and factory wastes should be treated to clean
them before their release into water sources.
Q. 11. What is soil pollution? how is solid waste generated
Ans. Soil Pollution. Alteration in soil leading to reduced productivity is
called soil pollution. The soil pollutants include chemicals, fertilizers,
organic manure, pesticides radioactive wastes and discarded household
materials. Contamination of soil with human and animal excreta is a
serious health hazard. Air and water pollutants also reach the soil and
pollute it too.

Flow chart of soil pollution

Solid wastes are also generated in industries.
1. Thermal power plants generate tremendous amount of fly ash that is
made up of oxides of silica, iron and aluminium, and low concentrations of
toxic heavy metals. Fly ash can be used in cement and construction
industry, or buried in landfills. There is also a possibility of using it for soil
amendment because it increases moisture retention and aeration of a soil.
2. Industries producing metals, pesticides paper, rubber, dye, chemicals,
etc. also generate large amount of hazardous solid wastes that are
corrosive, highly inflammable and toxic to humans and other organisms.
3. Hospitals generate hazardous wastes that contain disinfectants and
other harmful chemicals, and also pathogenic microorganisms. Such
wastes also require careful treatment and disposal.
4. Defuncts ships.
5. e-wastes.
Q. 12. Discuss briefly the following:
(a) Radioactive wastes
(b) Defunct ships
(c) Municipal solid wastes.
Ans. (a) Radioactive wastes. Use of nuclear energy has two most serious
problems. The first is accidental leakage and the second is safe disposal of
radioactive wastes. Wastes from atomic power plants come in the form of
spent fuels of uranium and plutonium. People working in such power
plants, nuclear reactors, fuel processors1 etc. are vulnerable to their

exposure. These also undergo biological magnification and may reach to

75,000 times in birds.
Radio isotopes. Many radioactive isotopes like
and their
compounds are used in scientific researches. The waste water of these
research centres contain the radioactive elements which may reach the
human beings through water and food chains.
Such wastes are first concentrated to educe the volume and then kept for
50-100 years in small ponds within the premises of nuclear power plants.
This interim storage causes considerable decay of radioactivity and
lessening of heat problem. It has been recommended that subsequent
storage should be done in suitably shielded containers buried within the
rocks, about 500 m deep inside Earth. However, this method of disposal is
meeting stiff opposition from the public.
(b) Defunct ships and e-wastes. Defunct ships are a kind of solid waste
requiring proper disposal. Such ships are broken down in developing
countries because of cheap labour and for scrap metal. They often contain
toxic substances such as asbestos, polychlorinated biphenyls, tributyltin,
lead and mercury.
(c) Municipal Solid Wastes. Solid wastes refer to everything that goes out
in trash. Municipal solid wastes are wastes from homes, offices, stores,
schools, etc. that are collected and disposed by the municipality. The
municipal solid wastes generally comprise paper, food wastes, glass,
metals, rubber, leather, textile, etc. Burning reduces
the volume of the wastes, although it is generally not complete arid open
dumps often serve as the breeding ground for rats and flies.
Q. 13 What initiatives were taken for reducing vehicular air
pollution in Delhi? Has the air quality improved in Delhi?
Ans. Automobiles are the major sources of air pollution in Delhi because
it has
very high number of cars. Some specific measures taken to reduce
vehicular air pollution are as follows
1. Use of CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) for its public transport system.
2 Phasing out of old vehicles
3. Use of unleaded petrol.
4. Use of low sulphur petrol and diesel.
5. Use of catalytic converter in vehicles.
6. Application of Euro II norms for vehicles.
Because of above mentioned steps taken up by the Government, the air
quality of Delhi has improved with a substantial fall in carbon monoxide,
oxides of sulphur and nitrogen level between 1997-2005.
Q. 14. What is nuclear fall-out? Suggest a few protective
measures against nuclear fall-out.
Ans. Nuclear Fall-Out. The release of radio-active isotopes into the
atmosphere after a nuclear explosion is called nuclear fall-out. The latter
has both immediate and delayed effects. The immediate effect is through

iodine-131 and strontium-90, which enter the human body either directly
or through food chain. Radio-active iodine-131 gets concentrated in the
thyroid gland like ordinary iodine (1-127). It is used similarly in the
synthesis of thyroxine. Through the latter, it reaches every body part and
causes damage to white blood coijucles, bone marrow, spleen, lymph
nodes, etc. It impairs eye sight and produces sterility, skin cancer and
lung tumours.
Radio-active strontium (Sr-90) is mistaken for calcium and enters the
bones. Here, it causes bone cancer. The isotope also degenerates body
tissues.
Nuclear fall-out passes on to other areas through air currents. Radioactive isotopes mix up with clouds and reach the soils. Thus an
atmospheric nuclear explosion in China was found to have increased
background radio-activity in Japan. After entering the food chain, the
radio-active isotopes induce mutations in both plants and animals.
Protective Measures. There is no mechanism to offset the effect of
ionising radiations. All the protective measures are, therefore, preventive
in nature. In the first step it is extremely impartant to see that the
background radiation does not increase. Prevention of leakage in the
nuclear reactors, dumping of nuclear wastes deep in the earth,
renunciation of atomic explosions or development of non-radioactive
explosion technology are important for the survival of mankind.
Q. 15. Write a note on control of radioactive pollution.
Ans. Control of Radioactive Pollution. The radioactive wastes which come
out from industry, medicinal plants, nuclear reactors should be stored
either in closed drums or in very, large underground airtight cemented
tanks. Moreover, the intermediate radioactive wastes should be disposed
off into the environment after diluting it with some inert material. There
should be a ban on nuclear explosions throughout the whole world.
Concerted efforts are being made in this direction by several countries,
including India.
Industrial wastes may be discharged into the environment, only after the
necessary treatment so that the radioactivity is at a lower level. Wastes
may be discharged into sewer system or into the streams. Before
discharge, it is said that low activity wastes are stored for some time, so
as to reduce the activity. In case of high activity wastes, they cannot be
discharged. Now-a-days, small quantities of high activities wastes are
converted into solids such as concrete and then it is buried underground
or in sea. According to recent survey, these wastes may also be converted
into glassy or ceramic material which is then calcined to alumina or
zirconia and leached. Disposal of wastes at sea has also been tried.
Q. 16. Describe role of individual in reducing pollution.
Ans. Role of individual in reducing pollution.
1. Use of unleaded petrol or CNG in vehicles as fuel.
2. Use of reformulated gasoline to save ozone in the atmosphere.

3. Use of generators in residential areas should be avoided.

4. Plantation of trees.
5. Excessive and unplanned use of fertilizer should be avoided.
6. Biodegradable material should be used.
7. Do not blow horn with jarring sound.
8. Radio, transistors, T.V., Music system should be kept at low volume to
control noise pollution.
Q. 17. How are solid wastes generated?
Ans. Solid wastes are also generated in industries.
1. Thermal power plants generate tremendous amount of fly ash that is
made up of oxides of silica, iron and aluminium, and low concentrations of
toxic heavy metals. Fly ash can be used in cement and construction
industry, or buried in landfills. There is also a possibility of using it for soil
amendment because it increases moisture retention and aeration of a soil.
2. Industries producing metals, pesticides, paper, rubber, dye, chemicals,
etc. also generate large amount of hazardous solid wastes that are
corrosive, highly
inflammable and toxic to humans and other organisms.
3. Hospitals generate hazardous wastes that contain disinfectants and
other harmful chemicals, and also pathogenic microorganisms. Such
wastes also require careful treatment and disposal.
4. Defuncts ships.
5. e-wastes.
Long Answer Type Questions
Q. 1. Describe briefly environmental pollution and pollutant.
Ans. Pollution. Pollution is any change in physical, chemical or biological
characteristics of the environment that has the potentiality to harm
human life, life of other desirable species, natural resources, cultural
assets and industries. Contamination is presence of harmful organisms or
their toxins that cause discomfort or disease.
Natural pollution is pollution caused by natural sources, e.g., volcanic
eruptions, release of methane by paddy fields and cattle, release of
carbon monoxide by plants and animals, emission of natural gas, ozone,
nitrogen oxides, soil erosion, dust storms, cosmic rays, ultra-violet rays,
etc.
Man-made pollution is pollution resulting from human activities like
burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, mining, sewage, industrial effluents,
pesticides, fertilizers, etc. Amount of man made atmospheric pollution is
hardly 0.05% of total but is more dangerous because of its concentration
in certain localities,
Pollutant. It is a substance (e.g. dust, smoke), chemical (e.g. SO2) or
factor (e.g. heat, noise) that on release into the environment has an
actual or potential adverse effect on human interests. Pollutant can also

be defined as a constituent in the wrong amount, at a wrong place or at a

wrong time.
Types of pollutants :
Pollutants can be of following types :
(a) Biodegradable pollutants : The pollutants which are degraded by
natural factors and are decomposed by natural activities are
biodegradable pollutants.
(b) Non-biodegradable pollutants : There are pollutants which cannot be
purified by natural methods. Plastic products, many chemicals, long chain
detergents, glass, aluminium and many other artificial synthetic products
manufactured by man come under this category.
Pollution according to physical nature of pollutants.
According to the physical nature of the pollutants, the categories include :
gases, particulate matter, temperature, noise, radioactivity, etc. These
categories can be named as gaseous pollution, dust pollution, thermal
pollution, noise pollution, radioactive pollution, etc.
Types of pollution according to the part of environment.
1. Air pollution (Atmosphere)
2. Water pollution (Hydrosphere)
3. Soil pollution (Lithosphere)
Types of pollution on the basis of origin
1. Natural e.g. volcanic eruption.
2. AnthropogeniC e.g. Man made such as industrial pollution.
Air pollution. Release of harmful materials into the air is called air or
atmospheric pollution. It is the degradation of air quality and atmosphere
condition. Air pollutants include gaseous materials, suspended particles
and radioactive substances.
Water pollution. Pollutants in surface run off (and storm water) vary
according to the nature of land over which it flows. The run off from
agricultural land is contaminated with pesticide residues and residues of
inorganic fertilizers. The run off from Urban areas mainly contains
biodegradable organic pollutants. Industrial sites may contribute to varied
types of pollutants like heavy metals, acids and various inorganic
compounds. All these pollutants in the run off heavily contaminate our
surface water and groundwater resources.
Soil pollution. Alteration in soil leading to reduced productivity is called
soil pollution. The soil pollutants include chemicals, fertilizers, organic
manure, pesticides, radioactive wastes and discarded, household
materials. Contamination of soil with human and animal excreta is a
serious health hazard. Air and water pollutants also reach the soil and
pollute it too.
Noise pollution. Unbearable sound is called noise. When sound takes the
form of noise then it is called as noise pollution. Sound above 60-70
decibels comes in the noise category. Noise pollution is the contribution
of metropolitan culture and industrial development. The main sources of
noise pollution are loudspeakers, pressure horns, supersonic jets etc.

Noise pollution causes mental tensions, physical tiredness, loss in learning

capacity or complete deafness. To help protect against sound pollution
formation of green belts in metropolitan cities and one of the sound proof
materials come in use.
Q. 2. (a) What are reasons for depletion of ozone layer?
(b) List the adverse effects of depletion of ozone layer. Suggest
measures to prevent it.
Ans. (a) Ozone Depletion. Ozone layer or shield is present in the
stratosphere. It protects the earth from short-wave ultra-violet rays
(below 300 nm) by changing the same into infra-red rays. A large hole
has appeared in ozone shield over Antarctica (first detected by Farman,
1982) and a smaller one over North Pole. Size of the holes varies with the
seasons.
Ozone hole. During the period 1956-1970 the spring time 03 layer
thickness above Anarctica varied from 280-325 Dobson unit. Thickness
was sharply reduced to 225 DU in 1979 and 136 DU in 1985. Antarctic air
is completely isolated from rest of world by natural circulation of wind
called as polar vertex. The decline in spring time, ozone layer thickness is
called ozone hole. It was first noted in 1985 over Antarctica. Thinning of
ozone shield has also been reported elsewhere (e.g., 8% between 30
50NP).
Depletion of ozone layer allows harmful ultra-violet radiations to reach
earth. It is the major cause of skin cancer, cataract, dimming of eye sight,
decrease in immune system and increased susceptibility to herpes.
Thinning of ozone shield is being caused by a number of pollutants like
chlorofluorocarbolls (14% of total depletion), nitrogen oxides (3.5%
depletion), sulphur dioxide, halon, carbon tetrachloride, methyl
chloroform, chlorine, etc. Many of these are being released by jets flying
in the stratosphere and rockets being fired into space. Others are
persistent in the troposphere and gradually pass into stratosphere.
(1) Ozone layer as protective layer. The ozone layer in the stratosphere is
very useful to human beings because it absorbs the major part of harmful
ultraviolet radiation coming from the sun. Therefore, it is called protective
layer. However, i.t has been observed that
the ozone layer is getting depleted. One of the reasons for depletion of
ozone layer is action of aerosols spray propellants. These are the
chemicals such as fluorocarbons and chloro_fluorocarbons. These
compounds react with ozone gas in the atmosphere thereby depleting it.
Scientists all over the world are worried at the destruction of ozone layer.
If the ozone layer in the atmosphere is significantly decreased, these
harmful radiations would reach the earth and would cause many damages
such as skincncergenetic disorders in man and other living forms. Efforts
are being made to find substitutes of these chemicals which do not react
with ozone.
effects of UV radiations on human.

1. In humans, the increased UV radiation increases the incidence in

cancer (including nelanoma).
2. Reduces the functioning of immune system.
3. Cornea absorbs UV-B radiations, and a high dose of UV-B causes
inflammation of cornea called snow blindness, cataract etc. Exposure may
permanently damage cornea and cause cataract.
Q. 3. What is air pollution ? Write the main sources, preventive
and control measures.
Ans. Air Pollution. Air pollution refers to the release into the atmosphere
of materials that are harmful to man, other animals, plants and buildings
or other objects.
Sources of Air Pollution
The major sources of air pollution are fossil fuels (coal and petroleum)
and industries.
Human Sources. Many activities done by man are the main source of air
pollution. These activities can be divided into following categories
1. Combustion activities.
2. Industrial activities.
3. Agricultural works.
4. Use of solvetits.
5. Activities concerned with atomic energy.
Preventive measures for air pollution
To prevent and control air pollution, two types of measures can be
adopted.
1. Instead of releasing poisonous gases containing various pollutants into
the atmosphere they could be destroyed or used by some other
measures.
2. Converting harmful pollutants to harmless products and then releasing
them into the atmosphere.
Control measures for minimising air pollution.
1. Simple combustible solid wastes should be burnt in incinerators.
2. Automobiles must be either made to eliminate the use of gasoline and
diesel oil or complete combustion is obtained in the engine so that
harmful products are omitted.
Catalytic converter. Automobiles need to be well maintained so that they
do not emit much pollutants. Catalytic converters, having expensive
metals namely platinum-palladium and rhodium as the catalysts, are
fitted into automobiles for reducing emission of gases. As the exhaust
passes through the catalytic converter, unburnt hydrocarbons are
converted into carbon dioxide and water and carbon monoxide and nitric
oxide are changed to carbon dioxide and nitrogen gas, respectively. Motor
vehicles equipped with catalytic converter should use unleaded petrol
because leaded petrol inactivates the catalyst.
It has been established that installation of catalytic convertors can slash
carbon monoxide emission from 90 grams to 3.4 grams per mile run. So if
half the vehicles on Delhi and Mumbai roads are made to install such

catalytic convertors, then total CO emission in India can be reduced by 70

per cent.
3. There should be cut in the use of agricultural sprays.
4. Excessive and undesirable burning of vegetation should be stopped.
5. Smoking should be stopped.
6. Use of electrostatic precipitators and filters in the factories to minimise
atmospheric pollution.
7. Use of tall chimneys can substantially reduce the concentration of
pollutant at ground level.
8. Weather forecasts can help in controlling air pollution as the
meteorological conditions affect the dispersion, dilution and mixing of
various emission and proper operation of factory schedule e.g. when
atmospheric stagnation or calm is predicted, a power plant should switch
over from coal to gas.
9. Separation of pollutants from harmless gases.
10. Dispersion of pollutants to innocuous products before releasing into
atmosphere.
11. Use of electrostatic precipitator and scrubber.
An electrostatic precipitator. It removes over 99% particulate matter
present in the exhaust from a thermal power plant. It has electrode wires
and a stage of collecting plates. The electrode wires are maintained at
several thousand volts, which produce a corona that releases electrons.
These electrons attach to dust particles and give them a net negative
charge within a very small fraction of a second. The collecting plates are
grounded and attract the charged dust particles. The velocity of air
between the plates must be low enough to allow the dust to fall.

Electrostatic precipitator
Scrubber. A scrubber can remove gases like sulphur dioxide. In a
scrubber, the exhaust is passed through a spray of water or lime. Water
dissolves gases and lime reacts with sulphur dioxide to form a precipitate
of calcium sulphate or suiphite.

Scrubber
Q.4. Make a flow chart of water pollutants.
Ans. Water pollutants

Flow chart of water pollutants

Q. 5. Discuss the harmful effects of water pollution.
Ans. Effects of Water Pollution
1. Effect on animals. Oxygen contents become less in polluted water. As a
result of this, fishes and other aquatic animals experience fatal effects
and the water begins to stink. When the suspended impurities settle down
at the bottom of rivers, ponds etc., then algae and other aquatic plants
are destroyed. Human beings feeding on poisoned animals developed a
crippling deformity called minimata disease.
2. Effect on plant life. If polluted water is used for irrigation, then the
plants or trees get polluted and become diseased. As a result of this, their

growth is inhibited. If animals or human beings eat their fruits etc., they
cause harmful effects on metabolism.
3. Effect on human or living beings. Drinking of polluted water cause a
number of infectious diseases like cholera, typhoid, dysentry, jaundice,
diarrhoea and skin diseases. Water polluted by metals may cause
congenital deformities, anaemia, loss of appetite, bluish lines round the
gums etc.
Waterborne diseases transmitted through drinking water and food

4. Effect on ecological balance. As polluted water affects plants, animals,

human beings, the ecological balance is also disturbed. This produces
adverse effect on the environment, e.g., excess of heat or cold, no rainfall
on time.
5. The inorganic acids cause damage to metals or concrete structures,
pumps etc.
by their corrosive activity. Moreover, they produce hydrogen sulphide gas
when they
come in contact with sludge and mud of the river.
6. Harmful Effects of Industrial Effluents
(a) Industrial effluents give colour and turbidity to the receiving waters.
(b) Acids and alkalies present in effluent render the water corrosive and
damage
the pipes.
(c) Heavy metals and other toxic substances may kill fish and other
aquatic life,
animals and vegetables. -

(d) The effluents undergo putrefaction to form evil odours and

objectionable tastes.
(e) The toxic substances may kill the friendly bacteria and the natural
purification
processes of the streams are thus inhibited.
(f) Heated effluents discharged into rivers may cause harmful rise in the
temperature of the stream and thus ecosystem of the water course may
possibly
be changed.
(g) Some of the trade substance may contain pathogenic bacteria.
Q. 6. Give a brief account of purification of water for public use.
Ans. Purification of Water for Public Use
The destruction of water-borne pathogens like bacteria, viruses and
amoebic cysts
by different methods is called disinfection. The process of disinfection
involves the killing of those living organisms which can spread or
transmit infection through or in
water. There are several methods for disinfection of drinking water. The
various
processes are as follows
1. Disinfection by light. Sunlight is a natural disinfectant. The ultraviolet
light is
a good source for this purpose. The common source of UV light is a
mercury lamp
made of quartz.
2. Disinfection by heat. The drinking water can be disinfected by heating
it to its
boiling point. High temperature kill bacteria.
3. Disinfection by alkalies and acids. The bacteria die in a very short time
in
highly acidic or alkaline waters.
4. Disinfection by surface active chemicals. In this process, detergents,
i.e., surface active substances are used.
5. Disinfection by gases. For routine disinfection and purification of
drinking
water, chlorine is generally used as it is both efficient and cheap. In India,
generally
chlorine gas or bleaching powder is used. Besides chlorine, other
substances which can
be used for disinfection are bromine and iodine.
Ozone is used for disinfecting drinking water in countries like USA, West
Germany, France and some African countries. It serves as a disinfectant,
removes turbidity and colour producing substances. As ozone is a toxic
substance, it is handled very carefully within certain limits.
6. Disinfection by metal ions. Silver ions are bactericidal (kill bacteria) and
disinfection occurs even if I part of silver is present in one hundred million

parts of water. Moreover, copper ions and zinc ions are also used, as they
kill a number of viruses and other micro-organisms.
Leaves of tulsi are also responsible of killing viruses and other microorganisms
both in water and milk.
7. Purification by coagulation. Several coagulants like alum, ferric
chloride, lime are used, whereby all colloidal particles present in drinking
water coagulate. they settle down and thus water can be decantated.
8. Potassium permanganate is a good disinfectant and an oxidising agent.
It is added to water of tube well etc. so that bacteria in water die. But
being costlier than chlorine, it cannot be used on a commercial scale.
Q. 7. What is noise pollution ? List the sources of noise pollution.
Ans. Noise pollution. The sound that we hear goes into our brain by way
of our ears. Normally, the sound which is pleasing to the ears may be
termed as music. The same music may be called noise, if quiet is desired.
So, we can define noise as an unwanted sound.
Noise is produced due to congestion in urban areas, vehicles, railways,
helicopters, jets, rockets, radio, T.V., call bells, alarm clocks, telephone
rings, pressure horns, machines or factories, coolers, loudspeakers, mixer
grinders, public broadcasting by religious institutions etc. The waves left
by supersonic jets give rise to sonic booms or sudden rattling of doors
and windows.
There are two main characteristics of sound, viz., (a) Pitch and frequency
of sound waves and (b) Loudness or intensity of sound waves.
The pitch of a sound depends on its frequency. A sound of higher
frequency has a higher pitch. The pitch of womans voice is higher than
that of a man. The human ear can detect sounds over a wide range of
intensities and frequencies. Normally, the human ear is sensitive to
sounds having frequencies varying from 17 to 20,000 Hz (1 Hz = 1 cycle
per second). Those sound waves which have frequency lower than 17 Hz
are termed infrasonic and waves which have frequency higher than
20,000 Hz are termed ultrasonic.
The unit of loudness or sound intensity is called decibel or dB with zero as
the limit of hearing. A tenfold increase in sound intensity increases
loudness by 10 dB, e.g., 100 or 102 by 20 dB, 1000 or i0 by 30 dB, 10000
or 10 by 40 dB, 10 by 70 dB, 1012 by 120 dB. An instrument called sound
level meter is used. Sound becomes polluting noise at about 80 dB. It
becomes uncomfortable above 100 dB.

Sources of noise pollution

Noise pollution originates from a number of sources like: agriculture,
industry,
defence, vehicular traffic, community functions, domestic chorus and
personal entertainments.
1. Domestic Gadgets. Mixers pressure cookers, washing m chines, desert
coolers, fans, exhaust fans, air conditioners, vacuum cleaners,
telephones, etc.
2. Personal Entertainment. Transistor, radio, record/ cassette player, T.V.

3. Community Functions. Festivals, marriages, politicai social and religious

functions, public announcements, crackers.
4. Defence Equipment. Tanks, artillery, practice firing, explosions, rocket
launching.
5. Industries. Textile mills, rolling mills, printing presses, engineering
establishments, shellers, expellers, stone crushers, saw mills.
6. Builders. Bull dozers, road rollers, dynamite blasting, oncrete mixers,
trollies, concrete breakers, scrapers, etc.
7. Agricultural Operations. Harvesters, threshers, tractors, pump sets,
lawn mowers, etc.
8. Transport Vehicle. Scooters, motor cycles, mopeds, cars, buses, trucks,
trains, helicopters, aeroplanes. Road transport is the major source of
noise pollution in towns and cities. Intra-city rail transport causes a lot of
noise along the railway lines. Airports produce the maximum noise during
landing and take off of aeroplanes.
9. Commercial Establishments. Music, T.V., telephones, exhaust fans, type
writers, coolers, air conditioners, etc.
Q. 8. Discuss the effects of noise pollution. Explain various
measures to control noise pollution..
Ans. Effects of Noise Pollution. Noise affects man adversely in several
ways, i.e., having ability to communicate, behaviour etc. Unlike smoke
pollution, noise pollution is not visible. Normally, the people remain
unaware of noise pollution, till it is too late to overcome it. The human ear
has a safety mechanism to protect itself from the damage, provided the
exposure to noise is not continuous or for a long period. Excessive noise
causes loss of hearing and disturbs mental peace.
1. Impairment of Hearing. The city noise is generally more than the
loudness. Therefore, city dwellers are prone to deafness with advancing
age. Impairment of hearing is slow at a noise of 80 dB. It is rapid at 90 100 dB. An exposure to 90 dB noise for eight hours causes a temporary
loss of hearing upto 35 dB. Workers engaged in noisy factories lose the
ability to hear soft sounds and whispers within 2-3 years.
2. Damage to Ear Drum and Ear Bones. A sudden loud noise can damage
ear drum and displace ear bones. This results in partial or complete
deafness.
3. Interference in Conversation and Hearing. Noise of a passing truck or
bus
interferes in class room teachingif the class room happens to by near the
road.
You cannot have intimate conversation in a social gathering due to noise.
4. Anxiety and Stress. Long exposure to noise above 90 dB brings about
stress
and anxiety in many persons. It may lead to fright (sudden and extreme
fear).

5. Hypertension. Sound pollution stimulates increased adrenaline

hormone secretion rulting in narrowing of blood vessels of the body
except brain.
This produues high blood pressure or hypertension, over working of heart
and abnormal heart rhythm.
6. Eye Sight. Noise pollution causes dilation of eye pupil, impairment of
night vision and colour perception. Unwanted light enters the eyes
producing glare.
The latter may lead to accident.
7. Insomnia. Constant high level noise (e.g., from a nearby function) or
noisy
interruption (e.g., flights from nearby airport) result in insomnia
(sleeplessness), lack of concentration and headache.
Control of Nois Pollution
1. Construction of sound-proof rooms for noisy machines in industries.
2. Radios and transistors should be kept at low volume.
3. Use of hornswith jarring sound should be banned.
4. Noise producing industries, aerodromes, railways stations, etc. should
be shifted away from the inhabited areas.
5. Proper laws should be enforced to check the misuse of loudspeakers
and public announcement systems.
6. Need to enforce silence zone around institutions like educational
institutes, residential areas, hospitals, etc.
7. Sound absorbing techniques like acoustical furnishing should be
extensively employed.
8. Noise should be deflected away from the receiver by using mechanical
devices.
9. Green muffler scheme involves the growing green plants along
roadsides to
reduce noise pollution.
Q. 9. Describe harmful effects of non-ionising radiation, and
ionising radiations.
Ans. Harmful effect of non-ionising radiation.
1. Eye Sight. Eyes are highly sensitive to ultra-violet radiations. Damage
is caused by reflections from coastal sand, snow and directly looking
towards sun during eclipse. UV radiations damage the cells of cornea.
Cornea has the power to repair the damage in the initial stages but
prolonged exposure leads to permanent blindness.
2. Sunburn. UV-radiations injure the cells of germinative layer of the skin
and cause rupturing of subcutaneous blood capillaries. It produces blisters
and reddening of skin.
3. Mutation and Cancers. Ultraviolet rays increase the incidence of cancers
and mutations in man. They effect every part and process of the living
beings by inactivating organic molecules (proteins, enzymes, RNAs, DNA)
that absorb the rays. Some n1olecules are more sensitive than the others.
A few revert back to their original form after initial alteration. The effect

of ultraviolet radiations is due to polymerisation and breakage of linkges.

Organisms have an inbuilt mechanism to correct or replace the changed
molecules by the activity of DNA. However, DNA is itself sensitive to
ultraviolet radiations. Its sensitivity is due to its bases, especially
pyrimidines which form dimers in the presence of UV radiations. The
reaction is reversible in low doses. DNA is also able to repair itself to
some extent in the presence of longer wavelengths of light. It is known as
photo-reactivation. A photo-reactivating enzyme is. thought to take part
in this process. Another repair process independent of light also occurs in
DNA.
Harmful effects of ionising radiations.
Harmful Effects. The effects were first noted in 1909 when it was found
that uranium miners suffer from skin burn and cancer due to radiations
from the radioactive minerals. Different organisms show different
sensitivity to ionising radiations. For example, tests have shown that pine
trees are killed at radiations in which oak trees continue to thrive
comfortably. It has also been reported that high altitude plants have
developed polyploidy (increase in the number of chromosome sets) as a
protective mechanism against radiations. Parts of coastal areas in South
India have a high degree of background radiation which was formerly
considered to be quite harmful to human beings.
lonising radiations have both immediate or short-range and delayed or
long- range effects.
(i) Short Range (Immediate) Effects. They appear within days or a few
weeks after exposure. The effects include loss of hair, nails, subcutaneous
bleeding, change in number and proportion of blood cells, changed
metabolism, etc.
(ii) Long Range (Delayed) Effects. They appear several months or even
years after the exposure. The effects are caused by development of
genetic changes,
mutations, shortening of life span, formation of tumours, cancers, etc.
The effect of mutations can persist in the human race. Most of the
mutations are harmful. Any increase in their number is, therefore, bound
to increase the harmful genetic changes in man. Previously, most of the
harmful mutations in man were eliminated through death in the infant or
foetus stage. Modern medicines and surgery have increased the survival
chances of harmful mutations. They will, therefore, persist and
accumulate in human race. Ultimately, the whole human race shall
degenerate genetically on account of
the cumulative effect of harmful mutations.
Q. 10. Write a note on Control of Thermal Pollution.
Ans. Control of Thermal Pollution. Though the effects of thermal pollution
are not so severe, control of thermal pollution is necessary since in future
the effects may worsen. The use of water from a water course for cooling
purposes, with subsequent return to the waterway after passage through
the condenser is termed as once-through cooling. To reduce the

magnitude of the pollution, the outlet water can be made to give up some
of its heat to the atmosphere and then may be discharged into the water
course. To make it effective, cooling towers are primarily used in many
power plants and artificial lakes or cooling ponds are situated in some of
the places.
1. Cooling towers. Cooling towers transfer some of the heat from cooling
water to the atmosphere, most probably through the evaporation of
water. Evaporative cooling towers are of the following two types
(a) Natural draft towers. In such towers, hot water is sprayed down
through a rising current of air. The water vapour gives its heat to the
counter-current air and gets cooled. The cooled water is collected at the
bottom and returned to the water body. However, the installation and
operation costs of such towers are high.
(b) Mechanical draft towers. In such towers, air flow is forced or induced
by fans. Hot water during its passage to water course gets cooled by the
action of air. However, these towers are not preferred, as they create
annoyable noise due to the operation of fans and operation cost is also
high.
Evaporative cooling towers cool the water by 10C or more, but they.
evaporate nearly 2 per cent or more of water during evaporation. One of
the demerits of such towers is that they may form fog under cold weather,
creating driving hazards over an extended area. Similarly, in nonevaporative cooling towers, heat is transferred directly to the air by
means of heat exchangers. It, however, involves high operational cost.
2. Artificial lakes or cooling ponds. These are the man-made bodies of
water which offer one possible alternative to one-through cooling. The
heated effluents can be discharged into the lake at one end and the water
for cooling purposes may be drawn at the other end since the heat would
eventually be dissipated through evaporation, the cooling pond would
have to be replenished continuously. Such cooling ponds are in use in
some locations, but they are not a very attractive alternative since they
require so much space. -A one megawatt plant, for example, would
require cooling pond with 1000-2000 acres of surface area. In many
areas, the cost of using land for this purpose would be too great to justify
the procedure.
Q. 11. Write a note on Disaster Management.
Ans. Disaster is any sudden event of calamity which causes great effect
on the human population, plants, animals and property. Disasters are of
two types
Natural
Man made
Natural Disasters
1. EarthquakeS. Sudden tremors of the earths surface ar produced due to
movement of tectonic plates under the earth. This displacement of earths
crust releases energy stored within the earths interior which produces
vibratory waves. The intensity of earthquake is measured by Richter,

Scale which ranges from 0 to 9. The point from which the earthquake
originates is called as epicentre.
Prevention, Control & Mitigation
(i) Constructing earthquake resistant building in the known earthquake
prone zones e.g. wooden houses are preferred in Japan.
(ii) Installation of earthquake study centres studying seismic ;activities
and analysis of seismic zones.
(iii) There must be insurance policies for earthquake victims o rehabilitate
them.
(iv) Creation of special task forces, fully trained and equipped, to manage
such calamities within shortest possible time.
2. Tsunami. The impact of earthquake is high at sea area of origin. In this,
most serious form of earthquake, giant seismic tidal waves of as high as
10 metre or more travel at the speed of 1,000 km/hour or faster, away
from the epicentre of, the earthquake. Tsunamis may also be caused due
to underwater volcanic eruptions or seafloor slumping.
Prevention, Control & Mitigation
(i) Planting more trees on the coastal areas.
(ii) Timely warning and speedy evacuation of people.
(iii) Conservation of mangroves in the coastal areas.
(iv) Construction of embankments in inhabitable areas.
(v) Immediate relief and rehabilitation to the affected people.
3. Drought. A drought is the drying up condition of the land due to
insufficient or absence of rainfall for a long period affecting the
vegetation1 animal and human life.
Control Measures
(i) Rain water harvesting and canal irrigation.
(ii) Improvement of agricultural practices like dryland forming to conserve
water in drought prone areas.
(iii) Stopping paddy cultivation in areas of water scarcity and growing
drought resistant variety of crops.
(iv) Promoting social forestry and wasteland reclamation, growing species
according to the ecological requirements of the area.
(v) Supplying food, fodder and water to drought-hit people and their
rehabilitation with all essential requirements of life.
4. Flood. A flood occurs due to continuous heavy rainfall in an area,
overflowing of rivers and submerging the surounding areas damaging life
and property.
Control
(i) Various preventive measures are proper embankment of water bodies,
building check dams on flood-prone streams, prohibiting cultivation in
flood plain of rivers and growing forests and perennial trees, interlinking
of river of the country and constructing houses on raised platforms and
supported by reinforced stilts.
(ii) Floods can be controlled by collecting data from meteorological
department and alerting the people of affecting area.

(iii) Educating the people about the steps to be taken in the event of
disaster.
(iv) Hill slopes and catchment areas of rivers must be afforested and
reforested.
5. Cyclones. A cyclone is powerful circular or oval swirling storm of high
velocity wind in the coastal regions of Indian ocean. It is called hurricane
in Atlantic
ocean, typhoon in Western Pacific and Willy-willy in sea around Australia.
Control
(i) Afforestation of coastal areas is the best measure.
(ii) Construction oldams, embankments, wind breakers etc.
(iii) Conservation of mangrooveS in coastal plains.
(iv) Better forecast, warning systems with the help of remote sensing
satellites.
(v) Construction of cyclone proof houses and building in coastal areas.
6. Landslides. Landslide is the sudden downslope movement of a mass of
rock or soil due to gravitational pull, generally in the rainy season.
Control
(i) Afforestation and reforestation in the landslide prone areas is the best
measure.
(ii) There should be no construction activity in slopy areas.
(iii) Proper drainage of surface and sub surface water.
(iv) Making concrete support at the base of slope along the road.
(v) Construction of curved stone blocks in the risky areas.