Steel Design

Steel Design
Slides Prepared and Created by StilHOT
COURSE: (CE 520-Steel Design)

GRADING SYSTEM:
1. Long Tests/Periodical Exams 60%
2. Quizzes(Unannounced)
20%
3. Plates/Assignment
20%
FINAL GRADE =
PG(30%)+MG(30%)+PF(30%)+FE(10%)
11. Bending and Axial Force

12. Bolted Connections
13. Eccentrically Loaded Bolted
Connections and Historical Notes on Rivets
14. Welded Connections
15. Composite Beams
16. Cover-Plated Beams and Built-up Girders
GENERAL OBJECTIVES:
COURSE OUTLINE:
1. To state the evolution of steel as a
1. Introduction to Structural Steel Design
structural material in order to gain interest
2. Specifications, Loads, and Methods of Design
in the design of steel.
3. Analysis of Tension Members
2. To discuss the many advantages of steel as
4. Design of Tension Members
a structural material in order to use steel in
5. Introduction to Axially Loaded Compression
future buildings especially in Davao City
Members
where soil foundation is weak.
6. Design of Axially Loaded Compression
3. To update students with the 2010 AISC
Members
(American Institute of Steel Construction)
7. Design of Axially Loaded Compression
specifications for structural steel buildings
Members (Continued) and Column Base
and the 14th edition of the AISC steel
Plates
construction manual (published in 2011) in
8. Introduction to Beams
order to conform with these specifications
9. Design of Beams for Moments
for future design activities involving steel
10. Design of Beams-Miscellaneous Topics
materials.
GENERAL OBJECTIVES (continued):

4. To gain understanding in the design
practices and concepts of steel in order to
prepare for actual steel construction.
5. To distinguish between LRFD (Load and
Resistance Factor Design) and ASD (Allowable
Strength Design) in order to determine which
of the design methods is more appropriate in
the actual situation.
CHAPTER 1: Introduction to Structural

Steel Design
1. Advantages of Steel as a Structural Material
2. Disadvantages of Steel as a Structural
Material
3. Early Uses of Iron and Steel
4. Steel Sections
5. Metric Units
6. Cold-Formed Light-Gage Steel Shapes
7. Stress-Strain Relationships in Structural Steel

8. Modern Structural Steels
9. Uses of High-Strength Steels
10. Measurement of Toughness
11. Jumbo Sections
7. To broaden knowledge and understanding
on the methods of construction involving steel 12. Lamellar Tearing
in order to be updated with the current trends 13. Furnishing of Structural Steel
and technology.
14. The work of the Structural Designer
15. Responsibilities of the Structural Designer
th
Textbook: Structural Steel Design: 5 ed. ,
16. Economic Design of Steel Members
Jack C. McCormac and Stephen F. Csernak:
17. Failure of Structures
Pearson Education Inc., 2012.
18. Handling and Shipping Structural Steel
6. To use the SI/Metric system of units in the
discussion in order to be oriented with the
type of problems given in the civil engineer
licensure examinations in the Philippines.
19. Calculation Accuracy

20. Computers and Structural Steel Design
7. To discuss efforts in improving strength of

steel and the other shapes prepared in order
to be oriented with the versatility of steel.
8. To state the work and responsibilities of a
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES :
structural designer in order to be oriented with
1. To state the advantages and disadvantages
of steel as a structural material in order to gain the duties and concerns of this profession.
ideas necessary for professional practice.
9. To discuss ways on how to design
economically steels and the means of handling
2. To review history in the use of steel in order
and shipping them in order to evaluate the
to appreciate its evolution in the construction
corresponding costs.
industry.
1.1 Advantages of Steel as a Structural
3. To familiar with the standard designations of
Material:
steel section in both SI and English units in
High Strength high strength per unit
order to broaden awareness on steel.
weight
4. To discuss the stress-strain relationship for
Uniformity does not change with time
steel in order to develop further understanding
on its behavior.
Elasticity behaves closer to design
assumptions even at high stresses.
5. To discuss modern steel and its uses in order
Permanence long lasting if properly
to prepare for the actual practice.
maintained ( painted).
6. To define toughness of steel in order to
Ductility can withstand extensive
compare two or more different types of steel.
deformation without failure; before
failure, it gives occupants ample time to
vacate.
Toughness steel has both strength and

ductility; can be given initial stress during
construction without failure.
Additions to Existing Structures- can be
used for extensions and widening.
Miscellaneous 1. ability to be fastened
together ; 2. adaptation to prefabrication;
3. speed of erection; 4. ability to be rolled
into any shapes and sizes; 5. reusable; 6.
scrap value is high.
1.2 Disadvantages of Steel as a Structural
Material:
Corrosion needs maintenance through
painting; however, weathering steels
reduce or eliminate painting cost.
Fireproofing costs steel, being a good
conductor of heat needs insulation; must
include sprinkling system required by local
codes.
Susceptibility to Buckling increases as
length and slenderness is increased.
Fatigue cyclic stress reversals or large

number of tensile stress variations
exposure of steel.
Brittle fracture steel loses ductility under
certain conditions; aggravated by stress
concentrations and low temperature and
triaxial stress.
1.3 Early Uses of Iron and Steel
Early metal used by humans was some type
of copper alloy (bronze , made with copper,
tin and other additives).
The most important metal used by man is
iron and its famous alloy called steel.
It was not known when iron was first used
though iron dagger and iron bracelet were
found in the Pyramids of Egypt 5000 years
ago.
History reveals that great civilization and
victories in wars were dependent on the
product made with iron.
The first production of iron was indefinite
though early humans use it as farm tools.
Steel is defined as a combination of iron

and a small amount of carbon, usually less
than 1 percent.
Though steel has been made at least 20003000 years ago, economical production
method was never realized until the middle
of the 19th century.
Steel was produced by hammering heated
iron in charcoal(with carbon) with
accidental other very small elements are
already mixed with iron famous swords of
Toledo and Damascus were produced.
The first large volume process for producing
steel was named after Sir Henry Bessemer
of England and received patent in 1855.
Henry Bessemer failed to received patent in
the US because William Kelly of Kentucky
had made steel by the same process.
Kelly and Bessemer learned that a blast of
air through molten iron burned most of the
impurities of the metal; including desirable
elements such as carbon and manganese;
but restored by adding spiegeleisen, an
alloy of iron, carbon, and manganese.
They also further learned that the addition

of limestone in the converter remove
phosphorus and most of the sulfur.
The Bessemer processed dropped the cost
of production of steel for making tools and
kitchen items by at least 80%.
The Bessemer converter was commonly

used in the US until the beginning of the
20th century; Replaced by better methods
such as the open-hearth process and the
basic oxygen process.
Bessemer converter was used to produced
steel in large quantities in 1870 and by
1890, steel had become the principal
structural metal used in the US.
In the US, most of structural steel shapes
and plates produced today are made by
melting scrap steel ( junk cars, refrigerators,
typewriters, scrapped structural shapes,
etc.)
The molten steel is poured into molds, and After 1840, more bridges were constructed
the resulting sections are run into rollers to
replacing cast iron by more malleable
squeezed them into their finals shapes ;
wrought iron.
have better surfaces and fewer residual
1.4 Steel Sections
stresses than newly made steel.
Shapes produced may further processed by The first structural shapes made in the US
were angle irons in 1819.
cold rolling, by applying various coatings,
I- shaped steel sections were first rolled in
and by process called annealing.
the US in 1884.
Annealing is a process of heating steel to
intermediate temperature range (1300 The famous 985-ft tall wrought-iron Eiffel
o
1440 F) for hours and then allowed to
tower constructed in 1889 was the use of
slowly cool down, resulting to steel with
mechanically operated passenger elevators.
less hardness and brittleness, but greater
The famous 985-ft tall wrought-iron Eiffel
ductility.
tower constructed in 1889 was the use of
Wrought-iron has a very low carbon content
mechanically operated passenger elevators.
(0.15%) while cast iron has high carbon
Steel sections are standardized though
content (2%).
there is little differences in geometric
Steel falls in between cast iron and wrought
properties from mill to mill.
iron with carbon content between 0.15% to
Structural steel can be economically rolled
1.7%.
into a wide variety of shapes and sizes
The turning point in engineering history was
without appreciably changing its physical
the construction of the 100-ft (in 1779)
properties; most desirable shapes are I, T,
Coalbrookdale Arch Bridge in England which
and C shapes.
still stands today.
Steel sections are usually designated by the

shapes of their cross sections.
Also known as W beams.
Also known as S beams.
Identification System:
A W 18 x 50 is a W section
approximately 18 in. deep,
weighing 50 lb/ft. This is
designated as W450 x 222 in
Metric system.
An S18 x 70 is an S section
approximately 18 in. deep,
weighing 70 lb/ft. This is
designated as S450 x 311 in
MKS.
A C9 x 20 is a channel section
9 in. deep, weighing 30 lb/ft =
C225 x 133 in MKS.
An L6 x 6 x is an equal leg angle, each leg 1.5 Metric units

being 6 in. long and in. thick = L 150 x 150 In our course, we will most of the time use
x 19 in MKS.
the metric units in preparation for your
licensure exams.
An HSS 14 x 10 x 5/8 is a rectangular hollow
structural section 14 in deep, 10 in. wide,
with a 5/8-in. wall thickness. It weighs 93.1
lb/ft. Square and round HSS sections are
also available.
A WT 18 x 105 is a tee obtained by splitting

W 36 x 210. This is designated as W 450 x
467 in MKS.
Rectangular steel sections (PL) are classified
as wide plates if width > 8 in., and narrow
bars if width is less than and equal to 8 in.
Other section designations are found in the

AISC manual such as the M (miscellaneous
sections, HP sections ( H shaped used as
bearing piles) and MC (miscellaneous
channel sections).
bf
tf
k1
T
k1
d
tw
k
tf
W: d x kg/m or lb/ft
W 8 x 25 ( English)
W 200 x 98 (Metric)
These are commonly used for light

members in roofs, floors, and walls-vary in
thickness from 0.25 mm to 6.35 mm.
Concrete floor slabs are very often cast on
formed steel decks that serve as economical
forms for the wet concrete and are left in
place after the concrete hardens.
1.6 Cold-formed Light-Gage Steel Shapes

Formed by bending thin sheets of carbon of
low-alloy steels into almost any desired
cross sections as shown below.
1.7 Stress-Strain Relationships in Structural

Steel
The requirement to understand the
behavior of steel structures is to familiar
fully the properties of steel.
The highest stress in the linear portion of
the diagram is called the proportional limit.
This is about 50% of the highest stress
ordinate in the diagram.
The curve increases the strains without
appreciable increase in the stress in the
plastic range where the stress is about 75%
of the ultimate stress ( highest stress). This
is called the yield stress where steel start to Typical Stress-Strain Diagram for a Mild or
behave as a plastic material. The yield stress Low Carbon Steel.
may be the most important property of
This ductile characteristic of steel provides
steel to the designer.
some sort of reserve strength that steel
The largest stress beyond which the
structures do not fail abruptly even if
material can no longer go back to its initial
overloaded.
shape and size is called the elastic limit.
However, this value is seldom measured
After the plastic strain, there is a range in
and oftentimes the proportional elastic
which additional stress is necessary to
limit is used.
produce additional strain strain
hardening.
The curve will continue up to its maximum

value and then curve down before failure. A
sharp reduction in the cross sectional area
of the member (called necking) takes place
just before the member fractures.
Necking
P
The stress-strain curved is assumed to be
the same for members in tension or
compression.
The shape of the diagram varies with the
speed of loading, the type of steel, and the
temperature. The upper yield point is for
load applied rapidly while the lower yield
point is for the case of slow loading.
The yield strength of steel is greatly affected
by temperature.
The structure is said to be stressed below
its yield point when its dimensions are
unchanged when the loads are removed.
A typical stress-strain diagram for a brittle Structural steels are generally grouped into
steel is shown below.
several major ASTM classifications:
Increasing the carbon content increases
1. The carbons steels A36, A53, A500, A501,
strength (brittle steel) but reduces ductility
and A529.
and affects weldability.
2. The high strength low-alloy steels A572,
A618, A913, and A992.
3. The corrosion-resistant high-strength lowalloy steels A242, A588, and A847.
Carbon Steels
These steels have as their principal
strengthening agents carefully controlled
quantities of carbon and manganese.
1.8 Modern Structural Steels
The properties of steel can be greatly
changed by varying the quantities of carbon
present and by adding other elements such
as silicon, nickel, manganese, and copper
alloy steel.
The chemistry of steel is extremely
important in its effect on such properties of
the steel as weldability, corrosion
resistance, resistance to brittle failure and
so on.
Carbon steels have their contents limited to

the following maximum percentages: 1.7%
carbon, 1.65% manganese, 0.60% silicon, and
0.60% copper.
Categories depending on carbon percentages:
1. Low-carbon steel: < 0.15%.
2. Mild steel: 0.15%-0.29% (The structural
carbon steels falls into this category)
3. Medium-carbon steel: 0.30% - 0.59%.
4. High-carbon steel: 0.60% - 1.7%.
1.9 High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels

There are indeed other groups of highstrength steels, such as the ultra-highstrength steels that have yield strengths
from 1100 MPa( 200 ksi) to 2070 MPa(300
ksi)- not included in the Steel Manual
because for there are no assigned ASTM
numbers.
More than 200 steels in excess of 248 MPa
(36 ksi) exist on the market.
The steel industry is experimenting to
produce steels with yield strength of 3450
MPa (500 ksi) because the binding force
between iron atoms is 27,580 MPa(4000
ksi)
Although the prices of steels increase with
increasing yield stresses, the percentage of
price increase does not keep up with the
percentage of yield-stress increase. The
result is that the use of stronger steels will
quite frequently be economical for tension
members, beams, and columns.
Possible savings could be realized for:

1. tension members without holes.
2. beams where deflections can be
controlled.
3. short-and-medium length columns.
4. hybrid-construction.
Factors that might lead to the use of highstrength steels:
1. Superior corrosion resistance.
2. Possible savings in shipping, erection,
and foundation costs caused by weight
saving.
3. Use of shallower beams, permitting
smaller floor depths.
4. Possible savings in fireproofing because
smaller members can be used.
To choose which strength grade is most
economical requires consideration of:
1. weights
4. maintenance.
2. sizes
5. fabrication
3.deflections
1.10 Measurement of Toughness

The fracture toughness of steel is used as a
general measure of its impact resistance, or
its ability to absorb sudden increases in
stress at a notch ductility is high if
toughness is also high.
The Charpy V-notch test is the most
common though its is not accurate.
It helps identify brittle steels.
The amount of energy needed to fracture
the specimen is determined from the height
to which the pendulum rises after the blow.
Different structural steels have different

specifications for required absorbed energy
levels, depending on the temperature,
stress, and loading conditions under which
they are to be used.
1.11 Jumbo Sections

These are W-sections with flange thickness
exceeding 50.8 mm (2 inches)-identified in
steel manual with footnotes.
The problem arising with jumbo sections is
that they become more brittle than
expected.
They were primarily used as compression
members and perform satisfactorily for that
purpose.
Included among the requirements are:

1. The steel used must have certain absorbed
energy levels as determined by the Charpy Vnotch test (20 ft-lb at a maximum temperature
of 70o F). The tests must be made on specimen
taken from the core areas shown, where brittle
fracture has proved to be a problem.
2. Temperature must be controlled during
welding, and the work must follow a certain
sequence.
3. Special splice details are required.
1.12 Lamellar Tearing
When specimen are tested in such a way that

the section considered is transverse to the
rolling direction (through the thickness), the
result would have yielded lower ductility and
toughness.
Jumbo sections spliced with welds can be
This situation is of little significance for most
satisfactorily used for axial tension or
flexural situations if the procedures listed in cases.
Specification A3.1c of the AISC Specification However, it can be of quite importance when
thick plates and heavy structural shapes are
are carefully followed.
used in highly restrained welded joints.
If a joint is highly restrained, the shrinkage

of the welds in the through-the-thickness
direction cannot be adequately be
redistributed, and the result can be a
tearing of the steel called lamellar tearing.
The situation is aggravated by the
applications of external tension. Lamellar
tearing may show up as fatigue cracking
after a number of cycles of load application.
This phenomenon can be eliminated or
greatly minimized with appropriate weld
details and weld procedures- also the steel
manual provides welded joint arrangements
to get rid of this problem.
1.13 Furnishing of Structural Steel

This refers to the rolling of the steel shapes,
the fabrication of the shapes for the
particular job(including cutting to the
proper dimensions and punching the holes
necessary for field connections), and their
erection.
Of the 400-500 companies in the US, most

of them do the fabrication and erectionvery rare that the companies do the three
main works.
Steel fabricators normally carry very little
steel in stock and they just order steel from
rolling mill when they get a job or from
service centers that stock large quantities of
structural steel.
Structural steel is usually designed by an
engineer in collaboration with an
architectural firm.
The designer makes design drawings that show
member sizes, controlling dimensions, and any
unusual connections.
The company that is to fabricate the steel
makes the detailed drawings subject to the
engineers approval; drawings provide all
information necessary to fabricate the
members correctly ( dimensions, the location
of holes, the positions and sizes of
connections, and the like)
Bolts to be
installed in the
Bolts installed in the shop field
The erection of steel buildings is more a

1.14 The Work of the Structural Designer
matter of assembly than nearly any other
The structural designer arranges and
part of construction work.
proportions structures and their parts so
Erection plans- line diagrams
that they will satisfactorily support the
Members and assembly-properly marked in
loads to which they may feasibly be
the shop as guides for ironworkers
subjected.
Beams, girders, and columns will be
indicated on the drawings by the letters B, Involved with the:
G, or C, respectively, followed by the
1. general layout of the structure.
number of the particular member as B7,
2. Studies of the possible structural forms
G15, and so on. For multistory frames, the
that can be used.
member may designated as C10(6-10) and 3. Consideration of loading conditions
B8F12.
4. Analysis of stresses, deflections, and so on
On building erection, a group of
5. Design of parts
ironworkers (called raising gang), erect the 6. Preparation of design drawings
steel members installing only a sufficient
number of bolts and guy cables bolting is Design is the proportioning of the various parts
finished by another group called the detail of a structure after the forces have been
gang , including welding and plumbing;
calculated.
followed by crews to install metal decking
and in turn crews for concrete reinforcing
and the concrete for slabs.
1.15 Responsibilities of the Structural

Designer
The structural designer must learn to
arrange and proportion the parts of
structures so that they can be practically
erected and will have sufficient strength
and reasonable economy.
Responsibilities include:
1. Safety loads, not so great
vibrations/deflections.
2. Cost find ways to lower the cost
without sacrificing the strength.
3. Constructability- must not interfere
mechanical, architectural works,
including transportation and labor group
available to perform the job.
1.16 Economical Designs of Steel Members

It is not always the case that the lightest
sections give economical designs.
The material costs represent only 25% of
the total costs.
The labor costs involved in the fabrication

and erection of structural steel run as close
to 60% of the total costs.
Factors to be considered in providing
economical steel structures:
1. To have open communications between
designers, fabricators, erectors, and others
involved in a particular project.
2. The designer needs to select steel sections
of sizes that are usually rolled.
3. A blind assumption that the lightest section
is the cheapest one may be in considerable
Can I do it if I were to the do the job? this error.
4. The beams usually selected for the floors in
must be the question that the structural
buildings will normally be deeper sections,
designer must ask himself/herself.
because for the same weights have the largest
moments of inertia and greatest resisting
moments.
5. The costs of erection and fabrication for

structural steel beams are approximately the
same for light and heavy members.
1.17 Failure of Structures
6. Structural steel members should be painted

only if so required by the applicable
specification.
Benjamin Franklin once said a wise man

learns from failures than from success.
A study of past failures is more important than

a study of past successes.
The collapse of structures is usually due to

insufficient attention to the details of
connections, deflections, erection
problems, and foundation settlement.
7. It is very desirable to keep repeating the

same section over and over again.
8. For larger sections, particularly the built-up
ones, the designer needs to have information Some structural failures occur because
pertaining to transportation problems.
inadequate attention is given to deflections,
9. Sections should be selected that are
fatigue of members, bracing against
reasonably easy to erect and which have no
swaying, vibrations, and the possibility of
other conditions that will make them difficult
buckling of compression members or the
to maintain.
compression flanges of beams.
10. Buildings are often filled with an amazing
conglomeration of pipes, ducts, conduits, and
other items.
11. The members of a steel structure are often
exposed to the public, particularly in the case
of steel bridges and auditoriums.
Economy is realized when fabrication is
minimized.
1.18 Handling and Shipping of Structural

Steel
The following general rules apply to the sizes
and weights of structural steel pieces that can
be fabricated in the shop, shipped to the job,
and erected:
1. The maximum weights and lengths that can
be handled in the shop and at a construction
site are roughly 90 tons and 120 ft,
respectively.
2. Pieces as large as 8 ft high, 8 ft wide, and 60
ft long can be shipped on trucks with no
difficulty ( provided the axle or gross weights
do not exceed the permissible values given by
public agencies along the designated routes).
3. There are few problems in railroad shipment
if pieces are no larger than 10 ft high, 8 ft
wide, and 60 ft long, and weigh no more than
20 tons.
4. Routes should be carefully studied, and
carriers consulted for weights and sizes
exceeding the values in (2) and (3).
1.19 Calculation Accuracy

Because structural design is not an exact
science, it is imperative that final answers must
be rounded-off to 4-significant figures like
0.5636, 1.672, 12.56, 128.6, 7628.
1.20 Computers and Structural Steel Design

The availability of computers has drastically
changed the way steel structures are
analyzed and designed.
Although computers do increase design
productivity, they also tend to reduce the
engineers feel for the structure.
CHAPTER 2: Specifications, Loads, and

Methods of Design
2.1. Specifications and Building Codes
2.2. Loads
2.3. Dead Loads
2.4. Live Loads
2.5. Environmental Loads
2.6. Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
and Allowable Strength Design (ASD)
2.7. Nominal Strengths
2.8. Shading
2.9. Computation of Loads for LRFD and ASD
2.10. Computing Combined Loads with LRFD
Expressions
2.11. Computing Loads with ASD Expressions
2.12. Two Methods of Obtaining an
Acceptable Level of Safety
2.13. Discussion of Sizes of Load Factors and
Safety Factors
2.14. Authors Comment
1. To be familiar with the codes and
specifications found in the NSCP 2001/2010
and with the AISC and AASHTO in order to
serve as guides and controlling factors for the
design practices in the future.
2. To discuss the different types of loads that a
structure may carry in order to determine the
design loads computed from load
combinations.
3. To distinguish between the Load and
Resistance Factor Design(LRFD) and the
Allowable Strength Design(ASD) in order to
apply the appropriate design method in
analyzing a particular problem.
4. To define the term nominal strength in order
to compute the design strength.
5. To calculate loads using the LRFD and ASD
expressions in order to find differences.
6. To discuss load factors and safety factors
from the two approaches of design in order to
determine which one has better economy in
terms of results.
2.1 Specifications and Building Codes

Specifications and Building Codes were
already there in any country or state in order
to protect the public in terms of safety.
These specifications and codes were made by
a group of professionals and individuals that
serve as guides to practicing designers and
therefore serve as the best available opinions
and materials for the designers.
In the Philippines, we have the National
Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP) that
is revised every 9 years and is kept updated.
In fact, nowadays, because of the so many
devastating events that happened to our
country, government projects have greater
demands in terms of specifications for safety
measures.
The ultimate responsibility for the design of a
safe structure lies with the structural
engineer.
2.2 Loads
The most difficult task faced by the structural
engineer is the accurate estimation of the
loads that may be applied to a structure
during its life.
The next problem is the determination of the
worst possible combinations of the loads.
2.3 Dead Loads
Dead Loads are those permanently attached
to the structure and therefore of constant
magnitude.
Specific weights of common building
materials are given on the next slide.
2.4 Live Loads
Loads that change both in position and
magnitude.
These are: 1. floor loads ; 2. traffic loads for
bridges; 3. Impact loads; 4. Longitudinal
Loads; 5. Other live loads caused by soil
and water pressure; centrifugal forces;
thermal; blast loads.
23.60 kN/m3
77.00 kN/m3
22.80 kN/m3
0.2 kPa
0.24 kPa
0.10 kPa
0.30 kPa
0.20 kPa
0.34 kPa
0.39 kPa
1.9 kPa
1.92 kPa
4.79 kPa
4.79 kPa
1.92 kPa
4.79 kPa
4.79 kPa
2.4 kPa
1.92 kPa
4.79 kPa
3.83 kPa
6 kPa
12 kPa
4.79 kPa
3.6 kPa
4.45 kN
8.90 kN
13.35 kN
8.90 kN
4.45 kN
4.45 kN
4.45 kN
4.45 kN
The impact factor specified by the
AASHTO specification is:
15
=
0.30 (. . )
+ 38.1
L is the length in meters of the
portion of the span loaded to cause
the maximum stress in the member
under consideration.
2.5 Environmental Loads

Environmental loads are caused by the
environment in which a particular structure is
located.
For buildings, environmental loads are
caused by rain, snow, wind, temperature
change, and earthquakes.
Snow loads: 10 40 psf. But snow loads of
200 psf was reported in western states.
Bridges and towers are generally not

designed for snow loads surface areas
increase so wind loads will increase.
Rain Loads become more important
especially for flat roofs when ponding
occurs.
Wind load magnitudes vary with:
1. geographical locations, 2. heights above
ground, 3. types of terrain surrounding
the buildings, 4. the proximity and nature
of other nearby structures, and 5. other
factors.
Wind loads come from the wind pressure

upon a vertical surface in the windward side,
and are converted usually into constant wind
pressure coefficients.
Wind effects to short and tall buildings:
Reduction of atmospheric pressure during
the passing of a tornado or hurricane causes
explosion of air-tight buildings .
Consideration of an importance factor.
Earthquake loads are commonly
approximated as horizontal static loads
acting at each level of the structure.
The various formulas used to change the
earthquake accelerations into static forces
are dependent on :
1. The distribution of the mass of the structure.
2. The type of framing.
3. Its stiffness.
4. Its location, and son on.
- Suitable for low-rise but requires overall
dynamic analysis for high-rise and irregular
buildings.
The forces due to horizontal acceleration

increase with the distance of the floor above
the ground because of the whipping effect
of the earthquake.
Two categories of limit state: 1. strength ;

2. serviceability
Another factor to be considered in seismic

design is the soil condition.
Another factor is the drift which is defined
as the movement or displacement of one
story of a building with respect to the
floor above or below.
STRENGTH limit states define load-carrying

capacity, including excessive yielding,
fracture, buckling, fatigue, and gross rigid
body motion.
2.6 Load and Resistance Factor

Design(LRFD) and Allowable Strength
Design (ASD)
The methods in ensuring that the resistance

load is greater than the actual load that the
structure carries is based on probability
concepts.
The margin established between resistance
and load in real cases is intended to reduce
the probability of failure, depending on the
consequences of failure or unserviceability.
To achieve the goal of making sure that the
goal of reducing the probability of failure,
two approaches LRFD and ASD have been
established.
These are the two acceptable methods for

designing structural steel and their
connections.
Both methods are based on limit states
design principles, which provide the
boundaries of structural usefulness.
Limit state is used to describe a condition
at which a structure or part of a structure
ceases to perform its intended function.
All these limit states must be prevented.
SERVICEABILITY limit states define

performance, including deflection, cracking,
slipping, vibration, and deterioration.
There are two major differences between

LRFD and ASD:
1. The first pertains to the method used for
calculating the design loads.
In LRFD, the resistance factor, which is less than

1.0 is multiplied by the nominal strength while
in ASD, the nominal strength is divided by a
safety factor, that is greater than 1.0.
2. The 2nd pertains to the use of resistance

factors ( in LRFD) and safety factors ( in
ASD).
With both the LRFD and the ASD procedure,
the service or working loads (dead, live, wind ,
rain, etc.) are estimated in exactly the same
manner.
Various combinations of these loads, which
may feasibly occur at the same time, are
grouped together and the largest values so
obtained are used for analysis and design of
structures.
The above-mentioned approaches are done to

account for 1. variations in material strength,
2. member dimensions, and 3. workmanship as
well as the manner and consequences of
failure.
2.8 Shading
2.7 Nominal Strengths

The calculated theoretical strength, with no
safety factors (s) or resistance factors (s)
applied.
In the AISC manual, the ASD method is shaded

just to distinguish the solutions from those of
LRFD.
2.9 Computation of Loads for LRFD and ASD
LRFD Load Combinations
Factored load (largest, Ru) = possible service
load groups multiplied by individual load
factors, usually greater than 1.
(Rn) Ru
Rn = nominal strength of a member
ASD Load Combinations

Unfactored load (largest, Ra) = sum of possible
service load groups

,
2.10 Computing Combined Loads with LRFD
Expressions
1. U = 1.4D
2. U = 1.2D + 1.6L +0.5(Lr or S or R)
3. U = 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (L* or 0.5W)
4. U = 1.2D + 1.0W + L* + 0.5(Lr, or S, or R)
5. U = 1.2D + 1.0E + L* + 0.2S
6. U = 0.90D + 1.0W
7. U = 0.90D + 1.0E
*
The load factor on L in combinations (3.), (4.),

and (5.) is to be taken as 1.0 for floors in places
of public assembly, for live loads in excess of
100 psf (4.79 kPa) and for parking garage live
loads. For other live loads, it is 0.50.
Whenever the load factor for 1.0 especially for

wind(W) and earthquake(E) loads in
combinations (4.) to (7.), they are already the
converted factored loads by building codes.
Note that the sign for the load factors
involving E or W in load combinations (6.) and
(7.) is to account for any uplift.
If that is not the case for W or E, the designer
is free to use higher load factors because the
assigned load factors above are minimum
values.
Problem EXAMPLE 1:
Determine the maximum combined loads
using the recommended AISC expressions for
LRFD.
D=5 kPa, L = 4 kPa, R=0.6 kPa, Lr=1.0 kPa and
S=1.5 kPa.
Problem EXAMPLE 2:
LRFD.
D=40 kN, L=22 kN, Lr= 11 kN, E=29 kN.
Problem EXAMPLE 3:
Structural steel beams are to be placed at
2.40 m on center under a reinforced concrete
floor slab. If they are to support a service
dead load D=3kPa of floor area and a service
live load of 4.79 kPa of floor area, determine
the factored uniform load per meter which
each beam must support.
Problem EXAMPLE 4:
LRFD. Express answers in KPa.
D= 1.2 kPa, Lr= 760 Pa and W = 2 kPa.
2.11 Computing Combined Loads with ASD

Expressions
The load combinations shown are for ASD
analysis and design and therefore not
interchangeable with LRFD values.
1. D
2. D+L
3. D+(Lr or S or R)
4. D+0.75L+0.75(Lr or S or R)
5. D + (0.6W or 0.7E)
6. (a) D + 0.75L+ 0.75(0.6W) +0.75(Lr or S or R)
(b) D + 0.75L+ 0.75(0.7E) +0.75S
7. 0.6D + 0.6W
8. 0.6D + 0.7E
Load combinations 7 and 8 do not consider
full dead load because W and E are lateral
components which can cause overturning
and prevented only by gravity load which is
the D.
The above load combinations prepared by

AISC are possible maximum loads to be
considered for a particular structure.
Designers are free to revise the load factors if
they feel that the load combination of the
area is greater than the load combinations
presented from 1-8. Example, 0.75 can be
increased to 1.
Problem EXAMPLE 5:
ASD.
D=5 kPa, L = 4 kPa, R=0.6 kPa, Lr=1.0 kPa and
S=1.5 kPa.
Problem EXAMPLE 6:
ASD.
D=40 kN, L=22 kN, Lr= 11 kN, E=29 kN.
Problem EXAMPLE 7:
Structural steel beams are to be placed at
2.40 m on center under a reinforced concrete
floor slab. If they are to support a service
dead load D=3kPa of floor area and a service
live load of 4.79 kPa of floor area, determine
the factored uniform load per meter which
each beam must support.
Problem EXAMPLE 8:
LRFD. Express answers in KPa.
D= 1.2 kPa, Lr= 760 Pa and W = 2 kPa.
2.12 Two methods of Obtaining Acceptable

Level of Safety
The margin established between resistance
and load in real cases is intended to reduce
the probability of failure or unserviceability
to an acceptably small value, depending on
the consequences of failure or
unserviceability.
Question: How to achieve the abovementioned margin if there is usually
insufficient information for a complete
mathematical description of either load or
resistance.
Answer: Two approaches are available: LRFD
and ASD.
LRFD: A resistance factor, , usually less than
1.0, is multiplied to the nominal strength for
a given limit state and then compared to the
applicable factored load condition.
ASD: A safety factor, , usually greater than
1.0, is divided to the nominal strength for a
given limit state and then compared with the
applicable service load condition.
The relationship between the safety factor

and the resistance factor is one that we
should remember. In general,
.
=
2.13 Discussion of Sizes of Load Factors and

Safety Factors
Load factors in LRFD and safety factors in ASD
must be reasonable and probable.
Some of the uncertainties affecting load

factors and safety factors are:
If = 0.9, = 1.667 and if =0.75, =2.00.
1. Material strengths may initially vary
appreciably from their assumed values, and
The AISC manual does not have a standard
they will vary more with time due to creep,
symbol for the linear combination of loads.
corrosion, and fatigue.
But, we use the symbol, .
2. The methods of analysis are often subject
to considerable errors.
Qi = one of N service loads in a group
i = load factor associated with loads in LRFD 3. The so-called vagaries of nature, or acts of
God( hurricanes, earthquakes, etc.) cause
Rn = nominal structural strength
conditions difficult to predict.
4. The stresses produced during fabrication
LRFD:
and erection are often severe.

5. There are technological changes that affect
=
the magnitude of live loads.
6. The estimate of live loads is more
inaccurate as compared to the estimate of D.

ASD:
7. Uncertainties due to presence of residual

=
stresses and stress concentrations, and
variation in cross sections, and so on.
5. To define effective net areas in order to

apply the corresponding reduction coefficients
3.1. Introduction
appropriate for a given connection.
3.2. Nominal Strengths of Tension Members
6. To apply the necessary reduction factor
3.3. Net Areas
and the safety factor for a specific tension
3.4. Effect of Staggered Holes
member in order to compute the capacity of
3.5. Effective Net Areas
the connection.
3.6. Connecting Elements for Tension Members
7. To illustrate block shear in order to
3.7. Block Shear
associate the concept in the analysis of finding
tensile capacity of a connection.
CHAPTER 3: Analysis of Tension Members
1. To introduce the simplest procedure for

determining required areas for tension
members in order to feel the structural design
experience.
2. To determine the tensile load of a member
in order to select the optimum section from
the AISC manual whose tensile capacity is
slightly higher than the tensile load.
3. To calculate net areas of sections of tensile
members in order to compute the
corresponding effective area.
4. To compute the effective areas for a section
with a chain of staggered holes in order to
evaluate the corresponding tensile capacity.
3.1. Introduction
The simplest starting point to design is the
design of tension members because buckling is
not a problem.
The popular tension member used before was
round bars aside from being used as a cable for
suspending roofs and/or bridges.
The connection handling problems made
round bars not popular as a tension member
nowadays.
The figure shown below is a list of tension

members that are frequently used nowadays
which answer the connection and handling
problems mentioned earlier.
Dashed lines are laces in order to hold the

assembly and do not contribute to the
effective area of tension members except for
some special cases.
3.2. Nominal Strengths of Tension Members

A ductile steel member without holes and
subject to a tensile load can resist without
fracture a load larger than FyAg because of
strain hardening.
However, a tension member loaded in this
manner will probably end the usefulness of the
structural system in which it is a part.
On the other hand, a tension member with
bolt holes can fail by fracture at the net
section through the holes.
Because of the above-stated reasons, AISC

Specification(D2) controls for the limit state
of yielding in the gross section(which is
intended to prevent excessive elongation of
the member) as:
For tensile rupture in the net section, where

bolt or rivet holes are present,
(AISC Eqn D2 2)
where t = 0.75
(AISC Eqn D2 1)
where t = 0.9
Design tensile strength by LRFD
Allowable tensile
strength for ASD
with = 2.00
The above expression for ASD is modified as:
Allowable tensile
strength for ASD
5
with = 3=1.667
= .
Where Ft =0.50Fu, the

allowable tensile
rupture strength.
Where:
Fy and Fu are the specified minimum yield and
tensile stresses, respectively, provided in
Table 1.1 and in Table 2-4 of the AISC manual.
The above expression for ASD is modified as: Ag is the gross area of the member
Where Ft =0.60Fy, the Ae is the effective net area that can be
= . allowable tensile
assumed to resist tension at the section
strength.
through the holes.
Ae may be somewhat smaller than the actual

net area, An, because of stress concentrations
and other factors that are discussed in section
3.5.
For tension members consisting of rolled
shapes, there actually is a third limit state,
block shear, presented in section 3.7.
Tension is assumed to be uniformly distributed

over the net section of a tension member,
although photoelastic studies show there is a
decided increase in stress intensity around the
edges of holes, sometimes equaling several
times what the stresses would be if the holes
were not present.
Other limitations where the above

discussions are not applicable are discussed
in the subsequent topics.
For ductile materials, a uniform stress

distribution is reasonable when the material is
loaded beyond its yield stress.
The term net cross-sectional area, or simply,
net area, refers to the gross cross-sectional
area of a member, minus any holes, notches,
or other indentations.
The fabrication procedure is that the actual

hole diameter is assumed 1/8 in. (3 mm) larger
3.3. Net Areas
The presence of a hole obviously increases the than the actual bolt diameter.
unit stress in a tension member, even if the
= [ ]
hole is occupied by a bolt.
H=D+3
B Unless
Stress concentrations occur at the edges of the
holes because the load is distributed to a
otherwise
lesser area.
specified
t
Problem EXAMPLE 9: Ans. (3000 mm2)

Compute the net area of the given member
below. Bolts are standard 22 mm and the
plate is PL 20 x 200.
Problem EXAMPLE 11: Ans. 3630 mm2

Compute the net area of an L150x100x22
with 2 lines of 20 mm bolts in the long leg
and one line of 20 mm bolts in the short
leg. The area of the given angle is 5148 mm2.
The connections of tension members should

be arranged so that no eccentricity is present.
Problem EXAMPLE 10: Ans. 18,080 mm2

Compute the net area of the given member
below. Bolts are standard 16 mm and the
member is W 290 x 51 with the following
relevant properties: A=21,226 mm2; tw=19.2
mm, tf=31.8 mm.
W 290 x 51
16
mm
bolts
There is exception to the above case where

specification covers some situations. If
moments are produced because of
unavoidable eccentricities, then it must be
taken cared of by making special estimates.
The centroidal axes of truss members
meeting at a joint are assumed to coincide.
3.4. Effect of Staggered Holes

Should there be more than one row of bolt
holes in a member, it is often desirable to
stagger them in order to provide as large a net
area as possible at any one section to resist the
load.
There are possible failures that is not
transverse to the load as shown.
Along the diagonal BC, there is a combination

of direct stress and shear.
The net area on this staggered holes ABCD is
somewhat less if we subtract t(2H) from the
gross area of the plate.
Therefore, Cochranes( in 1922) addresses this
loophole by adding the expression
2
4
Where:
s = is called the pitch, the longitudinal
spacing between adjacent holes.
g = is called the gage, the transverse spacing
between the same mentioned holes
Therefore, the net area involving zigzag or
staggered holes is given by:
= +
The smallest area of all the possible paths of

failure must be used in the analysis. Or, the
shortest path controls the net area.
For angles, the gage for holes in opposite legs

is considered to be the sum of the gages from
back the back of the angle minus the
thickness of the angle.
Holes for bolts and rivets are normally drilled
or punched in steel angles at certain standard
locations.
These locations or gages are dependent on the
angle-leg widths and on the number of lines of
holes and the table below must be followed.
Problem EXAMPLE 12: Ans. (7329.3 mm2)

Compute the net area of the 25 mm by 350
mm plate shown below. The holes are for 25
mm bolts.
90
110
90
60
40 60 mm
Problem EXAMPLE 13: Ans. s=134.2 mm
An L 175 x 175 x 20 is used a tension
member, with one gage line of 22 mm bolts
in each leg at the usual gage location (Table
3.1, where g=100 mm). What is the minimum
amount of stagger, s, necessary so that only
one bolt need be subtracted from the gross
area of the angle? Compute the net area of
this member if the lines of holes are
staggered at 90 mm. (5825 mm2)
Problem EXAMPLE 14: Ans. s=58.63 mm

An L 150 x 100 x 16 is used as a tension
member, with one gage line of 20 mm bolts
in each leg at the usual gage location (Table
3.1, where g=60 mm, g1=55 mm, and g2=60
mm). Two rows of bolts are used in the long
leg, and one in the short leg. Determine the
minimum stagger, s, necessary so that only
two holes need be subtracted in determining
the net area. What is the net area? An=3008
mm2
Problem EXAMPLE 15: Ans. 6077.5 mm2

Determine the effective net cross-sectional
area of the C380x60 shown. Holes are for
25mm bolts. The applicable relevant
properties are: d=380 mm, tw=13.2 mm,
tf=16.5 mm, bf=89.4 mm, A= 7613 mm2.
50
If the forces are not transferred uniformly

across a member cross section, there will be a
transition region of uneven stress running from
the connection out along the member for
some distance.
Shear lag
100
180
100
All 50 mm
3.5. Effective Net Areas
When a member other than a flat plate or bar
is loaded in axial tension until failure occurs
across its net section, its actual tensile failure
stress will probably be less than the coupon
tensile strength of the steel, unless all of the
various elements which make up the section
are connected so that stress is transferred
uniformly across the section.
The load is primarily resisted by a smaller area

in one leg of the angle only where the stress
may be greater than Fy.
In the transition region, the shear transfer has
lagged and the phenomenon is refered to as
shear lag.
This situation can be addressed by introducing
a reduction coefficient U which accounts for
the non-uniform stress distribution to the net
area or gross area.
The effective area is therefore,
AISC Eqn D3 1
The value of U is affected by:

1. The cross section of the member.
2. The length of its connection.
To reduce the effect of shear lag, one must
increase the length of the connected part ( or
decrease the length of the unconnected part)
and the other is to increase the length of the
connection, L, by spacing the bolts farther
apart along the line of action of the force.
3.5.1. Bolted Members:

Should a tension load be transmitted by bolts,
the gross area is reduced to the net area of the
member, and U is computed as
=1
Where L is the distance between the first and

the last bolts in the line.
When there are two or more lines of bolts, L is
the length of the line with the maximum
number of bolts.
When the bolts are staggered, L is the out-toout dimension between the extreme bolts in a
line.
Various techniques in determining

shear lag coefficient U for some
sections.

Compute the effective net area of the builtup section shown below if the holes are
punched for 22 mm bolts. Assume U=0.90.
The relevant data are AC=4735 mm2 for each
channel; tw=9.8 mm, tf = 12.7 mm.
PL 16x300
C300x37
PL 16x300
Determine the effective net area of the
L200x100x19. Assume the holes are for 22mm bolts. The relevant properties of angles
are: A=5445 mm2; = 24.1 .
70 mm
90 mm
All 60 mm
Problem EXAMPLE 18: Ans. 18.52 in2
Determine the effective net area of the
W14x82 (W360x122) shown. Assume the
holes are for 7/8 in.-(22 mm) bolts. Express
answers in both sq.in. and sq.mm. Ans. 11983
mm2
W 14x82
7/8 in. bolts
All 3 in.
Problem EXAMPLE 19: Ans. LRFD, Pu=756

kN; ASD, Pa=504 kN.
Problem EXAMPLE 21: Ans. LRFD, Pu=848.2

kN; ASD, Pa=565.4 kN.
Determine the LRFD design strength and the
ASD allowable strength of the L175x100x12.7
ASD allowable strength of the C230x30 with
2
with area 3387 mm ; = 23.1 . Use A36
two lines of 22 mm bolts in the web as
steel with Fy=248 MPa and Fu=400 MPa and
shown. Use A36 steel with Fy=248 MPa and
20 mm bolts.
Fu=400 MPa. Other relevant data include:
2
Ans. 5015 mm
L175x100x12.7 A=3800 mm2; d=229 mm; tf=10.5 mm; bf=67
mm; tw=11.4 mm; = 14.8 .
40 mm
75
60
70 mm
75 mm
89 mm
50 mm

kN; ASD, Pa=1166 kN.
ASD allowable strength of the W460x60 with
area 7613 mm2;d=454.7mm; tf=13.3 mm;
bf=152.9 mm; = = 58.2 . Use A992
steel and having 2 lines of 25 mm bolts in
each flange. with Fy=345 MPa and Fu=448
MPa. There are 4 bolts in each line at 75 mm
o.c.
70 mm
C230x30
75 mm 75 mm
3.5.2. Welded Members:

When tension loads are transferred by welds,
the rules from AISC Table 3.1, Table 3.2
presented herein, that are to be used to
determine values for A and U (Ae as for bolted
connections = AU) are as follows:
Therefore, the AISC Specification states that

when such situations are encountered, the
length of the welds may not be less than the
width of the plates or bars. The letter A
represents the area of the plate, and UA is the
effective net area. Refer to Table 3.2 Case 4.
1. Should the load be transmitted only by

longitudinal welds to other than a plate
member, or by longitudinal welds in
combination with transverse welds, A is to be
equal the gross area of the member Ag (Table
3.2, Case 2).
When Lw 2B
When 2B>Lw 1.5B
When 1.5B>Lw B
2. Should the load be transmitted only by

transverse welds, A is equal to the area of the
directly connected elements and U is equal to
1.0(Table 3.2, Case 3).
3. Tests have shown that when flat plates or
bars connected by longitudinal fillet welds are
used as tension members, they may fail
prematurely by shear lag at the corners if the
welds are too far apart.
U=1.0
U=0.87
U=0.75
Lw = length of weld in mm.

B = width of plate(distance between welds), in
mm.
For combinations of longitudinal and
transverse welds, Lw is to be used equal to the
length of the longitudinal weld, because the
transverse weld has little or no effect on the
shear lag.


ASD allowable strength of the C150x16
consisting of A 36 steel with two longitudinal
welds shown below. The area of the channel
is A=1980 mm2 and = 12.6 .
ASD allowable strength of the WT 125 x 33
consisting of A992 steel(Fy=345 MPa, Fu=448
MPa) with a transverse weld to its flange
only as shown below. The relevant properties
of the section are: A 2850 mm2 ; d=266.2 mm
(from W250x66); bf=147.6 mm; tf=13.0 mm;
tw=7.6 mm; and = = 27.9 mm.
WT 125x33
3.6. Connecting Elements for Tension

Members
When splice or gusset plates are used as
statically loaded tensile connecting elements,
their strength shall be determined as follows:
(a) For tensile yielding of connected elements,
= . (LRFD)
= . (ASD)
(b) For tensile rupture of connected elements,
= . (LRFD)
= . (ASD)
In part (b), A=An, to be used (may not exceed
0.85Ag).
C150x16
125 mm

kN; ASD, Pa=1081 kN.
The tension member is made of A992 steel is

connected at its ends with two 9.5 mmx 300
mm plates as shown. If two lines of 20 mm
bolts are used in each plate, determine the
LRFD design tensile force and the ASD
allowable tensile force that the two plates
can transfer.
Another controlling factor to tension member

is the term block shear.
The failure of a member may occur along a
path involving tension on one plane and shear
on a perpendicular plane, as shown below,
where several possible block shear failures are
illustrated.
PL 9.5x300
W250x67
PL 9.5x300
3.7. Block Shear

The LRFD design strength and the ASD
allowable strengths of tension members are
The total strength of the connection equals the
not always controlled by tension yielding,
tension rupture, or by the strength of the bolts fracture strength of the stronger plane plus the
yield strength of the weaker plane.
or welds with which they are connected.
Depending on which area is small, the

common analysis is:
If area in tension is smaller, then that section
yields and the larger area in shear fractures.
If area in tension is larger, then that section
fractures and the smaller area in shear yields.
AISC Specification states that the block shear
design strength of a particular member is to be
determined by:
1. Computing the tensile fracture strength on
the net section in one direction and adding to
that value the shear yield strength on the gross
area on the perpendicular segment.
2. Computing the shear fracture strength on
the gross area subject to tension and adding it
to the tensile yield strength on the net area
subject to shear on the perpendicular
segment.
The expression to apply is one with the larger
rupture term.
The AISC Specification state that the available

strength Rn for the block shear rupture design
strength is as follows:
= . +
. +
= . ; = . ()
Equation J4-5 ;
Another value included in AISC Equation J4-5 is

a reduction factor Ubs.
Its purpose is to account for the fact that stress
distribution may not be uniform on the tensile
plane for some connections.
Uniform stress distribution is assumed for

angles, gusset ( or connection) plates, and for
coped beams with one line of bolts (Ubs=1.0).
Or:
Should the
= . + . block shear
strength of a
connection
. + .
be
insufficient,
= . + .
it may be
increased by
. + .
increasing
Agv = gross area subjected to shear, in2 (mm2) the edge
distance
2
2
Anv = net area subjected to shear, in (mm )
and/or bolt
2
2
Ant = net area subjected to tension, in (mm ) spacing.
Ubs = 1


ASD allowable strength, including block shear
of the WT 150x39 using A992 steel, attached
through the flange with six-25mm bolts as
shown below. The steel properties relevant to
this problem are:
A = 5019 mm2,d=306.3 mm (from W300x79),
bf=254 mm, tf=14.60 mm, = = 25.9 .

ASD allowable strength, including block shear
of the C230x22 using A36 steel, with 2 lines
of 20 mm bolts in the web as shown. The
steel properties relevant to this problem are:
A = 2845 mm2,d=228.6 mm (from W300x79),
tw=7.24 mm, = 14.9 .
C230x22
WT150x39
64.3 mm
100 mm
140 mm
25 mm bolts
64.3 mm
50 75
50 mm 75
75 mm
75 mm
20 mm bolts

An L150x150x9.5 is welded to a 9.5 mm

gusset plate as shown. All steel if A36.
ASD allowable strength, including block shear.
The relevant data are A=2826 mm2 and =
= 41.1 .
L 150x150x9.5
CHAPTER 4: Design of Tension Members

4.1. Selection of Sections
4.2. Built-up Tension Members
4.3. Rods and Bars
4.4. Pin-Connected Members
4.5. Design for Fatigue Loads
1. To determine the required cross-sectional
area of a tension member in order to select
9.5 mm-PL the lightest section from the AISC manual.
2. To compute for the effective area of a builtup section in order to evaluate its tensile
capacity.
150 mm
3. To gain techniques on how to attach rods

and bars in order to determine their strength
necessary in designing them.
4. To determine the effective areas of pinconnected tension members in order to
compute their tensile capacities.
5. To list the considerations in the analysis of

members subjected to fatigue loads in order to
design them.
4.1 Selection of Sections

The selected section must satisfy the
following properties:
1. compactness.
2. Dimensions that fit into the structure with
reasonable relation to the dimensions of the
other members of the structure.
3. Connections to as many parts of the
sections as possible to minimize shear lag.
Slenderness ratio of a member is the ratio of

its unsupported length to its least radius of
gyration.
The maximum slenderness ratio for tension
members other than rods, is 300.
This limitation is specified by the AISC in order
to account for reversal of loads and other
undesirable lateral deflections or vibrations.
AASHTO SPECIFICATIONS provide mandatorily

As a general rule, tension members consisting maximum slenderness ratios of 200 for main
of angles, channels, and W or S sections will be tension members ( stresses result from D
and/or L loads) and 240 for secondary
probably fastened using bolts while plates,
members (those used to brace structures or to
channels, and structural tees might be
reduce the unbraced length of other membersfastened using welds.
main or secondary).
AISC does not distinguish between main and
secondary members.
AASHTO also requires that the maximum
slenderness ratio permitted for members
subjected to stress reversal be 140.
The design of a tension member is a trial and

error process.
In LRFD, the design strength of a tension
member is the least of:
Select the lightest W300 section to support

working tensile loads of PD=530 kN and
PW=1280 kN. The member is to be 6 m long
and is assumed to have two lines of holes for
20-mm- bolts in each flange. There will be
1. 0.9FyAg
[ min. Ag = Pu/(0.9Fy) ]
at least three holes in each line 75 mm on
2. 0.75FuAe [ min. Ag = Pu/(0.75FuU) + Es. Aholes] center. Use A992 steel. Ignore block shear.
3. From its block shear strength [ evaluated
Problem EXAMPLE 29: Ans. LRFD, WT 175 x
once a trial section is known].
39; ASD, WT 175 x 36.
4. In addition, the slenderness ratio should,
Select the lightest WT 175 available to
preferably, not exceed 300. [ min. r = L/300].
support a factored tensile load P =1100 kN
u
If ASD equations are used, the allowable

strength of a tension member is the lesser of:
1. 0.6FyAg
[ min. Ag = Pa/(0.6Fy) ]
2. 0.5FuAe [ min. Ag = Pa/(0.5FuU) + Es. Aholes]
Problem EXAMPLE 28: Ans. LRFD W300x67

; ASD, W 300x67
and Pa=700 kN. Assume there are two lines of

22 mm- bolts in the flange ( at least three
bolts in each line 100 mm on center). The
member is to be 9 m long. Use A992 steel.
Ignore block shear.
Problem EXAMPLE 30: Ans. LRFD, C150 x
16; ASD, C150 x16.
Select the lightest C section that will safely
support the service tensile loads PD=89 kN
and PL = 150 kN. The member is to be 3.60 m
long and is assumed to have only a transverse
weld at the end of the channel. A36 steel is
used. Use A 36 steel. Ignore block shear.
4.2 Built-up Tension Members

Rules in connecting parts of a built-up
tension members as provided by AISC
sections D.4 and J3.5.
1. When a tension member is buil-up from

elements in continuous contact with each
other, such as a plate and a shape, or two
plates, the longitudinal spacing of connectors
between those elements must not exceed 24
times the thickness of the thinner plate or
12 in. (300 mm) if the member is to be
painted, or if it is not to be painted and not
to be subjected to corrosive conditions.
2. Should the member consists of unpainted
weathering steel elements in continuous
contact and be subject to atmospheric
corrosion, the maximum permissible
connector spacings are 14 times the
thickness of the thinner plate, or 7 in. (175
mm).
3.Should a tension member be built up from

two or more shapes separated by
intermittent fillers, the shapes preferably
should be connected to each other at
intervals such that the slenderness ratio of
the individual shapes between the fasteners
does not exceed 300.
4. The distance from the center of any bolts
to the nearest edge of the connected part
under consideration may not be larger than
12 times the thickness of the connected part,
or 6 in. (150 mm).
5. For elements in continuous contact with
each other, the spacing of connectors are
given in Sections J3.3 through J3.5 of the
AISC Specification.
Problem EXAMPLE 31: Ans. LRFD, W

200x36; ASD, W200x42.
Problem EXAMPLE 33: Ans. LRFD, WT

150x37; ASD, WT150x39.
Select the lightest W200 section that will

safely support the service tensile loads
PD=330 kN and PL = 445 kN. The member is to
be 7.2 m long and to have two lines of 16
mm bolts 3 in a line 65 mm on center, on
each flange. Use A992 steel and ignore block
shear.
Select the lightest WT150 section that will

be 6 m long and is to have longitudinal weld
to flange only, 150 mm long. Use A992 steel
and ignore block shear.
Problem EXAMPLE 32: Ans. LRFD, W

300x86; ASD, W300x97.
Select the lightest W300 section that will
be 7.9 m long and to have two lines of 22
mm bolts 2 in a line 100 mm on center, on
each flange. Use A36 steel and ignore block
shear.
Problem EXAMPLE 34: Ans. L150x150x12.7

both LRFD and ASD.
Using A36 steel select the lightest equal leg
single angle member to resist a tensile load
of PD=200 kN, PL=110 kN, and PW=390 kN. The
member will be connected through one leg
with 2 lines of 3- 20 mm bolts 90 mm on
center. The member length is 7.25 m. Neglect
block shear.
Problem EXAMPLE 34: Ans. 2- C250x37

both LRFD and ASD.
A tension member is to consist of two C250
channels and two PL12.7 x 275, arranged as
shown below to support the service loads,
PD=900 kN and PL=1500 kN. The member is
assumed to be 9.15 m long and is to have
four lines of 20 mm bolts. Assume U=0.85.
All steel will be A36. Neglect block shear.
PL12.7x275
C250
C250
275 mm
Problem EXAMPLE 35: Ans. 45 mm rod

both LRFD and ASD.
Select a standard threaded round rod to
support a factored tensile load of 320 kN
(service tensile load = 220 kN) using A36
steel.
4.3 Rods and Bars
When rods and bars are used as tension
members, they may be simply welded at
their ends, or they may be threaded and held
in place with nuts.
The area required for a particular load is as
follows (with Fnt = nominal tensile design
stress for rods = 0.75Fu):

.
Gross area of rod, AD with =0.75 (LRFD)
275 mm
PL12.7x275

.
Gross area of rod, AD with =2 (ASD)
Sag rods for supporting purlins(channels)

requires great design effort, we will just
familiar the common practices of designers.
1. The minimum diameter of sag rod is
limited to not lower than 16 mm.
2. Sag rods are required at midpoints of the
space between two trusses if that space is
less than 4.25 m( 14 ft) and every third points
if more than 4.25 m.
4.4 Pin-Connected Members
Because pin-connected bridges are used
infrequently today, we will just concentrate
on welded and bolted connections.
An example of a pin-ended connector is an
eyebar. This eyebar is used occasionally for
long span bridges and as hangers for some
types of bridges and structures.
Because of the usual trouble that an eyebar
offers, it is better not to consider this in the
class (steel design).
For the special treatment of pin-connected

members, the AISC Specification (D5)
provides detailed requirements for pinconnected members as to strength and
proportions of the pins and plates.
4.5 Design for Fatigue Loads
It is not likely that fatigue stresses will be a
problem in the average building frame,
because the changes in load in such
structures usually occur only occasionally and
produce relatively minor stress variations.
Fatigue stress can only be a problem when
tensile stress is involved. Aside from this,
when loads are applied and then removed or
changed significantly many thousands of
times.
In Appendix 3 of the AISC Specification, a
simple design method is presented for
considering fatigue stresses. For this
discussion, the term stress range is defined
as the magnitude of the change in stress in a
member due to the application or removal of
service live loads.
Should there be stress reversal, the stress

range equals the numerical sum of the
maximum repeated tensile and compressive
stresses.
The fatigue life of members increases as the
stress range is decreased.
At very low stress ranges, the fatigue life is
very large, and there is a threshold fatigue
stress range when this fatigue life appears to
be infinite.
If it is anticipated that there will be fewer
than 20,000 cycles of loading (about 3 cycles
per day for 25 years), no consideration needs
to be given to fatigue.
If the number of cycles is greater than
20,000, AISC Specification in Appendix 3 of
the manual provides guidelines on how to
deal with fatigue loadings.
Example 4-6 of your text provides an example
on the design of a member subjected to
fluctuating loads for your independent
reference.
CHAPTER 5: Introduction to Axially Loaded

Compression Members
5.1. General
5.2. Residual Stresses
5.3. Sections Used for Columns
5.4. Development of Column Formulas
5.5. The Euler Formula
5.6. End Restraint and Effective Lengths of
Columns
5.7. Stiffened and Unstiffened Elements
5.8. Long, Short, and Intermediate Columns
5.9. Column Formulas/NSCP formulas
5.10. Maximum Slenderness Ratios
1. To define a column in order to name
associated terms that describe the same
structural element.
2. To describe residual stresses in order to
reserve allowance when designing
compression members.
3. To familiarize with usual column section in
order to be guided in the selection of sections.
4. To discuss column formulas in order to state 5.1 GENERAL

limitations of the formulas in comparison to
In general, when members are subjected to
actual test results.
great amount of compression, they are called
compression members.
5. To be familiar with the Eulers formula in
order to compare it with the AISC expressions. The most common compression member is a
6. To illustrate the concept of effective length
of columns in order to appreciate buckling
mode of failure of columns.
7. To distinguish between stiffened and
unstiffened column elements in order to
establish boundaries between them with
respect to slenderness ratio.
8. To classify columns as short, intermediate,
and long, in order to establish ranges where
most columns fall necessary in the design
practice.
9. To introduce column formulas in order to
investigate their applicability to actual problem
solving.
10. To familiarize the maximum slenderness
ratio for columns as controlled by codes in
order to ensure safety of the structure.
column.
Other compression members include the top
chords of trusses, bracing elements, and many
others members as long as they are subjected
to compression.
A column may be thought of a straight member
whose length is considerably greater than its
thicknesses. Columns and compression
members are used interchangeably.
The three general modes by which axially
loaded columns can fail:
1. Flexural buckling (also called Euler buckling)
The primary type of buckling considered in the
course after members become unstable
because of flexure or bending.
2. Local buckling occurs when some part or

parts of the cross section of a column are so
thin that they buckle locally in compression
before the other modes of buckling can occur.
This buckling mode is measured by means of
the width-thickness ratios.
3. Flexural torsional buckling may occur in
columns that have certain cross sectional
configurations.
When the length of column is increased
maintaining the same cross sectional area, its
tendency to buckle also increases and its loadcarrying capacity decreases.
Slenderness ratio the direct measure of
compression members tendency to buckle, is
the ratio of its length to its least radius of
gyration.
Tendency to buckle is also affected by:
1. Types of end connections
2. Eccentricity of load application
3. Imperfection of column material
4. Initial crookedness of columns.

5. Residual stresses from manufacture.
The ideal situation is for all the loads attached
to the column to pass through the centroid of
the column section aside from conditions of
columns to have no flaws, made
homogeneously, and perfectly straight.
In practice therefore, no column can be made
to be purely axially loaded.
Furthermore, it is difficult to take into account
imperfections of cross-sectional dimensions,
residual stresses, holes punched for bolts,
erection stresses, and transverse loads into a
formula.
Slight imperfections in tension members and
beams can be safely be disregarded but a sight
defects in columns may be of major
significance.
Mill straightness tolerances are presented in
Tables 1-22 to 1-28 of the AISC Manual.
Column imperfections are serious than beam

imperfections and therefore designers must
consider these column imperfections in
practice.
The spacing of columns in plan establishes a
what is called a bay.
When shallow spread footings are used, bays
with length-to-width ratios of about 1.25 to
1.75, and areas of about 1000 sq.ft (93 m2) are
the most cost efficient and larger bay areas are
more economical for deep foundations.
5.2 RESIDUAL STRESSES
The main cause of residual stress is the uneven
cooling of shapes after hot-rolling.
Recent study at Lehigh University has shown
that residual stresses and their distribution are
very important factors affecting the strength of
axially loaded columns in the range of
slenderness ratios of 40-120 ( a range of most
practical columns).
The cross-sectional areas that cooled quickly

have residual compressive stress while the
slower cooling areas have residual tensile
stress.
Residual stresses reduced appreciably the
buckling strength of columns to as high as 25%
for sections with slenderness ratios in the
range 70-90.
Because some parts of the cross section of a
column yield locally when loaded, the
remaining elastic area reduces that theres a
need to address this by computing the
effective moment of inertia or by the use of
the tangent modulus.
Other causes of residual stresses include

welding and cambering.
5.3 SECTIONS USED FOR COLUMNS

There may be no limit as to the shapes of
sections that can be used as column sections
from a theoretical point of view.
Practically , the number of possible solutions is
severely affected by such considerations as:
1. Sections available
2. Connection problems
3. Type of structure in which the section is to
be used.
Compression member sections that practically

perform satisfactorily are shown on the next
slide and are described according to suitability.
(a) Single-angle members are suitable for
bracings and compression members for light
trusses. Equal-leg angles are may be more
economical because their least r values are
greater.
(b) Unequal leg angles with longer legs placed

back to back are suitable for top chord
members of a bolted truss.
(c) Structural tees are suitable to replace top
chord members when web members are
welded directly to the web of tees.
(d) Single channels are not satisfactory for the
average compression members but may be
used if some method of providing extra lateral
support in the weak direction is available.
(e) The W-shapes are the most commonly used
as columns for buildings and as compression
members for highway bridges.
(f) Early bridges were constructed by large
sections of hollow tubing. Recently, the use of
a hollow tubing declines because of connection
problems and manufacturing costs. For small
and medium loads, round sections are
satisfactory aside from neat looking surfaces.
(g) (h) Square and rectangular tubing are being
used more each year. Before, it was not widely
used as structural elements due the difficulty
of making connections with rivets or bolts.
The use of tubing for structural purposes by

architects and engineers in the years to come
will probably be greatly increased for several
reasons:
1. The most efficient compression member is
one that has a constant radius of gyration
about its centroid. Square is the next most
efficient compression member.
2. Four-sided and round sections are much
easier to paint than are the six-sided open W,
S, and M sections. (Easier to apply paint or
other coatings uniformly).
3. They have less surface area to paint or
fireproof.
4. They have excellent torsional resistance.
5. The surfaces of tubing are quite attractive.
6. When exposed, the round sections have
wind resistance of only about two-thirds of
that of flat surfaces of the same width.
7. If cleanliness is important, hollow structural
tubing is ideal, as it doesnt have the problem
of collecting dirt.
The slight disadvantages of round sections are:

1. Ends need to be sealed to avoid the entry of
corrosive substances.
2. They are not effective as beams for their
resistance to bending is less compared to Wsections.
The weight of square or tube sections ( or
hollow structural sections (HSS)) can be less
than one-half the weights required for openprofile sections. A possible savings of up to
20% for many cases can be realized.
Where compression members are designed for
very large structures, it may be necessary to
use built-up sections.
Built-up sections are needed where members
are long and support very heavy loads and/or
when there are connection advantages.
High-strength steels can frequently be used
with very economical results if their increased
strength permits the use of W sections rather
than built-up members.
When built-up sections are used, they must be

connected on their open sides with some type
of lacing (also called lattice bars) to hold the
parts together in their proper positions and to
assist them in acting together as a unit.
(n) When the rolled shapes do not have

sufficient strength to resist the column loads in
a building or the loads in a very large bridge
truss, plates are added to flanges to increase
the cross sectional areas.
(o) Built-up section in this arrangement has
The ends of these members are connected
shown more satisfactory shape than a W shape
with tie plates (also called batten plates or stay with welded cover plates.
plates).
(p) A welded box section has proved to be
quite satisfactory for very heavy column loads.
(i) Four angles are sometimes arranged as
(q)-(s) Other built-up sections that can be
shown to produce large values of r and are
assembled.
often seen in towers and in crane booms.
(j) A pair of channels is sometimes used as a
building column or as a web member in a large
truss.
(k) Channels may turned out in the position
presented.
(l) Channels arranged in this manner are suited
as top chords of bridge trusses with a cover
plate on top and with lacing on the bottom.
(m) When the largest channels available will
not produce a top chord of sufficient strength.
Built-up sections that do not require lattice

system are more economical than those with
lattice system.
Lateral shearing forces are negligible for the
single column shapes and for the nonlatticed
built-up sections, but they are definitely not
negligible for the built-up latticed columns.
Today, composite columns are being
increasingly used (usually circular or hollow
shapes filled with concrete or W-shapes
encased with concrete.
5.4 DEVELOPMENT OF COLUMN FORMULAS

It was until 1729 when a Dutch mathematician
(Pieter van Musschenbroek) published a paper
on estimating the strength of rectangular
columns where analysis of columns was
formalized.
In 1757, Leonhard Euler, a Swiss
mathematician, wrote a paper of great value
concerning the buckling of columns.
The Eulers formula marked the real beginning The testing of columns with various
of theoretical and experimental investigation of slenderness ratios results in a scattered range
columns.
of values, such as shown above.
The engineering literature is filled with
The dots will not fall on the smooth curve,
formulas developed for ideal column
even if all of the testing is done in the same
conditions that are not encountered in actual laboratory because of:
practice.
1. The difficulty of exactly centering the loads.
Thus, practical column design is based
2. Lack of perfect uniformity of the materials
primarily on formulas that have been
developed to fit, with reasonable accuracy, test 3. Varying dimensions of the sections
4. Residual stresses
result curves.
5. End restraint variations
6. And other such issues.
The usual practice is to attempt to develop

formulas that give results representative of an
approximate average of the test results.
5.5 THE EULER FORMULA

When the column becomes longer, the stress
at which a column buckles decreases.
The magnitudes of yield stresses of the

sections tested are quite important for short
columns, as their failure stresses are close to
those yield stresses.
After a column reaches a certain length, the

stress will have fallen to the proportional limit.
For intermediate columns (intermediate

slenderness ratios), the yield stresses are of
lesser importance in their effect on failure
stresses, and they are of no significance for
long slender columns.
Beyond the column length corresponding to a

proportional limit stress, the buckling stress
will be elastic.
For a column to buckle elastically, it will have to
be long and slender.
The Eulers critical buckling load is given by:
For intermediate range columns, residual

=
stresses have more effect on the results, while
the failure stresses for long slender columns

The Eulers buckling stress can be shown to be:
are very sensitive to end support conditions.
In addition to residual stresses and nonlinearity

of material, another dominant factor in its
effect on column strength is member out-ofstraightness.

=
=
Problem EXAMPLE 36: Ans. 70.56 kN

Determine the critical buckling load for each
of the columns, using the Euler equation.
E=200 GPa. Proportional limit = 248 MPa.
Assume simply-supported ends and
maximum permissible L/r=200.
A solid round bar 32 mm in diameter and
1.20 m long.
Problem EXAMPLE 37: Ans. N/A
Determine the critical buckling load for each
of the columns, using the Euler equation.
E=200 GPa. Proportional limit = 248 MPa.
Assume simply-supported ends and
maximum permissible L/r=200.
A solid round bar 32 mm in diameter and
0.7m long.
Problem EXAMPLE 38: Ans. N/A
Determine the critical buckling load for a solid
round bar 32 mm in diameter and 2m long,
using the Euler equation. E=200 GPa.
Proportional limit = 248 MPa. Assume simplysupported ends and maximum permissible
L/r=200.
Problem EXAMPLE 39: Ans. 1243 kN

Determine the critical buckling load for a
column section W 300 x 74, 6.1 m long with
the following properties relevant to this
problem. A=9419 mm2, Iy=23.43x106 mm4 ,
ry=49.8 mm, E=200 GPa, proportional limit =
248 MPa, and maximum permissible L/r =
200.
Problem EXAMPLE 39.1: Ans. 7764 kN
W 300x97 and 2 plates 20 mm thick parallel
to the web and of height equal to the depth.
L=9 m, E=200 GPa and prop. Limit =250 MPa,
L/r = 200.
One must note that the buckling load
determined from the Euler equation is
independent of the strength of the steel used.
The Euler equation is useful only if the end
support conditions are considered.
The practical columns encountered possess
restraint against rotation and translation
though the amount varies from slight restraint
to almost fixed conditions.
To obtain realistic buckling stress values when
using the Euler equation, one must adjust the
length.
To successfully use the Euler equation for

practical columns, the value of L should be the
distance between points of inflection in the
buckled shape ( this distance is referred to as
the effective length of the column).
5.6 END RESTRAINT AND EFFECTIVE
LENGTHS OF COLUMNS
The most important thing to consider in
determining the load carrying capacity of a
column is its end restraint.
Columns with appreciable rotational and
translational end restraint has the higher loadcarrying capacity than those with little
rotational end restraint.
The effective length as defined in steel
specification is equal to KL.
The element K is called the effective length
factor and is dependent on the rotational
restraint supplied at the ends of the column
and upon the resistance to lateral movement
provided.
The concept of effective lengths is simply a

mathematical method of taking a column,
whatever its end and bracing conditions, and
replacing it with an equivalent pinned-end
braced column.
The K factor is determined by finding the
pined-end column with an equivalent length
that provides the same critical stress- thus
making the complicated analysis to framebuckling problems simple.
Columns with no sidesway or joint translation

means that its ends cannot move laterally with
respect to each other.
As a preliminary concept we consider the
following columns:
1. Pin-ended columns, Le= L and K=1.0.
2. Fix-ended columns, Le= 0.5L and K=0.50.

3. One fixed, the other is pinned, Le=0.7L of
K=0.70.
Therefore, for braced frames, K values can

never be greater than 1.0, but for unbraced
frames, the K values will always be greater than
1.0 because of sidesway.
Effective Length (KL) for columns in braced

frame (sidesway prevented).
The smaller the effective length of a particular

column, the smaller its danger of lateral
buckling and the greater its load-carrying
capacity will be.
There are situations where K exceeds 1.0.
The effective lengths of columns in general will
be L or less than L for columns in a braced ( or
laterally braced frame where sidesway or joint
translation is prevented by means of bracing,
shear walls, or lateral support of adjoining
structures) frame.
The structural designer is free to interpolate

from the recommended design values if he/she
feels necessary based on his/her judgment.
When designing, the design values are almost
always used than the theoretical ones.
The theoretical ones are just used when you
encounter a joint that is almost considered
fixed and a simple support that is almost
frictionless.
Table C-C2.2 of the AISC Commentary on the

Specification provides recommended effective
length factors when ideal conditions are
approximated.
Two sets of values are provided one is
theoretical and the other is recommended
design values due to the fact that there is no
perfectly pinned and perfectly fixed end
conditions in reality.
Notice that in the table on the next slides,

cases (a), (b), (c) and (e) have design values
greater than the theoretical values while in
cases (d) and (f), the values are the same.
The values are the same for cases (d) and (f)
because of the fact that when simple supports
are not perfectly frictionless (as the actual
situation suggests), the K values would have
been smaller.
By maintaining the theoretical and the design K
values, one would think that he/she is putting
himself on the safe side.
The K values provided in the table are probably When one of these elements is folded or
very satisfactory to use for designing isolated
restrained as in the flanges of W shapes that
columns and for preliminary design.
are connected to the webs, its stiffness is
appreciably increased.
For columns in a continuous frames, the more
An unstiffened element is a projecting piece
accurate methods of determining K values are
with one free edge parallel to the direction of
obtained by using alignment charts discussed
the compression force, while a stiffened
in Chapter 7.
element is supported along the two edges in
that direction.
5.7 STIFFENED AND UNSTIFFENED
These two types of elements are shown on the
ELEMENTS
next slide where the width, b, and the
thickness t, of the elements in question are
It is possible that the actual member fails by
shown.
local buckling in compression before the
Depending on the ranges of different widthcalculated buckling strength of the whole
thickness ratios for compression elements, and
member is reached.
depending on whether the elements are
The AISC Specification (Section B4) provides
limiting values for the width-thickness ratios of stiffened or unstiffened, the elements will
the individual parts of compression members buckle at different stress situations.
The AISC Specification divides members into
and for the parts of beams in their
three classifications for establishing widthcompression regions.
One should be aware of the lack of stiffness of thickness ratio limits for elements of
compression members: 1. compact sections,
thin elements because of their very low
2. non-compact sections, and 3. slender
moment of inertia.
compression elements.
If the member is defined as a nonslender

element compression member, then refer to
Compression sections are classified as either a Section E3 of the AISC Specification. The
nominal compressive strength is then
nonslender element or a slender element.
determined based only on the limit state of
A nonslender element is one where the width- flexural buckling.
to-thickness ratio of its compression elements
When the member is defined as a slender
does not exceed r, from Table B.4.1a of the
element compression member, the nominal
AISC Specification.
compressive strength shall be taken as the
When the width-to-thickness ratio exceeds r, lowest value based on the limit states of
the section is defined as slender-element
flexural buckling, torsional buckling, and
section.
flexural-torsional buckling.
The limiting values for r are given in Table
For this condition, refer to Section E7 of the
B4.1a ( Table 5.2 of the text).
AISC Specification.
5.7.1 Classification of Compression Sections
for Local Buckling
Almost all of the W and HP shapes listed in the 5.8 LONG, SHORT, AND INTERMEDIATE
Compression Member Section of the AISC
COLUMNS
Manual are nonslender for 50 ksi (345 MPa)
A column subject to an axial compression load
yield stress.
will shorten in the direction of the load. If the
A few of them are slender (and are so indicated load is increased until the column buckles, the
in the column tables of the Manual).
shortening will stop and the column will
suddenly bend or deform laterally and may at
the same time twist in the direction
perpendicular to its longitudinal axis.
The strength of a column and the manner in

which it fails are greatly dependent on its
effective length.
As the effective length of a column increases,
its buckling stress will decrease. If the effective
length exceeds a certain value, the buckling
stress will be less than the proportional limit of
the steel. Columns in this range are said to fail
elastically.
Long steel columns are independent of the
strength of the steel but will fail at loads
proportional to the flexural rigidity (EI) of the
column.
For example, a long steel column constructed
with a 248-MPa yield stress steel will fail at just
about the same load as one constructed with a
690-MPa yield stress of steel.
5.8.2 Short Columns

For very short columns, the failure stress will
equal the yield stress and no buckling will
occur.
5.8.3 Intermediate Columns
Most columns fall into this range. In this case,
some of the fibers will reach the yield stress
and some will not.
These members will fail by both yielding and
buckling, and their behavior is said to be
inelastic.
Column formulas have to be modified to
address these types of columns to account for
the presence of residual stresses.
5.9 COLUMN FORMULAS

5.8.1 Long Columns
The Euler formula predicts very well the
strength of long columns where the axial
buckling stress remains below the proportional
limit. Such columns will buckle elastically.
The AISC Specification provides one equation

(the Euler equation) for long columns with
elastic buckling and an empirical parabolic
equation for short and intermediate columns.
With these equations, a flexural buckling

stress, Fcr , is determined for a compression
member.
The nominal strength is then given by:
E

4.71
Fy
=
(AISC Equation E3-1)
LRFD compression
strength(c=0.9)
E

> 4.71
Fy
ASD allowable
compression
strength(c=1.67)
= .
Or the design compressive strength and

the allowable compressive strength are:
= .
= .
The following expressions show how Fcr, the
flexural buckling stress of a column, may be
determined for members without slender
elements.
Fy
or 2.25
Fe
Fy
or > 2.25
Fe
In these expressions, Fe is the elastic critical

buckling stress-that is, the Euler stresscalculated with the effective length of the
column KL.
These equations are represented graphically

on the next slide.
E
4.71
Fy
Table 4-22 in the AISC Manual provides

computed values of critical stresses cFcr and
Fcr/c so that it is no longer necessary to
perform time consuming calculations.
5.10 MAXIMUM SLENDERNESS RATIOS

The AISC Specification no longer provides a
specific maximum slenderness ratio, as it
formerly did and as is the practice of many
other specifications.
In the past, KL/r was 200 as maximum value
permitted by AISC based on engineering
judgment, practical economics, and the fact
that special care had to be taken to keep from
injuring a slender member during fabrication,
shipping and erection.
As a rule of thumb, the slenderness ratio must
be chosen to be less than 200.
Problem EXAMPLE 40: Ans. 962.8kN LRFD ;

641.9 kN ASD
Determine the LRFD design strength, and the
ASD allowable strength for a column made up
of W200x46 with fixed bottom end and
pinned upper end 6 m long. Use 4
calculations: 1. Using the critical stress values
in Table 4-22 of the Manual, 2. Using Table 41 of the Manual, and 3. Using the equations
of AISC section E3 and 4. Using NSCP 1992
Expressions. Use steel with Fy=345 MPa.
Problem EXAMPLE 41: Ans. 2674 kN LRFD;

1783 kN ASD
of W300x97 with fixed bottom end and
pinned upper end 6.7 m long. Use 4
calculations: 1. Using the critical stress values
in Table 4-22 of the Manual, 2. Using Table 41 of the Manual, and 3. Using the equations
of AISC section E3 and 4. Using NSCP 1992
Expressions. Use steel with Fy=345 MPa.
Problem EXAMPLE 42: Ans. 6083 kN LRFD ;

4056 kN ASD; NSCP (3937 KN ASD; 5905 kN)
Problem EXAMPLE 44: Ans. 1308.5 kN

LRFD ; 872.3 kN ASD

of W300x179 (W12x120) with KL=3.6 m using
1. the equations of AISC section E3 and 4.
2. Using NSCP 1992 Expressions. Use steel
with Fy=345 MPa.

ASD allowable strength for a column made up of
WT 200x74 (WT8x50) with KL=6.1 m using 1. the
equations of AISC section E3 and 4
2.
Using NSCP 1992 Expressions. Use steel with
Fy=345 MPa.

1095 kN ASD; NSCP (1101 kN ASD, 1652 kN LR
FD)
of HP 250x62 (HP10x42) with KL=4.6 m using
1. the equations of AISC section E3 and 4
2. Using NSCP 1992 Expressions. Use steel
with Fy=345 MPa.

2006 kN ASD; NSCP; 2001 , 3002 kN
of W 250x58 with a 12.7x250 cover plate
welded to each flange. The columns KL=4.25
m. E=200 GPa and Fy=345 MPa. Use AISC
equations and NSCP provisions.
858.4 kN ASD; NSCP; 852.2; 1278 kN
of 4 PL9.5x150. The columns KL=3.85m.
E=200 GPa and Fy=345 MPa. Use AISC
Problem EXAMPLE 47: Ans. 864.1 kN LRFD

; 576 kN ASD; NSCP: 576.2 kN, 864.3 kN
ASD allowable strength for a column whose
section is shown below. The columns KL=2.40

1020 kN ASD; NSCP, 1031 kN, 1547 kN
ASD allowable strength for a column whose
section is shown below. The columns KL=4.85
L75x75x6.35
200 mm
C 225 x 30
PL 9.5 x 200
W 200 x 31
Fy = 345 MPa
kL=2.4 m
L75x75x6.35
KL = 4.85 m

3039 kN ASD, NSCP: 2974.4 kN, 4462 kN
Determine the LRFD design compressive load
and the ASD allowable compressive load for a
7.30-m axially loaded W300x143 column that
has the bracing and end support conditions
shown in the figure. Fy=345 MPa.
Problem EXAMPLE 50: Ans. 128.6 kN LRFD

; 120.1 kN ASD; NSCP 122.6 kN, 131.4 kN
Compute the maximum total service live load
that can be applied to the A36 section in the
figure, if KxLx = 3.65 m, KyLy=3.05 m. Assume
the load is dead load and live load. Solve
by both LRFD and ASD methods using AISC
and NSCP approaches.
3.05 m
2L 100x75x 9.5
100 mm
7.30 m
4.25 m
75 mm
75 mm
CHAPTER 6: Design of Axially Loaded

Compression Members
6.1. Introduction
6.2. AISC Design Tables
6.3. Column Splices
6.4. Built-up Columns
6.5. Built-up Columns With Components in
Contact With Each Other
6.6. Connection Requirements for Built-up
Columns Whose Components are in Contact
With Each Other
6.7. Built-up Columns With Components not
in Contact With Each Other
6.8. Single-Angle Compression Members
6.9. Sections Containing Slender Elements
6.10. Flexural-Torsional Buckling of
Compression Members
1. To orient students on the different
approaches to the design of axially-loaded
compression members in order to investigate
the adequacy of selected sections.
2. To recall investigation procedure in chapter 5

in order to ensure safety requirements of
columns with regards to load-carrying
capacities.
3. To use AISC design tables in the
determination of load capacities in order to
appreciate the table without undergoing the
trial-and-error procedure.
4. To be familiar with the usual range of KL/r
values for various axially loaded compression
members in order to serve as preliminary
reference in the design process.
5. To be familiar with the common column
splicing techniques in order to apply splicing
requirements in the actual practice.
6. To be familiar with common built-up
columns normally adopted in practice in order
to be guided in design practices.
7. To be oriented with the uses and
guidelines/requirements of the common builtup columns in order to suggest applications of
such built-up sections in the future for
practices.
8. To discuss built-up columns with

components in contact with each other in
order to explain various cases in analyzing
performances of such columns.
9. To list the important requirements of builtup columns with components in contact with
each other in order to perform various checks
necessary to ensure good practice and safety
of the member.
10. To illustrate the design procedure of builtup columns with components not in contact
with each other in order to subsequently
design the lacings required.
11. To list the requirements in the design of
single angle axially loaded members in order to
check if whether or not the above
requirements are met.
12. To illustrate the design procedure for axially
loaded members with slender elements in
order to be guided in the use of equations
necessary for checking results.
13. To discuss flexural-torsional buckling of

compression members in order to state various
solutions in to get rid of such effects or to
properly address the situation.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Having trained to investigate load carrying
capacities of various sections, we proceed by
reversing the process by selecting various
shapes available in the manual for given
various loads.
Various cases of axially loaded members shall
be considered including connections and for
built-up members.
The requirements for built-up sections with
components in contact and not in contact are
included so that students should be aware of
the common practices in the actual field of
steel construction and design.
Also included in this chapter are the discussion
of lacings and elements used to connect two or
more members in order that students are
informed on the various shapes used for
lacings required.
As a preliminary idea to design, students

should be aware that the range of values of
KL/r is 40-60. Therefore, it is a good idea to
assume KL/r=50 as a good and practical KL/r
ratio.
Problem EXAMPLE 51: Ans. W250x73 for
LRFD, ASD, and NSCP
Use a trial-and-error procedure in which a
KL/r value is estimated, the stresses cFcr and
Fcr/c determined from AISC Table 4-22 or by
NSCP approach, required areas are calculated
and trial sections are selected-and checked
and revised if necessary.
Select the lightest available W250 section to
support the axial compression loads PD=445
kN and PL=710 kN if KL=4.57 m and A992,
Grade 50 steel is used.

LRFD, ASD, and NSCP
Use a trial-and-error procedure in which a
KL/r value is estimated, the stresses cFcr and
Fcr/c determined from AISC Table 4-22 or by
NSCP approach, required areas are calculated
and trial sections are selected-and checked
and revised if necessary.
kN and PL=555 kN if KL=3.96 m and A36 steel
is used.
6.2 AISC DESIGN TABLES
Another approach to the design of axially
loaded members is the use of the AISC Table 41. This approach is more direct than trial-anderror method done above. However, the table
provides design load and allowable load
without indicating if the section is slender or
not.
The table also provide load-carrying capacities
for various shapes and steel strength grades.
For cases where sections are weaker about the (b) W360x110; cPn=2198 kN > Pu=2108 kN;
x-axis, they are addressed in subsequent
W360x110: Pn/c = 1464 kN > Pa= 1430 kN.
sections.
(c) W310x74; cPn=1418 kN > Pu=1361kN;
W310x79: Pn/c = 1320 kN > Pa= 984 kN.
(d) W360x110; cPn=2427 kN > Pu=2220 kN;
LRFD and ASD; 2002 kN >1670 kN ; 1330
W360x122: Pn/c = 1782 kN > Pa= 1665 kN.
kN>1155 kN.
Repeat Problem 51 using Table 4-1.
(b) PD=450 kN, PL=980 kN, L=7.62 m, fixed at
bottom, pinned at top, W360.
(c) PD=534 kN, PL=450 kN, L=7.62m, fixed end
kN and PL=710 kN if KL=4.57 m and A992,
supports, W310.
Grade 50 steel is used.
(d) PD=1110 kN, PL=555 kN, L=5.64 m, pinned
end supports, W360.
Problem EXAMPLE 54: Ans. (a) W200x71;
Problem EXAMPLE 55: Ans. (a) W250x101;
cPn=1513 kN > Pu=1476 kN; W200x86: Pn/c
cPn=1619 kN > Pu=1450 kN; W250x101: Pn/c
= 1237 kN > Pa= 1111 kN.
= 1077 kN > Pa= 1001 kN.
Several building columns are to be designed,
A W250 section is to be selected to support the
using A992 steel and the AISC specification.
loads PD=378 kN and PL=623 kN. The member,
Select the lightest W sections and state the
which is to be 6.10 m, is fixed at the bottom
LRFD design strength cPn, and the ASD
and fixed against rotation but free to translate
allowable strength, Pn/c, for these columns
at the top. Use A992 steel.
that are described as follows:
(a) PD = 755 kN, PL=356 kN, L=4.88 m, pinned
end supports, W200.
Problem EXAMPLE 56: Ans. W360x110:

LRFD, cPn=3970 kN; W360x122: ASD,
Pn/c=2903 kN.
A W360 section is to be selected to support
the loads PD=1112 kN and PL=1557 kN. The
member is 5.50 m long with pinned end
supports and is laterally supported in the
weak direction at the one-third points of the
total column length. Use 345 MPa steel. Solve
in two methods; (a)trial and error method
using Table 4-22 and (b) AISC Table 4-1.
both LRFD and ASD.
A 7.315-m column in a braced frame building
is to be built into a wall in such a manner that
it will be continuously braced in its weak axis
direction but not about its strong axis
direction. If the member is to consist of 345
MPa and is assumed to have fixed ends,
select the lightest satisfactory W250 section
available using the AISC Specification. Loads
are PD=980 kN and PL=1645 kN.
Problem EXAMPLE 58: Ans. W310x226:

LRFD; W310x253 ASD.
A W310 section of 345 MPa steel is to be
selected to support the axial compressive
loads of PD=1670 kN and PL=2380 kN. The
member is 10.97 m long, is to be pinned at
top and bottom and is to have lateral support
at its one-quarter points, perpendicular to
the y-axis (pinned).
6.3 COLUMN SPLICES

When steel frames are high, columns must be
spliced to continuously connect them.
Normally, splices are done 1.2 m above
finished floors for workmen to conveniently
erect column members conveniently.
Typical columns splices are shown on the next
slides. Many other splicing techniques are
shown in Table 14-3 of the AISC Manual.
The splice plates are needed only for partly
carrying the axial loads and when columns are
subjected to shear and moment.
There is a big difference between splices of tension members and splices of compression
members. In tension members, the forces are fully transferred to the splices while for
compression members, only the remaining loads are to be carried by the splices.
Most economical column splice.
Only the flange thickness changes appreciably but

the internal inside depth is constant.
The bridge specifications spell out very

Sometimes, are applied to all four sides of a
carefully splice requirements for compression column; splices on webs (shear plates), splices
members but the AISC Specification does not. on flanges (moment plates).
For multistory buildings, the columns may be
Thickness of flange increases as we come
fabricated for one or more stories.
down.
Filler plates are necessary if the change in
It is usually more economical to use the same
overall depth at the spliced section is great.
column sizes for at least two stories only.
Problem EXAMPLE 59: Ans. W250x58 for columns BC and CD; W250x101 for column AB.
Assuming axial loads only, select W250 sections for the interior column of the laterally braced
frame shown in the accompanying illustration. Use Fy=345 MPa and the LRFD method only. A
column splice will be provided just above point B; therefore, select a column section for
column AB and a second different column section for column BC and CD. Miscellaneous data:
Concrete weighs 23.56 kN/m3. LL on roof=1.44 kPa. Roofing DL= 0.48 kPa. LL on floors= 3.6
kPa. Superimposed DL on floors= 0.576 kPa. Partition load on floors=0.72 kPa. All joints are
assumed to be pinned. Frames are 10.67 m on center.
7.620 m
4.270 m
4.270 m
5.490 m
7.620 m
6.4 BUILT-UP COLUMNS

When necessary, columns may be built-up to
consists of elements that are separated apart.
The most widely built-up compression member
is the double angle placed back-to-back with
proper spacing.
For long columns, it may be convenient to use
built-up sections where the parts of the
columns are spread out or widely separated
from each other (using laces).
6.5 BUILT-UP COLUMNS WITH

COMPONENTS IN CONTACT WITH EACH
OTHER.
Should a column consists of two equal-size
plates as shown, and should those plates not
be connected together, each plate will act as a
separate column, expected to carry
approximately half the total load.
The total moment of inertia is twice the
individual moment of inertia.
Should the two plates be connected together Should the plates be connected in a few places,
sufficiently to prevent slippage on each other, it would appear that the strength of the
as shown below, they will act as a unit. The
resulting column would be somewhere
moment of inertia is the moment of inertia of between the two situations just described.
the entire section and will be four times the
The greatest displacement between the two
moment of inertia of the section in the
plates tend to occur at the ends and the least
preceding slide. The deformation is different as displacement tends to occur at the mid-depth.
the column bends laterally.
As a result, connections placed at column ends
that will prevent slipping between the parts

have the greatest strengthening effect, while
those placed at mid-depth have the least
effect.
For this end of column subjected to slip

and the connection must extend longitudinally
resistant connection, the KL/r would be the
at least one and one-half times the maximum
same for the two. Thus, they theoretically carry width of the member.
the same loads but not practically employed When the component of a built-up column
for the portion where the elements tend to
consists of an outside plate, and if intermittent
separate.
welds are used along the edges of the
0.5
1.0
3
components, or if bolts are provided along all
=
=
gage lines at each section, their maximum
1 3
3
4
spacing is(AISC Specification E6.2.):
6
6
2
2
1. smax0.75to
2. smax12 in.
6.6 CONNECTION REQUIREMENTS FOR
BUILT-UP COLUMNS WHOSE COMPONENTS to = the thinner outside plate thickness.
For staggered connections,
ARE IN CONTACT WITH EACH OTHER.
Several requirements concerning built-up

smax1.12to
or 18 in.
columns are presented in AISC Specification E6.

High-strength bolts are referred to as being
When different components are in contact
snug-tight or slip-critical.
with each other, they must be welded or
Snug-tight bolts are those that are tightened
bolted.
If welded, length of weld must be at least equaluntil all the plies of a connection are in firm
contact with each other after full manual effort
to the maximum width of member.
If bolted, spacing of bolts must be less than or of a worker with a spud wrench or after a few
impacts with a pneumatic wrench.
equal to four times bolt diameter on center
Slip-critical bolts are tightened much more firmly than are snug-tight bolts that the shanks of
bolts have very high tensile stresses approaching near the lower bound of their yield stress.
Therefore, slippage is prevented due to friction.
Problem EXAMPLE 60: Ans. 2PL 16x300 mm

each (one ans.)
Design a column for PD=2200 kN and PL=3100
kN, using Fy=345 MPa and KL=3.60 m. A
W250x75( for which cPn=5339 kN and
Pn/c=3555kN from AISC Manual, Table4-1) is
on hand. Design cover plates to be snug-tight
bolted at 125 mm spacing to the W section as
shown below, to enable the column to
support the required load.
6.7 BUILT-UP COLUMNS WITH

COMPONENTS NOT IN CONTACT WITH
EACH OTHER
When column elements are not in contact with
each other, there is a need to hold them
together by means of lacings.
The purposes of the perforated cover plates
and the lacing, or latticework, are:
1. To hold the various parts parallel and the
correct distance apart.
2. To equalize the stress distribution between
the various parts.
289.6 mm
W250x75 (A=21226
mm2, d=289.6 mm,
bf=264.2 mm, Ix=298x106
mm4, Iy=98.23x106 mm4)
We must note that these members are

subjected to heavy loads that each part tends
to buckle laterally.
In addition to lacing, it is necessary to have tie
plates (also called stay plates or batten plates)
as near the ends of the member as possible,
and at intermediate points if the lacing is
interrupted.
Problem EXAMPLE 61: Ans. 2PL 16x300 mm

each (one ans.) 2-C250x37
Design a pair of C250 shown using Fy=345 MPa. For connection purposes, the back-to-back
distance of the channels is to be 250 mm. PD=300 kN and PL=900 kN. Consider both LRFD and
ASD methods. Check the section if slender or not.
15.70 mm
109.3 mm
7.315 m
250 mm
250 mm
Problem EXAMPLE 62: Ans. 6x50x300 mm

lacing bar; 3.5x162.5 x 240 mm end tie plate.
Using AISC Specification and 248 MPa steel,
design bolted single lacing inclined 45o for
the column of Problem 61. Assume that 20
mm-diameter bolts are used and that the
distance between the lines of bolts is 162.5
mm. Also design the end tie plates.
6.8 SINGLE-ANGLE COMPRESSION MEMBER
Some variations are given in the specification

for unequal leg angles if the leg length ratios
are <1.7 and if the shorter leg is connected.
In addition, AISC Equations E5-3 and E5-4 are
provided for cases where the single angles
are members of box or space trusses.
Problem EXAMPLE 63: Ans. cPn= 570.8 kN;
Pn/ .c = 380.5 kN
Determine the cPn and Pn/ c values for a
3.60-m long A 36 angle 150x150x22 simple
end connections, used in a planar truss. The
other web members meeting at the ends of
this member are connected on the same side
of the gusset plates.
6.9 SECTIONS CONTAINING SLENDER
ELEMENTS
Fortunately, many square and rectangular
HSS sections have slender walls. The effects
of slender elements on column strengths
have been included in the tables of Part 4
that designers rarely go through the
calculations to take into account those items.
Several equations are presented in AISC

Section E7.1 and E7.2 for the consideration
of members containing slender elements.
In the example to follow, the result of hand

calculations is lower than the values in Table
4-3 in the manual for rectangular HSS
sections because f was assumed to equal to
Fy, whereas in the proper equations it is
actually equal to Pn/Ae.
This conservative assumption will cause hand
calculations for design strengths, when
slender elements are present, to be on the
low, or safe, side.
Problem EXAMPLE 64: Ans. cPn= 734 kN; Pn/
.c = 489.3 kN
Determine the cPn and Pn/ c values for a
for a 6.1-m HSS 304.8x203.2x4.8 mm.
Assumed pin-ended member and Fy= 345
MPa.
6.10 FLEXURAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING OF
COMPRESSION MEMBERS
So far we only consider up to this point
flexural buckling (Euler buckling). When
doubly symmetrical sections such as the Ws
and Ss shapes are used as compression
members, torsion will not occur in these
sections as long as the if the lines of action of

the lateral loads pass through their shear
centers.
The shear center is that point in the cross
section of a member through which the
resultant of the transverse loads must pass
so that no torsion will occur.
Definitely torsional buckling occurs for single
symmetric sections such as channels, Ts, and
double angles.
Also, flexural-torsional buckling occurs in
unsymmetrical and symmetrical sections.
Even though loads pass through shear
centers, torsional buckling still may occur
because one still computes torsional
buckling strength for these members
because buckling load does not depend on
the nature of the axial or transverse loading
but depends on the cross-section properties,
column length, and support conditions.
There are four possible fashions that an
axially loaded compression member can fail:
Shear center locations of some common shapes.
1. By local buckling of elements that form the

cross section.
2. By flexural buckling
3. By torsional buckling
4. By flexural-torsional buckling
Doubly symmetrical column members are

subjected only to local buckling, flexural
buckling, and torsional buckling.
Torsional buckling can be reduced in order
not to control in the design by providing
sufficient end supports, arranging properly
the cross section and lateral supports.
The column design strengths given in the
AISC column tables for W, M, S, tube, and
pipe sections are based on flexural buckling.
Another effort to reduce torsional buckling is
to make open sections to form in the shape
of a box and to shorten the length of
members subject to torsion.
For a singly symmetrical section such as a tee

or double angle, Euler buckling may occur
about the x or y axis. For equal-leg single
angles, Euler buckling may occur about the zaxis. For all these sections, flexural-torsional
buckling is definitely a possibility and may
control (always for unequal-leg single angle
columns).
The values given in the AISC column load
tables for double-angle and structural tee
sections were computed for buckling about
the weaker of the x or y axis and for flexuraltorsional buckling.
The average designer does not consider the
torsional buckling of symmetrical shapes or
the flexural-torsional buckling of
unsymmetrical shapes.
The above assumption or feeling is wrong
when we consider symmetrical and
unsymmetrical columns made up of thin
plates where torsional buckling and flexuraltorsional buckling may significantly reduce
column capacities.
There are four steps involved in solving capacities of tees and double angles:

Pn/ .c = 302.2 kN
ASD allowable strength of the section shown
if snug-tight bolts 900 mm on center are used
to connect the A36 angles. The two angles,
127x88.9x12.7, are oriented with the long
legs back-to-back (2L5x3 x LLBB) and
separated by 15.24 mm. The effective length,
(KL)x=(KL)y=4.572 m.
15.24
mm

Pn/ .c = 471.9 kN
ASD allowable strength of the section
consists of 4-76.2x76.2x6.35 mm angles
arranged as shown. The member is 7.315 m
long with pinned ends and is made of A36
steel. Also design single lacing and end tie
plates, assuming connections are made to
the angles with 20 mm- bolts.
300 mm
300 mm
CHAPTER 7: Design of Axially Loaded

Compression Members (Continued) and
Column Base Plates
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Further Discussion of Effective Lengths
7.3. Frames Meeting Alignment Chart
Assumptions
7.4. Frames Not Meeting Alignment Chart
Assumptions As To Joint Rotations
7.5. Stiffness Reduction Factors
7.6. Columns Leaning On Each Other for InPlane Design
7.7. Base Plate for Concentrically Loaded
Columns
7.7.1. Plate Area
7.7.2. Plate Thickness
7.7.3. Moment Resisting Column
Bases
computing load-carrying capacities of columns.

2. To use the alignment charts in order to
determine the effective length of a certain
frame element/member.
3. To discuss the alignment charts in order to
estimate the effective length of members in a
braced frame and in an unbraced frame.
4. To note the conditions for frames not
meeting alignment chart assumptions as to
joint rotations in order to correct effective
lengths of members before reading alignment
charts.
5. To apply stiffness reduction factor correctly

in order to adjust the stiffness of real structure
thereby making the results of analysis accurate.
6. To discuss the effects of leaning columns in
order to understand the why these columns do
not fail right away.
7. To determine the loads carried by a
concentrically loaded column in order to
1. To orient students with a method of
determine the plate area and plate thickness.
computing the available strength of
compression members by the Effective Length 8. To be familiar with the allowable and limit
Method in order to have another method of stresses of base plates in order to design them.
7.1. Introduction
In this chapter we confine our focus to the
available axial strength that columns in an
unbraced frame ( moment frame) are
considered.
There are two methods in the AISC manual
that are discussed:
1. DM the Direct Analysis Method in which
certain factors are used and eliminates the
requirement for calculating the effective length
factors, K.
2. ELM The Effective Length Factor which is
one method discussed in this chapter.
Both methods are discussed in more detail in
chapter 11.
Both methods are discussed in more detail in
chapter 11.
Our focus in this chapter is the determination
of the available strength of compression
member Pn using the ELM.
7.2. Further Discussion of Effective Lengths

The effective lengths of columns that are
braced against sides way were given in Table in
5.1 and these values are satisfactory for
preliminary designs for compression members
in a braced frame.
Should the columns be part of a frame subject
to sidesway, a good practice is to make use of
alignment chart. These charts can also be used
for members braced against sidesway.
Sidesway refers to a type of buckling that
occurs where the frames deflect laterally due
to the presence of lateral loads or
unsymmetrical vertical loads, or where frames
themselves are unsymmetrical.
When the members are part of a frame with

diagonal bracing or rigid shear walls as shown
in the figure on the next slide, members are
provided with some rotational restraint at their
ends and K factors will fall somewhere
between cases (a) and (d) of Table 5.1.
The AISC Specification Appendix 7.2.3(a) states

that K=1.0(conservative) should be used for
colums in frames with sidesway inhibited,
unless an analysis shows that a smaller value
can be used.
The true effective length of a column is a
property of the whole structure, of which the
column is a part. The bracing system and other
lateral support seem to be the main factors
that resist sidesway.
Theoretical mathematical analyses may be
used to determine effective lengths, but such
procedures are typically too lengthy and
perhaps too difficult for the average designer.
The charts were developed from slopedeflection analysis of the frames that included
the effect of column loads.
The only way these charts can be used is to
have preliminary design so that starting
sections can be used.
When we say sidesway is inhibited, we mean
there is something present other than just
columns and girders to prevent sidesway or
the horizontal translation of the joints. That
means, we have a definite system of lateral
bracing, or we have shear walls.
If we say that sidesway is uninhibited, we are

The two procedures therefore in determining saying that resistance to horizontal translation
effective lengths is to consult Table 5.1 with
is supplied only by the bending strength and
some interpolation and the use of alignment
stiffness of the girders and beams of the
charts described in this section.
frame in question, with its continuous joints.
The most common method for obtaining
The resistance to rotation furnished by the
effective lengths is to employ the charts shown beams and girders meeting at one end of a
on the next slide, which were developed by O.G. column is dependent on the rotational stiffness
Julian and L.S. Lawrence, and frequently are
of those members.
referred to as the Jackson and Moreland charts,
after the firm where Julian and Lawrence worked.
The rotational restraint at the end of the

particular column is proportional to the ratio of
the sum of the column stiffnesses to the girder
stiffnesses meeting at that joint.
The determination of K factors:

1. Select the appropriate chart (sidesway
inhibited or sidesway uninhibited).
2. Compute G at each end of the column and
label the values GA and GB as desired.
3. Draw a straight line on the chart between GA
and GB values, and read K where the line hits the
center K scale.
When G factors are being computed for a rigid

frame (rigid in both directions), the torsional
resistance of the perpendicular girders is
generally neglected in the calculations. With
reference to the figure shown below, we are
calculating G for buckling in the plane of the
paper and so torsional resistance of the girder is
negligible.
7.3. Frames Meeting Alignment Chart

Assumptions
The Jackson and Moreland charts were
developed on the basis of a certain set of
assumptions, listed completely in Section 7.2 of
the Commentary Appendix 7 of the AISC
Specification. Among these assumptions are:
1. The members are elastic, have constant
cross sections, and are connected with rigid
joints.
2. All columns buckle simultaneously.
3. For braced frames, the rotations at opposite
ends of each beam are equal in magnitude,
and each beam bends in single curvature.
4. For unbraced frames, the rotations at
opposite ends of each beam are equal in
If the girders at a joint are very stiff (very large
magnitude, but each beam bends in double
EI/L), the value of G will approach zero and the K
curvature.
factors will be small.
5. Axial compression forces in the girders are
If G is small, the column moments cannot rotate negligible.
the joint very mush; thus the joint is close to a
fixed-end situation.
Usually G is appreciably larger than zero, resulting
in significantly larger values of K.
Problem EXAMPLE 67: Ans. 1.27, 1.20. 1.17

Using the alignment chart from the AISC Specification, determine the effective length factors for
columns IJ, FG, and GH of the frame shown in the accompanying figure, assuming that the frame
is subject to sidesway and that all the assumptions on which the alignment charts were
developed are met.
7.30 m
W610x92
W250x58
3.6 m
W610x92
W250x58
3.6 m
W250x73
W530x66
W530x74
W250x115 W250x80 W250x80
W530x66
W250x67
W250x49.1 W250x49.1
W460x52
4.25 m
9.15 m
Problem EXAMPLE 68: Ans. KEF=0.84 ;

KBC=0.81; KFG=1.205 ; KCD=1.17
6.10 m
W200x35.9 W200x35.9
W200x46.1 W200x35.9
The values of Kx and Ky should be examined

separately because the framing conditions in
the two directions might be different. Many
Determine the effective length factors for all multistory frames consist of rigid frames in one
the columns of the frame shown in the
direction and conventionally connected frames
accompanying figure. Note that columns CD with sway bracing in the other.
and FG are subject to sidesway, while
In addition, the points of lateral support may
columns BC and EF are braced against
be different.
sidesway. Assume that all of the assumptions
There is a set of simple equations in computing
on which the alignment charts were
effective length factors.
developed are met.
The most convenient way is to incorporate
W410x46.1
these equations in a computer program so as
generated Ks can be easily obtained.
3.05 m Occasionally, large values of Ks such as 2 or 3
W460x52
W410x38.8
or even higher would result to checking on the
part of the designers finding them compeletely
3.05 m unreasonable.
7.30 m
7.4. Frames Not Meeting Alignment Chart

Assumptions As To Joint Rotations
For the frame shown below, it can be shown
that the rotation of joint B in the frame is twice
as large as the rotation at the same joint
assumed in the construction of the
nomographs.
Because beam BC in the figure is only one-half

as stiff as the value assumed in the
development of the alignment charts, there is
a need to adjust values of beam stiffness
before proceeding to the alignment chart by Problem EXAMPLE 69: Ans. Ans. KEF=0.84 ;
using Table 7.1 above.
KBC=0.795; KFG=1.205 ; KCD=1.16
Redo Problem 68 employing Table 7.1 where
appropriate.
7.5. Stiffness Reduction Factors

The alignment charts were developed
according to a set of idealized conditions that
are seldom, if ever, completely met in a real
structure.
Included among those conditions are the
following:
1. The column behavior is purely elastic.
2. All columns buckle simultaneously.
3. All members have constant cross sections.
4. All joints are rigid, and so on.
If the actual conditions are different from these
assumptions, unrealistically high K factors may
be obtained from the charts, and
overconservative designs may result.
A large percentage of columns will appear in
the inelastic range as shown in the figure
above. Therefore, the chart K values are too
conservative and should be corrected.
The correction is presented in section C2-3 of
the AISC Specification.
Though the alignment charts were developed

for elastic column action, they may be used for
an inelastic column situation if the G value is
multiplied by a correction factor, b (shown on
the next slide).
Problem EXAMPLE 70: Ans. (a) LRFD=3670 kN;

ASD=2442kN; LRFD=3728 kN, ASD=2505 kN
(a) Determine the available column strength for column
AB in the frame shown if Fy=345 MPa, and only inplane behavior is considered. Furthermore, assume
that the column immediately above or below AB are
the same size as AB, and also that all the other
assumptions on which the alignment charts were
developed are met.
(b) Repeat part (a) if inelastic behavior is considered and
PD = 890kN and PL = 1510 kN.
W460x52
W460x60
W530x66
W310x107
W610x82
4.572 m
4.572 m
7.315 m
8.535 m
Problem EXAMPLE 71: Ans. (a) LRFD=4872 kN;

7.6. Columns Leaning On Each Other
ASD=3243 kN; LRFD=4885 kN, ASD=3270 kN
For In-Plane Design
(a) Determine the available column strength for column So that each column in an unbraced
AB in the frame shown for 345 MPa steel. Otherwise, frame is safe, using the alignment chart
the conditions are exactly the same as those
with sidesway uninhibited, will make K
described for Problem 70. Assume elastic behavior. factors greater than 1.0.
(b) Assume inelastic behavior and PD=1065 kN and PL
A column buckles by sidesway only
=2000 kN.
when all other columns at that level
buckle. This is the assumption made
with alignment charts.
4.267 m
W610x113
W610x113
If this is the case, the columns cannot
support or brace each other columns
W610x147
4.267 m
are also on the verge of buckling by
sidesway.
Of course, in some or most cases, some
columns in a certain level will have excess
9.15 m
9.15 m
buckling strength that they can brace
some columns that are ready to buckle.
For instance, when the buckling load of
exterior columns have not been reached
while the interior columns are ready to
buckle, then no buckling of the interior
columns can occur because they can lean
to the exterior columns.
Problem EXAMPLE 72: Ans. (RIGHT) W 310x117,

LRFD; W310x129 ASD ; (LEFT) W310x253, LRFD ;
W310x283, ASD.
Design W310 columns for the bent shown in
the accompanying figure, with 345 MPa steel.
The columns are braced top and bottom
against sidesway out of the plane of the frame
so that Ky=1.0 in that direction. Sidesway is
possible in the plane of the frame, the x-x axis.
Design the right-hand column as a leaning
column, Kx=Ky =1.0 and the left hand column as
a moment frame column, Kx determined from
the alignment chart. PD= 1555 kN and PL = 1068
kN for each column. The beam has a moment
connection to the left column, and has a simple
or pinned connection to the right column.
W530x150
4.572 m
7.62 m
Problem EXAMPLE 73: Ans. (Interior) W

360x262, LRFD; W360x287 ASD ; (Exterior)
W360x314, LRFD and ASD.
Design W360 columns for the bent shown in
the accompanying figure, with 345 MPa steel.
The columns are braced top and bottom
against sidesway out of the plane of the frame
so that Ky=1.0 in that direction. Sidesway is
possible in the plane of the frame, the x-x axis.
Design the interior column as a leaning column,
Kx=Ky = 1.0 and the exterior columns, Kx
determined from the alignment chart.
1110 kN
1780 kN
W690x170
2225 kN
3560 kN
Problem EXAMPLE 74: Ans. LRFD cPn= 5361

kN> Pu= 4892 kN; ASD Pn/c = 3572
kN>Pa=3337 kN
The frame shown in the accompanying
illustration is unbraced against sidesway about
the x-x axis. Determine Kx for column AB.
Support conditions in the direction
perpendicular to the frame are such that
Ky=1.0. Determine if the W360x162 column for
member AB is capable of resisting a dead load
of 1110 kN and a live load of 2225 kN. A992
steel is used.
1110 kN
1780 kN
W690x170
8.535 m
W360x134
3.962 m
W460x74
5.486 m
8.535 m
W460x82
W360x162
7.620 m
4.572 m
7.7. Base Plates for Concentrically

Loaded Columns
The figure shows the recommended
location of maximum moment on base
plates as suggested in AISC
Specifications.
7.7.1. Plate Area

When the base plate covers the entire area of
the concrete, the nominal bearing strength of
the concrete(P) is:
P = 0.85fcA1
Where:
fc = is the 28-day compressive strength of the
concrete and A1 is the area of the base plate.
The expression A2 is the maximum area of the

portion of the supporting concrete, which is
geometrically similar to and concentric with the
loaded area.
For LRFD design c = 0.65, while for ASD design

c is 2.31.
The quantity
For NSCP, Fc= 0.85/2.31 0.35fc.
2
1
is limited to a maximum
value of 2.
Should the full area of the concrete support not

be covered by the plate, the concrete
underneath the plate, surrounded by concrete
outside, will be somewhat stronger.
For NSCP, Fc= 0. /2.31 0.35fc but not exceeding

(1.7/2.31) 0.70fc.
A1min = bfd
Problem EXAMPLE 75: Ans. Use B PL

45 mmx 435 mm x 435 mm
Design a square base plate with A36 steel for a
W250x 89 column with a service dead load of
780 kN and a service live load of 1220 kN. The
concrete 28-day strength fc, is 20.70 Mpa. The
base plates rests on 610 mm x 610 mm
concrete pedestal.
Problem EXAMPLE 76: Ans. Use B PL
25 mm x 240 mm by 290 mm.
Design a rectangular base plate for a W 200x42
column with PD=356 kN and PL=665 kN if A36
steel is used and fc = 20.7 MPa for concrete.
Assume that the column is supported by a 2.15
x 2.15 m concrete footing. Use LRFD and ASD
design methods.

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COURSE: (CE 520-Steel Design)

11. Bending and Axial Force

GENERAL OBJECTIVES (continued):

CHAPTER 1: Introduction to Structural

7. Stress-Strain Relationships in Structural Steel

19. Calculation Accuracy

7. To discuss efforts in improving strength of

Toughness steel has both strength and

Fatigue cyclic stress reversals or large

Steel is defined as a combination of iron

They also further learned that the addition

The Bessemer converter was commonly

Steel sections are usually designated by the

Also known as W beams.

Also known as S beams.

An L6 x 6 x is an equal leg angle, each leg 1.5 Metric units

A WT 18 x 105 is a tee obtained by splitting

Other section designations are found in the

These are commonly used for light

1.6 Cold-formed Light-Gage Steel Shapes

1.7 Stress-Strain Relationships in Structural

The curve will continue up to its maximum

Carbon steels have their contents limited to

1.9 High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels

Possible savings could be realized for:

1.10 Measurement of Toughness

Different structural steels have different

1.11 Jumbo Sections

Included among the requirements are:

When specimen are tested in such a way that

If a joint is highly restrained, the shrinkage

1.13 Furnishing of Structural Steel

Of the 400-500 companies in the US, most

The erection of steel buildings is more a

1.15 Responsibilities of the Structural

1.16 Economical Designs of Steel Members

The labor costs involved in the fabrication

5. The costs of erection and fabrication for

1.17 Failure of Structures

6. Structural steel members should be painted

Benjamin Franklin once said a wise man

A study of past failures is more important than

The collapse of structures is usually due to

7. It is very desirable to keep repeating the

1.18 Handling and Shipping of Structural

1.19 Calculation Accuracy

1.20 Computers and Structural Steel Design

CHAPTER 2: Specifications, Loads, and

2.1 Specifications and Building Codes

2.5 Environmental Loads

Bridges and towers are generally not

Wind loads come from the wind pressure

The forces due to horizontal acceleration

Two categories of limit state: 1. strength ;

Another factor to be considered in seismic

STRENGTH limit states define load-carrying

2.6 Load and Resistance Factor

The methods in ensuring that the resistance

These are the two acceptable methods for

All these limit states must be prevented.