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THEORY AND PRACTICE

OF DESIGN.
Digitized by the Internet Archive

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http://www.archive.org/details/designtheoryOOjackrich
THEORY AND PRACTICE

OF DESIGN.
AN ADVANCED TEXT-BOOK ON DECORATIVE
ART.
BEING A SEQUEL TO THE AUTHOR'S
"LESSONS ON DECORATIVE DESIGN."
BY
FRANK
JACKSON,
G.
LECTURER ON
AND TEACHER OF TECHNICAL ART

THE BIRMINGHAM MUNICIPAL SCHOOL OF ART.
PRINCIPLES OF ORNAMENT, ADVANCED DESIGN,

PROCESSES, ETC., IN
Seven Hundred
Illustrations.
LONDON: CHAPMAN AND HALL, Ld

1894.
[All rights
reserved,']
HKisw
73
F. M.
EVANS AND
CO.,
LIMITED,
PRINTERS,
CRYSTAL PALACE,
S.E.
MR
TO THE MEMORY OF THE LATE

F.
W.
MOODY
THE FOLLOWING PAGES ARE GRATEFULLY DEDICATED.
PREFACE.
The
"
way
kind
Lessons
critics,
on
in
which
Decorative
former
Design,"
a widely expressed desire that
volume, which,
volume,
it
it
is
trust,
specially
may be
mine,
of
received
me
by
to yield to
should write a more
advanced work on the same subject.
whom
was
and students, has led
teachers,
book
Hence
the present
of service to those for
designed.
Like the previous
does not pretend to be a book of designs,
but a book
on
design
not
picture
book,
but a
school text-book.
The
illustrations
and diagrams have been selected
and designed with the view of explaining principles

and directing
of
practice.
Many
of
them are reproductions
impromptu sketches drawn on the blackboard while
lecturing to
insisted
my
classes.
Throughout the work
on the observance of
principles,
construction, and the law of development.
regard
have
for
These are
PREFACE.
necessary aids in the infant stage of a student's education.
They
years advance.
experience he
may be
will
not seem so important to him as
With
will
come
the
increase of knowledge and
to see
how
far rule
and precept
wisely relaxed, and will enter on the enjoyment
of that true freedom which
is
the heritage of the well-
grounded student.
FRANK
March, 1894.
G.
JACKSON.
CTlTIYEHSIT-5
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Introductory
Object of the book
Tendency of modern Decorative Art The prinprinciples

and order, p. 2 Importance of
ciples of irregularity
first
Fitness to purpose illustrated,/.
3.
CHAPTER
I.
Elementary Forms and Methods of Arrangement

The
evolution of lines
and
figures
methods of laying out ornament
used in ornament, p. 7
:
explained
Simple
diapering, chequering, spotting,
powdering, striping, banding, panelling, p,

the diaper,/. 13
The difference between
10 The development
spotting
of
and powdering
Imbrication and vermiculation,/. 19 Some applications

Natural examples of decoration by spotting and
of the foregoing
striping, p. 20.
CHAPTER
II.
Application of Ornament
Suitability
of
decoration
to
22
particular
purposes
characteristics of the surfaces of a wall
and a
of patterns applicable to curtains, p. 23
The
surfaces of
rooms and the
distribution of
considered
textile
The
The
nature
division of the wall
ornament,/. 24
Plinth,
CONTENTS.
dado, wall-vail,
structural
and panels their relative

and their effects
frieze, cornice, pilasters,
value Various proportional
divisions
Practical considerations in
" Level" and "drop" repeats explained,
30 Some methods of verifying " repeats," p. 31 The colouring of
wall-papers The nature of patterns best suited to the process of
block printing, p. 33 The frieze
structure and ornamental
treatment, p. 35 Borders
their relation to panels
their uses
and general treatment,^, yi The setting out of ornamental borders
on structural lines considered, p. 46 Pilasters their structural
value and their decoration, p. 50 The different methods of setting
out ornament on pilasters compared The proportional, spacing
upon the appearance of rooms,/. 27
designing wall-papers,/. 28
p.
its
and the distribution of elements employed illustrated,/. 52

The cornice and mouldings their composition and decoration, p. 53
The horizontal surfaces of a room, ceiling and floor, p. 55 The
function of ceilings and their suitable decoration
different
methods of setting out, p. 56 Arched, domed, and coffered ceilings,
p. 59 The characteristics of the floor surface Decoration by
out,
parquetry and
reference
Oriental
to
carpets,
designs
pointed out, p. 63
room, p.
60 Lines and
expression of
the
carpet
p.
even
flatness
over European
Harmony
tones
ones
considered
in
Superiority
of
The
between the walls and
difference
floor of
64.
CHAPTER
III.
Methods of Expression
Expression by
line,
66
by surface massing or spacing, and by relief-
Outline for the expression of

surface quantities, modelling
The
form, painting for expression of
and carving
importance of good outline, p. 67
use of outline
in outline
Schools
The
right
drawing,/.
for the expression of
and wrong use of thick and
68 Brush
bulk
Mr. Ruskin on the proper
expression
thin lines
neglect of
Japanese power of drawing developed
it
in
Art
by the early use of
CONTENTS,
PAGE
the brush
Quotation
Different
p. 72
from Mr. Ruskin on the use of the brush,
methods
work
in brush
juxtaposed, and superposed tones, p. 75
work
The
graduated,
and carved
two distinctive kinds, p. 76 Different degrees of relief

on relief work, p. 77 Relief work in relation
effect of lighting
to material
and
Uniform,
Modelled
silver,
terra-cotta, light
p. 80
Relief work
and dark woods, bronze,
iron,
heightened by colour, p. 82
work with the ground perforated, p. 83 Pierced work

and its influence on other forms of decoration, p. 84
sgraffito, and gesso decoration,^. 85.
gold
Relief
principles
Stencilling,
of,
CHAPTER
IV.
Elements of Ornament
The elements
of
'
ornament
87
classified
Geometrical
elements,
frets,
etc., p. 88.
CHAPTER
V.
Architectural Elements
90
The influence of Architecture on Orna The modification of architectural details to suit
Definition of Architecture
mental Art, p. 91
purposes illustrated by a comparison of the Greek and
special
Roman
Doric columns, p. 92
The
importance of studying Archi-
Ornamental
origin
The volute scroll
and
modifications in ornament Architectural forms in ironwork
the baluster, broken pediment,
p. 96 Cartouches,
their origin and use in ornament, p. 99 The development of the
cartouche from cut paper Historical examples of the modification
of the cartouche Combination of the cartouche with strap work,
tecture
Principles
details derived
derived from Architecture, p. 94
from the same source
its
:
p, 100.
etc.,
its
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
VI.
PAGE
Industrial Elements
The
101
difference between architectural
and
one of
is
The
ornamental employment
aesthetic,
mnemonic, and symbolic
degree rather than principle, p. 102

of industrial objects classified
industrial elements
Terms explained, examples given and described The difference

108 The use of
between a monogram and a cipher explained,

draperies, knots,
and ribbons
mentsThe flying ends
in
p.
grouping tools and musical instru-
of ribbons
their treatment,/.
examples of the decorative grouping of armour,
CHAPTER
10 Historic
tools, etc., described.
VII.
Vegetable Elements
112
Plants should not have a literal interpretation
Gardiner Wilkinson
leaves
and the
The
Quotation
from
life-history of plants, p.
113 Personal research
Natural ornamental "start-points" versus
and
its
ones Different
artificial
forms of roots and their ornamental treatment
The
ornament,
application to
principle of
p. 116
The
importance of studying the growth of plants, branches, stems,
Abstracted
built
lines
from
trees, leaves,
flowers,
up upon them,/. 118 Patterns based upon
from cloud and wave forms,
p. 121
sycamore, ash, and horse-chestnut,
growth
and
and
Bud
p. 122
in
114
the natural world for motives and suggestions essential,/.
natural growth
Sir
necessity of studying the ideal forms of
etc.
and ornaments
lines abstracted
forms in spring
lilac,
The principle of flower-
the suggestiveness of the different forms of inflorescence
their application to ornament, p. 124
of seed vessels, p.
character, p. 129
126 Sea- weeds and

The decorative value
The
shells
decorative quality
:
of fungi
their
ornamental
and mosses
lesson from the study of ferns under the microscope, in the enrich-
ment of surface by the superposition of detail,/. 131

lines in cut wood,/. 132
The revival and decadence
foliage
Ornamental
of "acanthus"
characteristics of Renaissance, Louis Quatorze, " Rococo,"
and Louis Seize foliage,/. 134 The festoon its origin, principles,
and various treatments historical examples described,/. 137.
:
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
xiii
VIII.
PAGE
Animal Elements
The
142
early use of animal forms in decoration
ment, p. 143
Animals
in
animal creations in Art explained

Phoenix,
The
their symbolic
Egyptian and Assyrian Art
Chimsera,
Griffin,
employ-
Fabulous
Dragon,
Winged Sea-Horse, etc., p. 144

using animals in ornament The necessity of
Pegasus, Sea-Horse,
difficulty
of
analysing animal forms for the ornamental lines existing in their

composition, p. 148
ornament
Birds
The
amalgamation of animal forms with
ornament
in
their decorative value
of the ornamental treatment of quadrupeds
Wings
Examples
and birds described,
and feather arrangement Comand bat, p. 152 Historic examples

of the application of wings to human figures and animals, and of
Decoration on the plumage
their ornamental treatment, p. 154
p. 150
structure
their
parison of the wings of a bird
of birds suggesting the setting out of ornament
and described, p.
moths,
etc.,
p. 158
arrangement of
56
The
Fishes
fins,
and
Snakes and lizards
examples given
as decorative material:
typical forms,
the ornamental treatment of fishes,^. 160
their use in
decorative value of insects, butterflies,
ornament,^. 161.
CHAPTER
IX.
The Human Figure

The
162
Ornamental Art
influence of the figure element in
Method
of
studying the figure for ornamental purposes and for composition of
The necessity of analysis mistakes in drawing pointed

164 Application of the figure to the filling of spaces,/. 167
line,^. 163
out, p.
Demi-figures
origin,^. 170
p.
terminating in foliage, reasons
Composition of figures with
172 Figures used
as architectural supports
mones, Termini,^. 174
Application of
human and
partly animal
and probable
Caryatides, Tela-
wings to the human form
the Egyptian and Assyrian methods, p.

partly
for,
and without ornament,
176 Fabulous
their symbolic
creatures,
meanings explained,
p. 177.
,-
'-
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
X.
PAGE
The Evolution of Industrial Objects Cups,

The
origin of vessels of capacity
Vases, Etc.
cups and vases,/. 183
...
Modification
of an elementary form for receiving water from a spring, to the
purposes of easy
transit, p.
184
Early
stages in the development
of the beaker from a natural type, p. 185

further enrichment of their forms
p. 186
The
alteration
Various forms of beakers described,/.
characteristics
p. 189
by
and development
Methods
reasons for the

of outline,
188
Hanaps
the stem, knop, cover,
and
etc.,
their
finial,
of enrichment arising out of the nature of the
material in which these vessels were wrought, p.
190 Description
of
various forms of hanaps belonging to different periods, p. 193
Vases
how developed and
the contour of vases

p.
194 Illustrations
their characteristics
by subdivision
The
of various forms
of
Enrichment
effect
of
of mouldings,
vases described
The
development of carafes and bottle shapes, p. 196 The chalice

developed from the primitive bowl form Reasons for the raised
stem, introduction of the knop, the extension of the base,
shaping of
the chalice
its
plan, p.
197 The enrichment
Description
of examples,/. 200
How jugs and ewers
appear to have been developed The development of the
a spout form, /. 201

/. 202
and the
of the various parts of
lip into
The application of handles to pouring vessels,
Different forms of jugs and ewers described, p. 204

Tankards and flagons developed from covered beakers
Their
characteristics, /. 205
described, /. 206
Various
Classification
forms of tankards, and a flagon

of
handles belonging to hollow
and carrying purposes The essential

parts of handles from which decoration is developed, /. 208 The
object of tracing the development of the foregoing varieties of cups,
etc.
To the designer Nature should be the source of inspiration
vessels, for lifting, pouring,
How
natural forms should
be used, p.
210 Varieties
obtained by adopting the natural methods of
of form
lateral, vertical,
and
182
CONTENTS.
partial expansion,
details of
and the use of controlling shapes
a complex form, p. 212
and contrast necessary
Proportion,
to regulate the
stability,
to pleasant proportion, repose,
variety,
and unity-
Four different ways of
Stability, true and
Proportion in laying out decoration, p. 214

setting out surface decoration on vases
On
the use of figures as supports in industrial objects,^. 215.
false
INIVERSIT
LIST OF PLATES.
PLATE
PAGE
i. Diagrams
of Diapering, Chequering,
Panelling, Spotting, and Powdering
ii.Varieties of
Striping,
Formal Diapers
12
in.The Development of Free Diapers

iii#.
15
Method of arranging the Pattern of a Free Diaper
iv. Historic Diapers, and their Construction
16
17
v. Designs illustrating the application of Chequering,

Spotting, Striping, and Panelling to defined
spaces
18
vi. Stripe Patterns applied to Curtains

vii.
viii.
25
Horizontal
and Vertical Divisions of the Wall

Surface of Rooms
Historic Examples of Friezes and Pilasters
...
ix. Designs showing the relation of Borders to Panels
55
XL Classification
xil Decoration of
53
3>
3)
of Borders according to treatment

Ceilings
26
39
43
44
48
57
LIST OF PLATES.
PLATE
xiii.
PAGE
Diagrams
showing the right and wrong Decorative

Treatments of Floors, Parquetry, and Carpets
6i
xiv. Illustrations of Line, Brush, and Relief Expression,

and the right and wrong treatments of pierced
Work
71
xv. Examples of Ornament expressed by the direct

use of the Brush
xvi. Effect of Lighting on Relief-work
75
79
Examples of Architectural Details, and of Ornaments DERIVED FROM THEM, ETC
93
xviil Examples of Ribbons, Knots, and the development

of Cartouches from Cut Paper
97
xvii.
xix. Historic Examples of Cartouches

xx.
xxi.
Symbols and
Ciphers
Mnemonic
Signs,
98
Monograms,
and
105
Historic Examples of the use of Industrial Objects

in
Decoration
109
Diagrams of Roots, and their O rnamental Treatment

xxiii. Drawings of Trees, Clouds, and Waves, and of
xxii.
Ornaments derived from them, etc
i i
117
Ornamental Lines abstracted from Leaves and

Flowers, and their Ornamental Use
119
xxv. Sketches from Nature, from which the lines on

THE PRECEDING PLATE WERE TAKEN
120
xxvi. Spring Leaf-buds of the Lilac, Horse Chestnut,

Sycamore, and Ash Trees
123
xxiv.
xxvii.
Diagrams
of the Inflorescence of Plants, and of

their application to ornament
xxvi ii. Various Fruit-forms suitable for
Ornament
...
125
127
LIST OF PLATES.
xix
xxix. Sketches of Sea-weeds and Shells
129
xxx. Drawings of Fungi and Mosses from Gerard's

"Herbal"
130
xxxl Drawings from Ferns under the
Microscope, in
illustration of Natural Decoration by Spotting,
Striping, etc.
133
xxxii. Sketches of Historic Ornament, illustrating the

Development and Decadence of Acanthus Foliage
xxxiii.
Examples
of Festoons, Greek, Roman, and Italian
xxxiv. Fabulous Animals, etc
135
140
145
xxxv. Examples of the Composition of Quadrupeds and

Birds with Ornament
...
xxxvi. Wings and Wing Structure
151
153
xxxvil Historic Examples of the Application of Wings

to Human and Animal Forms
155
of a Snake, Lizard, and Insect The

Markings on a Butterfly's Wing and the Plumage
of Birds, with their Ornamental Application...
157
xxxviii. Drawings
xxxix. Fishes, with their Ornamental Treatment
...
xl. Analytic Lines of the Human Figure

xli.
Examples
of the Adaptation
variously shaped spaces
of
xLii. Examples of the Composition of the
159
165
Figures
to
1
69
Human Figure
with and without ornament, and of figures

as Structural Supports
xli 11.
Sketches of fabulous
Human Creatures
xliv. Illustrations of the Development of the Beaker
xlv. hanaps of different periods

xlvi.
Vases
of different Periods and Countries
173
179
187
19
195
LIST OF PLATES.
xx
PLATE
xlvii.
Chalices,
PAGE
with Diagrams of Development
199
xlviil Ewers and Jugs of various shapes; Diagrams of

Lips and Lines of Composition
xlix.Tankards and Flagon
203
Illustrations of Orna-
mental Handles
207
l. Examples of Vases, etc., derived from Nature

Diagrams illustrating Proportion and the
methods of setting out Ornament on Vases ...
213
INTRODUCTORY.
a former work, " Lessons on Decorative Design,"
IN
I
art,
endeavoured to show the origin of decorative
that
it
mainly arose out of construction, and that
subsequent developments
were the
of
result
the en-
deavours to combine with inventive forms other details
borrowed from Nature by the active co-operation of
The book
being
an elementary one, the student's attention was
only
man's imitative and inventive powers.
invited
either
to
In
further of
considered.
in
ff
consideration
composed of simple
geometrical
world.
the
character,
the
and
Some
decorative
art
constructive
derived
or
following
these,
ornamental
of
also
pages
of
from
I
elements,
forms
the vegetable
propose
others
of
not
to
treat
previously
of the latter claim a higher rank

;
the
principles
advocated
in
B
the
THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

book
earlier
also
will
be
more
and
applied
fully
elucidated.
The
history of
ornament shows
main based upon construction,
it
that,
while
in the
it is
has been largely and
splendidly developed by the addition of a vast
number
of elements derived from every part of the natural world.
Modern
decorative art has, however, been
depend upon natural objects

constant peril of losing
danger
ment
arises,
not so
its
made
for its material that
so to
it is
much from
in
This
essential characteristics.
the fact of the employ-
of natural forms, as from the temptation to indulge
in realism
temptation due to the great advance
The
in imitative art.
made
principle of irregularity, the chief
characteristic of the picturesque, has thus
been unduly
emphasized to the almost complete neglect of the principle

of order, which
is
the basis of decorative art inherited
from construction.
in
tion
ornamental
Giving way to the imitative temptaart
leads
to various
Observe, for instance, the decoration of

rooms, the walls, ceilings, doors,
etc.,
bad
results.
many modern
covered, in childish
wilfulness, with a variety of realistic " patterns."
the effect produced

ture,"
it
"new deparany one who really
may be regarded
will suggest, to the
mind of
While
as a
possesses but an elementary knowledge of ornamental

art,
that the pictorial treasures of the household
deserted their proper boundaries, and settled
down
have
in
INTRODUCTORY.
haphazard fashion
"
place for everything, and everything in
A careful
in
its
maxim,
in utter disregard of that useful

its
place."
study of the development of
art, particularly
many
a false notion
stages, will
earliest
correct
respecting this matter, and will tend,
more than anything
towards the formation of
Another good
else,
be obtained by such study

first
principles,
forms
i.e.
style.
be a clearer perception of
will
the causes which have led to certain
Industrial designers are so
in art.
to
accustomed to
the elaborate decorative objects which are current, that
the reasons for the particular forms they have assumed are
rarely sought after; and,
old purpose, a
is
mere
if
new design
lamp
wanted
for
new
pattern.
Take an
from the time of the transition of the old
modern
to the
an
alteration or rearrangement of parts
held to be sufficient to effect a
illustration
is
gasalier.
oil
This
transition occurred about forty years
ago,
when gas was
planting
houses.
sup-
as an illuminant in private
oil
The
lamp were
gradually
constituents of the oil
body with projecting
arms and chains
for
suspending from r~
the ceiling, in the centre a reservoir to
hold the supply of

feed the burners
oil,
with outlets to
by gentle and regular percolation
Here the conditions attached
to the use of oil
(see a).
were well
B 2

met.
But,
when gas had
to grasp the
to
be used, the designers
new
nature of the
conditions,
failed
and simply
adapted the old and current form of lamp, retaining parts
They
that were wholly unnecessary.
down
oil
the centre, through the obsolete
a gas box under-
reservoir, with
neath
were
introduced a tube
from
this
gas box smaller tubes
laid in the arms, whilst the taps,
for turning
on the
gas,
were awkwardly
placed at the top (see
AC
designer
liarities
plying
that
serve
the
double purpose
lamp and conveying the

necessarily horizontal as
and
(3) a tap to turn
all
a tube which
(i)
in
on and regulate the

for
the
oil
lamp,
There
light.
chains or vase, or for
arm was
technically
Doubtless economic reasons had something to
do with the retention of these useless forms,

would naturally be desirous of
u patterns."
that,
of sup-
of suspending the
was required
retaining the form of "spout," as the
facturers
gas, (2) projecting arms, not
would be no reason either
called.
mode
he would have seen that
was absolutely necessary were
would
if
had considered the pecu-
of gas and the

it,
Now,
b).
But
when new
old lines of the
this
does not explain
as
manu-
utilising
all,
for
we
old
find
patterns were made, they ran upon the

oil
lamp, and that the useless parts were
INTRODUCTORY.
repeated
chain,
made
in
for
more or
instance,
less objectionable form.
whose
office
of flimsy stamped metal, and was
as before
was gone, was
hung
in the place
convicted sham, unable to support any
moderate weight.
Although many of the parts came to
be regarded as superfluous,
they were given up.
show
real
The
Even
it
is
how slowly
hour many gasaliers
astonishing
to this
the survival of the vase-shaped reservoir
vival, not of the fittest, but of the reverse.
sur-
CHAPTER
I.
ELEMENTARY FORMS AND METHODS OF ARRANGEMENT.
WHILE
proposed
is
it
the
direct
an elementary stage
of lessons
and
to
former
now
it
in
elementary
In Chapter
will
advanced
to
be necessary to revert
order to
make
the
course
entered upon as complete as possible,
emphasize, more
connected with
the present treatise to

attention
student's
studies in decorative art,

to
in
fully
work
than the limits of the
allowed,
certain
particulars
this part of the subject.

II.
of " Lessons on Decorative
Design"
was shown the method of evolving patterns from a

of crossed
lines
and attention was directed
development of forms
for
analysis of those forms,
basis
to
the
enclosing ornament, to
the
and
to the lines
the purposes of rearrangement.
From
involved for
this part of
our
FORMS AND METHODS OF ARRANGEMENT.

subject
we propose
on a network of
inclinations
to start.
The
lines crossing
may be enumerated
simple forms generated
each other at different

as follows
first,
those
which result from tracing along the lines placed at right

angles to one another and at
equal distances, the square and

the diamond or lozenge, aa
secondly, the inclusion of
or
more squares of the
work,
oblongs,
bb
net-
thirdly,
two
figures
produced by the use of oblique
lines
^25D
^=
cutting across the squares and oblongs,
TRIANGLES.
Lines placed
vertical ones, thus
Lines placed
ones, give
at
the
an angle of
at
45
30,
and crossed by
yield the
hexagon.
crossed by vertical and horizontal
octagon
Next
come

certain rectilinear ornamental lines, deducible from the
network
such
CHEVRON
Or
as
embattled
the
ZIGZAG
-4-1
BLUNTED
the
Sr^
th<
the INTER
ZIGZAG
LAC
and
fret
the
The
softening
of
preceding figures and lines gives us a curved
The octagon becomes
a circle
the
the
series.
oblong
and some proportions of the lozenge are transformed

intO ELLIPTICAL
while
the
gives the
are
F~
combination of the
l
changed
MEANDER
SHAPES
1
into
oval.
The
the
wave
xnru
ellipse
'
and
embattled
and scallop
the
and
circle
zigzag

The
scallop, placed in series,
produces the scale pattern
to
which the term imbrication-
is
applied.
The
becomes
fret
which, according to the method of arrangement, gives the
WAVE
/c)/?)/?)
The
interlacing
meander
is
r RUNNING SCROLL
altered
into
and
linear
network, similar results will
addition,
other ornamental
directly evolved
such
double
wave
a basis of
as the
be obtained
elements
chain
will
but,
be more
C3JZSZ5
t îe
GUILLOCHE
CABLE
Here, then, we have,
in
brief,
etc.
most of the elemental
forms and lines which are found to be constant

styles of
ornamental
are supported.
Plate X.
lines
or
of upon the basis of a recti-
circles
in
/c)VQ/c)
By working upon
^XTZZ>CZZ>C
ellipses, instead
art,
and upon which elaborate
Illustrations
of this will
in
all
details
be found on
Again, the method adopted for developing
and forms from a network can also be used
to
io
demonstrate some of the methods of laying out ornament.
By
obtain,
by simple
as
simply
diapering
omitting
i,
squares
fill
between
intervals
chequering
get
10,
show the
combined.
the
fillings
(see
principle of
In
we
allowing
two
obtain
modes of arrangement, known
but similar,
in the
we
diapering
spotting and powdering
we
2,
Figs, 8, 9,
and
chequering
further,
Figs,
alternate
Figs. 6 and 7)
larger
repetition,
(see
mesh we
an arrangement known
By
I.).
3, 4, 5, Plate
square
each
in
filling
(see
Figs. 19, 20, 21, 22).
spaces in rows, leaving rows of voids,
get striping (Figs.
11,
12,
13,
and
14),
as
If
we
narrower and
broader varieties being distinguished by the terms lining
and banding.
illustrated
The
character of lining will be better
by simply emphasizing only one
cross lines of the network.

directions
striping
out,
we have
and banding leads
will
now
done
in
two
18).
The
use of
method of laying
to another
(see Figs. 15, 16, 17).
detail
ranging patterns.
of the
this is
the plaid (Fig.
namely, panelling
We
When
set
some of these systems of
ar-
This consists of
First, the Diaper,
a repeated pattern, closely fitting and covering a surface
without intervals
formal character
it
its
is
an " all-over
"
arrangement of
severer forms consist in the details
of the pattern being confined to the allotted spaces, and
not
overrunning their boundaries.
The fundamental
Plate
l2"
STRIPING & BHNDN6
m M m IS m n
M m n M El M E
m
m
is
m
m
m
m
M
m
IfS m is mm is
11
1(9
"*
STôxTirs^
gr
14-
m m m
m mmm m
m m m
HI
mmm umm
m m m
u
m wm m
m
m
m
w m JH m m m %
"RMfNeL-UltxlG*
-poujoer<\rsic^.
CJNIVERSIT'
PALI FOFtNlA-
I.
XJ\
W G>
&
Plate
II.
may be
forms
forms can be used

as closely fitting
and
any shape,
of
in
same
the
Figs.
These may be accented or
II.).
require, or
may be
case
should
care
1,
2,
3,
not, as occasion
exercised
to
be
Plate
may
In the latter
abolished altogether.
be
alternating
diaper, but should
possible (see
as
two
13
keep the pattern
compact.
The
diaper, like
the
subject
the
first
many
and
of alteration
modifications of
one space
the
consists in
known
composing
as the " free-all-over."

first,
formal
the
ornaments contained within a

Figs.
II.,
running out of
This
it.
development of a kind
last in the
changes are as follow:
form (Plate
of
more exact diaper was gradually
extended, and ended at
sisting of
it
One
development.
into another the pattern
departure from
of pattern
ornaments, has been
other
1,
2,
3)
The
various
diaper
con-
rigid geometrical
secondly, diapers
in
which the pattern runs out of one figure into another

(Figs.
4 and 5)
thirdly,
when
the boundaries of the
structural figures are
ornamented as well as the enclosed
space (Figs. 6 and
7).
In other forms of diaper the
are
placed
fundamental
forms
at
intervals,
and the
pattern runs out of them into the interspaces (Plate III.,

Fig.
1).
we have
When, however,
the formal shapes are abolished,
a type of surface decoration called the " free-
all-over," in contradistinction to the formal "all-over" or
14
strict
diaper (Plate III., Figs. 3 and
well to observe
that,
although
Here
4).
be
will
kind of pattern
this
in
it
work the geometric forms are ultimately eliminated, yet

their
employment
and
construction,
designing
in
is
necessary to proper
is
important
an
aid
accurate
to
repetition.
These geometric forms need

the
direction of the
not,
of the
lines
however, control
as
filling,
where the figures are retained, because they

appear as elements
less, as
in the
has been shown,
completed design.
in the
cases
in
not
will
Neverthe-
elementary lessons,
it is
often well to adopt a sympathetic relation of lines to the
On
figures used.
Plate IV. are given historic examples
Striping or banding
of diapers and their construction.
need not be limited to mere

this
arrangement
is
lines
what
The
it
need not be continuous,
intervals,
required for
that the " repeat" shall take a hori-
zontal, vertical or oblique direction.
prising
is
it
The pattern commay be interrupted.
however, should be small,
idea of the arrangement should be
lest
the dominant
The main
lost.
dif-
ference between spotting and powdering lies

in scale
r*i
pattern.
i.e.,
in the
The
proportion of ground to
detail of the spot should
large and important, and have
more
be
interest
than the unit of the powdering, which should be small
and of simple character.
Powdering
is
very often used
Plate
t % t^^^mi/^ iJZNii^j
III.
ôT
Plate
IIIa.
v.o.3
Plate IV.
Plate V.
*5ftS?/^
Kl'Sfetii
Si
i
as^mî
sSs
,
li*
-q:
,y
lit
FlGs
9_
.:-
Pi

in
conjunction with the spot (as in Plate
and
where
22),
values
relative
their
Figs. 21
I.,
are
illustrated.
This background method of using powdering
mind other plans

cation (seen
often substituted for
Plate V.,
in
Fig.
it,
19
to
calls
namely, imbri-
and vermiculation.
6)
Vermiculation consists of a minute running

pattern, sometimes developed into fine scroll
work, and
at
is
others -brightened by the
Without further extending
addition of small spots.

part
of
the
subject,
it
will
methods of arrangement
be obvious that
of various combinations, and

in
that
space like
defined
the
" compose
Plate
Y.
outer
are
them with
"
an
is
central spot
for the
spots
example
vertical
"
"
and
panel.
united
the
capable
are
Fig.
by a
and horizontal
purpose of securing unity.
so
line
Fig.
by a
decoration
lines are
Fig.
treatment
pilasters.
In
sometimes
is
Fig.
is
found
on
as
to
on
large
included
is
a long
narrow space decorated by three spots united by

This
"
be seen
will
It
powdering
boundaries.
of
together
Plate V.).
{see
the application of " spotting
the
all
of being used
one and the same design
shows
to
named
already
this
lines.
panels
of
given an illustration of the
application of the stripe and spot to the decoration of
a rectangular
figure.
The two
extremities of the stripe
are blended into the border to give completeness to the

c 2
2o
pattern and to prevent
longer piece.
if
cut out of a
we have another
treatment of
its
In Fig. 7
appearing as
the stripe and spot, and in Fig.
an arrangement of
oblique stripes for the decoration of a panel.
and 8
the
illustrate
application
panels of different proportions.

is
somewhat modified
in
Figs. 5
of the " chequer" to

In Fig: 5 the chequer
order to centralise the interest
without destroying the essential character of the chequer.

Fig. 6 shows a combination of the spot and imbricated
ornament within a
Figs.
circle.
9,
10,
and 12
illustrate
panelling resulting from striping variously applied and
accordance
in
decorated.
Fig.
is
10
with
Fig. 9
is
the
proportion
spotting
Examples of decoration
may be
seen
spaces
while Fig.
stripes,
formed from vertical and horizontal
disposed.
the
from the use of oblique stripes,
mainly from vertical
is
of
12
stripes equally
by striping
on many natural
objects,
and
such
as plants, butterflies, feathers, shells, and in the graining
of wood,
Chapter
etc.
II.,
(see
page
Plate
XXXVIII. and
headpiece to
22).
In the study of the historic styles of ornament,
be observed that
all
these
methods, as well as the
elementary lines which were engendered

stages
of
art,
occur again
or
country.
However
in the earliest
and again throughout
subsequent developments of decoration,
age
will
it
all
whatever the
dissimilar the styles
may

at
first
the
and
sight
appear, careful
fundamental
that
originality,
even
still
lines
show
and principles are the
modern
shapes
analysis will
itself
those of prehistoric times
with
art,
on
lines
all
its
21
that
same,
boasted
no newer than
CHAPTER
II.
APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT.
HAVING
viewed and
methods common
student's
them.
out
Suitability
engage
some
to
any
his attention.
we
little
re-
lines
and
the
will
now
direct the
applications
purpose
must
be
being very appropriate for
altogether
inappropriate
surface of a wall.
For
this
when
uniform
flatness,
the
evenness of surface when
other
in
the
to
may
the
and a curtain
one
flexibility
use.
textile,
purpose,
applied
instance, a wall
both possess distinct characteristics
and
first
consideration will soon
convince him that the method of decorating a

while
of
method of laying
of a
special
briefly
of
practical
or fitness
for
chapter
most
classified
to ornament,
attention
decoration
previous
the
in
These
stiffness
and
un-
qualities
23
when applying ornament

same way would be to sin
should be taken into account

to
both
decorate
against
the
Hence
it
the
in
natural
law of "fitness" and
suitability.
must appear that those methods that
will
accent the qualities of stability and flatness will be the
most appropriate
for wall decorations
and any method
that will accent the quality of flexibility, or emphasize
the folds of the material, will be best adapted to the
As
enrichment of curtains.
in
a general rule, therefore,
patterns for walls no particular direction should be
expressed
i.e.,
tendency to
and
stripes,
such patterns should not exhibit any
develop
hence
horizontal,
the
methods
comprise diapering, powdering,

panelling.
vertical,
or
oblique
decoration
will
" free-all-overing,"
and
of
While modifications of some of these are
allowable for curtains, patterns having certain decided

directions,
such
as
may be
included
under the heads
of horizontal and oblique striping, are more distinctly

suitable.
These
kinds
of
patterns,
by crossing
the
folds
of the material, bring out, so to speak, the modelling
of the surface, developing curves of exceeding beauty,
such as were not preconceived by the designer

VI.).
{see Plate
Vertical stripe patterns are less suitable, as their
application tends to confuse, instead of emphasizing, the

folds {see Plate VI., a, Fig. 4).
Again, the scale of the
24
ornament used
is
an important matter.
The
patterns
should be designed for and adjusted to the size of the

folds into
As
which the material naturally
the
large
folds
of heavy textiles require bold
and the narrow
patterns,
folds of lighter
ones smaller
question becomes one of the right propor-
details, the
tioning of ornament to surface
of a wide application to
For
falls.
all
and
admits
this principle
kinds of surface decoration.
instance, in the case of wall decoration, presently
to be considered, the surfaces of important
rooms should
have patterns comprising large masses, while the orna-
ment of small rooms should be

the scale of patterns, there
be observed
into
for,
as soon as
Besides
order of distribution to
we begin
to divide a surface
compartments, with the object of giving
distinct
additional interest to
any scheme of decoration, we have
to consider the nature
and
is
less in scale.
and
relative value of each part,
For
to apply the decoration consistently therewith.
example,
is
it
usual to divide the wall of a
dado, wall-vail,
plinth,
frieze,
vening mouldings and borders
room
and cornice, with

(see
into
inter-
Plate VII., Fig.
i).
This arrangement of parts suggests different structural

values
and
recognition
ornament
their relations to
when
at
distributing
our command.
one another require due

the
various
The
parts
classes
having
of
the
greatest structural value should receive the most severe
Plate VI.
Plate VII.
and formal ornamentation
The dado
turesque.
while those that are of the
most
importance the freest and
structural
least
27
being the support of the wall
from an architectural point of view, the most

and, therefore, to
decoration.
To
Sometimes
given.
Plate VII., Fig.
wall-vail loses
may
its
to the
When
uniform value
above
hori-
such as pilasters,
these are added the
the spaces between the
less essential
than before, and
therefore with propriety be decorated with orna-
mentation more or
the
3).
members become
upright
essential,
should be apportioned the severest
it
zontal divisions are added vertical ones

etc. (see
structural
stiffly treated;
less inclining to the pictorial
uprights
Some
and
people
pilasters
may
one,
in
laying
out
the
wall
while
be more
should
object to this assump-
of a possible construction, other
tion
space
than
but
the actual
as
long as
divisions are required in order to avoid monotony,
better
method can be devised than

of
lines
case
is,
the upper portion a freer and less rigid
may be
pattern
pic-
some
structural
and certainly
this
that of adopting the
arrangement suitable
method
no
is
in
the principle of constructive order, which
to
the
harmony with
is
the founda-
tion of decorative art.
Here
it
will
be well to
call
attention to the effect that
these methods of wall divisions have upon the appearance
of rooms.
While the use of horizontal
divisions imparts
28
a sense of cosiness to an apartment, they also tend to
reduce the apparent height of
and
it,
if
the upper and
lower divisions are developed at the expense of the

intermediate one, as in Fig.
marked.
Fig.
4,
this effect is
more
still
by upright panelling, as
Vertical divisions
in
give the appearance of increased height, and
2,
this effect
further accented in Fig.
is
by the use of
pilasters.
In practical pattern making, suitable to the paperstainer,
weaver,
makers,
there
industry,
and which have
the
textile
are
mere laying out
and ornamental
tile-
matters peculiar to
each
printer,
technical
to
of the
be considered,
ornament
in addition to
and the conditions
attached to each must be well understood
element
is
to
be practically expressed.
the limits of the present
it
will
While within
be impossible to
development of the several
the
the artistic
requirements which have arisen
treat of all the varied
with
work
if
trades,
be well to take one of them as a sample to

the
limitations
of
the
paper, for example.

rally
It is
made
1 ft.
io"in.
designer's
work.
it
illustrate
Take
In this country wall-paper
wil.
is
wall-
gene-
wide, and in runs of twelve yards.
usually printed from blocks having raised patterns
upon them
1 ft.
circumstances
greater
in. in
width
sometimes
the depth
it is
but a square block
less
is
is
determined by
than the width, rarely
found to be the most
The
convenient.
may
block
29
one
contain
more
or
"repeats," or even a section of a repeat, according to

the
scale
of pattern
repeats in a vertical direction

printings of the block
The
required.
extension of the
obtained by successive
is
the lateral extension by the paper-
hanger when he places the lengths of paper side by
The
necessary dimensions of the block
will,
side.
therefore,
control to a great extent the size and proportion of the
pattern
whether
it
takes several repeats, or a portion
of one, the pattern must be so adjusted as to ensure
accurate repetition in the two directions.
For
instance,
suppose we adopt a diamond form as the basis of a
A.
If-
FiG
Tig 3r
VG
FiG HI
repeat (as in Fig.
I.)
B$ \X
<x 00
FlO- V?
*o
TV r
-V-
however, that the use
finding,
of one only will yield a pattern too large in scale,

in
one and a half

the
affects
fundamental
and the
figures
is
also
scale,
figure.
difference
(as in
Fig.
alters
II.)
the
proportion
while
of
it
the
between the height and width of the
increased (Fig.
have either
this,
put
Arrange two within the same space,
III.).
If
it is
proportion of the example in Fig.

shall
but
we
I.
desirable that the
be kept, then we
to shorten the block (as in Fig. VI.),
or to adopt the arrangement (as in Fig. V.) which gives

smaller
repeats.
Here, then,
it
will
be seen
that in
30
adopting any form whereon to construct the repeat, to

a block of a given
apportioned to
or to
will
it
reduction
any variation of the number
size,
lead to alteration in proportion

If
scale.
in
the size
of the pattern
indicated by Fig.
II.
be immaterial,
in the proportion
the
to
mode
I.,
it
if
will
the alteration
be found that
of lateral repetition differs from that applicable
III.,
and V.
same
not repeat by being placed
will
i.e., it
side by side on the
fore,
be satisfactory, and
level
and, there-
the lateral repetition will have to be effected
lowering the pattern
when
fitting
by
two sections together.
A/
thus
A/
Patterns arranged for this
%
A/
way of
hanging are technically known as " Drop patterns," because the decorator has to " drop
it
on the
wall.
The
is
pattern
be seen
this will
would repeat
in the
I. is
diagrams.
Fig.
II.
The
largest
Fig. IV., although
by dropping, would not repeat

and so would be unworkable.
laterally
a vertical direction,
when pasting
the avoidance of too small a scale of
possible scale next to Fig.

it
the paper
chief object served in adopting the
" drop " principle

;
"
in
The
construction of wall-paper
3r
patterns on a basis
of geometrical figures, such as are here given with a
diagram of repeats,
rwv?
the
only
method
adopt
the
plan
of
paper
on which
is
not
used
cutting
the
by designers.
into
drawing
is
equal
made,
Some
sections
and
the
trans-
posing the pieces during the progress of the design.
The
former method
answers
better
for
is
most generally employed
patterns
which
are
of
but
formal
32
The
character.
more
the
is
undoubtedly
suitable for designs of a freer treatment, such
example (Plate
as the
method, however,
latter
III., Fig. 2).
By
this
method the
can work with greater freedom, and at the same
artist
time secure with but
little
trouble accuracy in his repeats.
The
Plate IIIa. explains the working of this method.

initial
portion of the design
the paper, or cardboard, 21
of which are
halves,
1?'
$;)
or paper
is
21
this
(as at
in the
in. (see
is
centre of
A, the corners
then cut exactly into
B), the figures reading
space between the upper and lower parts
of the pattern
into
by
in.
and then reversed
The
il*
marked
drawn
is
is
now
to
be
filled in (as at
then to be cut
down
C).
The
card
vertically, dividing
it
four equal sections, and then transposed (as at D),
figures
standing
Jj?
This, again, leaves
space, which has to be filled (as at E),
complete
the
main
lines
of
the
a central
and which
design.
will
shows
another disposition of the pieces to further test repeats.
The
transposition and re-transposition of the parts of
the pattern will
making
As
be necessary when adding details or
alterations near to the edges of them.
regards the colouring of wall-papers, the
number
of colours to be used should be regulated by the scale of

the pattern.
If
the pattern be small,
may be employed, inasmuch

details
and the number
as
several
colours
the smallness
of the
of the masses composing
it
APPLICATION OF OPMgftMlbY&nsZTY
will
cause the colours to be so interwoven and distributed
that there will be no interference with the repose which
should characterise a wall covering, whose subordinate

office
is
always to serve as a background to the general
appointments of a room.
large,
it
be well to have either fewer colours and
will
reduced
however, the pattern be
If,
in hue, or, better
still,
two or three tones of one
to limit the colouring to
colour.
It
may be
possible
to successfully employ several colours in large patterns,
by either reducing the hue or distributing the colour

lines
result
and among the smallest
may be
achieved,
details
will
it
be
in
but,
how ever
r
in
this
obedience to the
general principle that no large masses of different colours
should be used.
Now
as to the character of patterns
The natural law of

The process of printing,
suitable for printed wall-papers.
comes
fitness again
to our aid.
by which paper-hangings
repetition,
of which
for the
and not with growth, or development, neither

it
can truly represent.
most
modified by
made up
are produced, has to do with
it.
Growth
is
part with variety, as repetition

If this is so, patterns
of
of repeats
concerned
is
greatly
which are obviously
conventional type are best
adapted to block printing.
Patterns having the appear-
ance of natural grow th are
ill
adapted to the process
because, in printing, the identical masses and lines must
occur again and again throughout the decorated space
34
and
an attribute of
variety,
For, although
ignored.
throughout
and masses of leaves
flowers
similar
by
entire growth, yet these are modified
one
question
in
characteristics.
They
are only to be expressed by
favouring the
process
painting
we
find
process
to render these
not fitted
is
the
most
suitable
method, for the
obvious reason that by hand work variety
Hence
expressed than exact repetition.
some
In hand
of variety.
principle
its
and
variety,
the stems vary in thickness and direction.

like the
thus
is
true that a plant develops
is
it
growth,
natural
is
more
easily
the observance
of fitness of methods to the realisation of results will
us
justify
patterns
in
formulating
are best suited
process of printing,
and
the
to
that
rule,
the
mechanically repeating
naturalistic
By
method of execution by painting.
conventional
ones
to
the freer
using conventional
patterns for wall-papers, there need be no offence against
the law of fitness

there
why
is
but by adopting naturalistic ones
danger of great offence.
One
of the reasons
these latter patterns are so popular
majority of people, and
many who
call
is
that
the
themselves lovers
of nature, only extend their admiration to the flowers
and leaves of a
plant, often to the
former only, and never
turn their attention to the equally beautiful growths with

their
these
ever-varying lines
matters
received
and
exquisite
the
attention
gradations.
they
If
deserve,
" pretty
floral "
be
not
35
papers, with monstrous growths, would
and would
tolerated,
and as
violations of 'nature
be
soon
discarded
as
and
sins against the natural
eternal law of fitness.
We
have now
to consider the treatment of the frieze,
or chief upper division, which decoratively bears about
same
the
column
relation to the wall as the capital does to a
and just as the
capital
is
more pronounced than
the shaft of the column, so the frieze should have

distinct
emphasis than the
possess
more
wall.
Its
more
decoration should
sake of contrast
interest, not only for the
with the lower space, but because from
its
position
it is
not likely to be interfered with by the furniture of the
room.
Its
position requires, also, that
the
decoration
should be simple and free from complex motives, so as to
be easily read.
This long horizontal division may be dealt with

four
different
ways
(1)
by
filling
-m^m% 3Sil
running pattern, or
or (3)
(2)
by a
(4)
vertical
by an arrangement of
continuous
agag
series of vertical
by a union of alternate
details, or
in
in
ornaments
and horizontal
panels.
The
D
first
36
method
weak
the least satisfactory and likely to produce a
is
effect
the second
better, but
is
the arrangement of the parts
monotonous, and does not
is
unnecessarily
is,
while
it
perhaps, best
for
The
combines the freedom and playfulness of the
harmonic
should
that
relation
and fourth treatments are
principle
of
construction, fas
ensures
it
sympathy with the
in
seen
the
in
3 IB IP w"
and
uprights
Taking
this
decoration,
it
IT
__^_________=s=__
~n
is
),
arrange-
in
Grecian
and give solid
be afterwards
filled
in.
arrangement as the
basis
for
interspaces
structural
the
Again, the
filling.
ment of the timbers above the architrave
architecture (thus,
the
between
exist
boundaries of the space and the

third
third treat-
general purposes, because,
and the firmness of the second,
first
and
stiff
harmonise with
sufficiently
the long lines of the enclosed space.
ment
defective, as
still
to
evident that the use of vertical stops
with lateral developments of ornamentation
is
desirable,
because the treatment most in accordance with construction
offers
the
best
w ay
T
of
securing
the
fittest
results.
Whether we
(as
in
No.
2),
lay
or
out our frieze
by
simple
stops
by an arrangement of panels
(as
in
No.
open
is
it
4),
accent more or less
to
which
to
this
may be
depend on the general scheme of decoration
will
adopted
us
The degree
the structural lines.
done
to
37
be severe and dignified, then the structural
if it
divisions should be pronounced
may be
then they
examples of
but
if
and
fanciful,
Some
historic
light
treated less vigorously.
be found on Plate VIII., Figs.
friezes will
1,
Borders, again, which are used to separate the
2, 3, 4.
frieze
and dado from the
such
as
and
for other purposes,
should be treated according to
panels,
The
importance.
" filling,"
primary
office of
borders
their
to prevent
is
the patterns of contiguous surfaces from impinging one
For
upon another.
character,
it
each side,
patterns
it
reason,
a border
if
is
rich in
also requires bordering with plain lines
order to prevent
in
which
is
it
often
distinct
on
mingling with the

'
That the
between the decorated
desirable for the pattern of the border
form, tone, and colour with the pattern on
to contrast in
either side of
is
its
intended to separate.
may be made
separation
spaces,
this
i.e., if
it
vertical lines
predominate
in the
surroundings, the border should be arranged on horizontal

lines,
and
and
vice versa
colour.
and so on
in
the matters of tone
Another use of the border,
case of panels,
is
design enclosed,
especially in the
to confine attention to the subject or

in
order to
appearance of overrunning
its
prevent
proper
its
having the
limits,
and be-
38
coming confused with surrounding
In the case
objects.
of pictures, the application of the border or frame for
purpose
this
some
At
understood.
well
is
times, however,
painters indulge in the novelty of extending
the frame the interest of the picture

carries
its
on
to
but the practice
own condemnation, and may,
therefore, be
regarded as a freak of fashion, rather than as indicating
any enduring and guiding
Again,
principle.
in
ornamental
compositions, the border will be found of great service in

" tidying up," so to speak, any irregular decoration, and
in
rendering compact what without
Take any
and untidy.
piece of freely
it
straight lines,
and the
effect
be as evident as that
will
The
exerted by a frame on a picture.
border should be
in
subject enclosed.
If the enclosed
interest,
little
features
if,
then the border
on the contrary,
commonplace type
or printed page
in its
will
artistic
character of a
proportion to the interest of the
it is
space contains a design
may
possess attractive
occupied with a subject
of great interest, then a border of a
From an
drawn ornament,
with a border composed even only of
and surround
of
would be loose
it
more conventional or
be appropriate.
point of view, the border of a written
may be
richer
and even more
treatment than the border of a picture.
naturalistic
The
first
encloses conventional forms less interesting in appearance
than those contained in the
latter.
Borders are also
Plate VIII.
'it
a-
40
used not only to define spaces, but to emphasize construction

vases,
as
on the edges of
and bands on
plates,
Determining the scale of
etc.
border should possess
in
relation to
enclosure,
its
giving right proportion and value, require
ment and
careful consideration
for
that
interest
and
judg-
artistic
many
a design
is
found to be incomplete for want of due attention to
The
framing.
its
often
ineffectiveness of the whole design
from
arises
the
inappropriateness,
the
bad
proportion, or the want of weight in the border.
We
reasons
straight,
so
may
borders
it
is
for other
here observe that, though

for
wall
economic
for
paper decoration are made
not essential that they should always be
purposes and for other modes of production
they can take various forms.
There
is
no reason why
the boundaries of borders should be parallel, any
than
the
that
enclosed spaces,
which they are
with
associated, should be rectangular in shape.
may surround any

its
inner margin
may be
irregularly
is
rectangular
border
shaped space, and, while
identical therewith,
(see
more
Plate
one encloses a rectangular form,
its
outer edge
Fig.
IX.,
4)
although
margin coincides with the edge of the space,
one may present a complex and irregular
or
inner
its
outer
its
outline.
if
Then,
again, the pattern of a border need not be continuous
throughout,
but
may be
interrupted
and
for
that
41
may be assumed, and
purpose a construction
degrees of interest apportioned to the parts.

of
subject
margin
sufficient
a proportionate
for
method of meeting the
difficulty is to
edge within the
to the
does
space
decorated
the
filling
(see
When
the
allow
of
not
border,
draw
Plate
various
useful
lines parallel
IX., Fig.
5).
This method of supplying the want of a proper border

should be used sparingly, and only employed
other reason
exists
one of
baneful
may
lead
Not
that
to
novelty
dulged
design,
in
and
irregularity
it
with our food
so
avoided
not
be too
freely
in-
be used as we use condiments
namely,
also
use
composition.
be
to
as a stimulant.
;
irregularity
too liberal
and as a well-ordered
and a healthy constitution require but
additions,
frequent
may sometimes add piquancy
supply tends to vitiate the taste

diet
its
disorderly
should
but this
adoption than the
always
is
little
should
its
otherwise
irregular
on the contrary, a
to
to warrant
when some
little
should be but
of these
little
in
request in good ornamental composition.
This mode of making up
for the
want of
sufficient
border must not be confused with another expedient
which
line
is
for
often adopted as a matter of composition of

instance,
when
the
and contains more curves than

to
space, the introduction
filling
is
is
of a free kind,,
compatible with fitness
of right
lines
by panelling
42
of the
part
field
while correcting the monotony
will,
of the pattern, bring the whole composition into harmony

-^
(see Figs.
results are
somewhat
although
proceeding
and
The
B).
similar,
from
different, causes.
On
ZZ4
examples
given
are
i,
it
will
X.
of
In Plate IX.,
panels with the application of borders.

Fig.
IX. and
Plates
be seen that a broad
of similar
line
tone to the pattern of the centre gives balance and
produces unity of
effect,
Compare,
respect.
while Fig.
also,
the
is
The
weight.
as
to
is insufficient.
It is
left-hand border
weight and quantity.
values
relative
borders to the enclosed pattern, in Fig. 3
hand border
wanting
is
in this
of
the
here the right-
too meagre, and wants
more
Fig. 4
satisfactory,
is
both
an example of
a border whose inner edge follows the shape of a panel,

of which the outline
of the
border
of the panel.
is
in
not rectangular.
The
continuity
contrast with the
spot
treatment
is
This, though small in quantity as com-
pared with the mass of the border,

for
is
by adopting more interesting material
position.
The border
more commonplace.
is
subordinated to
Turning
to Plate X.,
compensated
for its
it
com-
by being
Fig.
1,
we
have an example of the wrong and right application
Plate IX.
TIG
>
fig;
FIG 7
T=&3
Plate X.
T=tct-zt
BG3
The ornamental
of the border.
is
border
composed
is
having the same amount of interest as
of details
the
45
of the
filling
panel
consequently,
attention
Besides, the want of a broader
divided between both.
separation between the two patterns
and the confusion
to run together,
the
in
makes them appear

thus increased that
is
resulted from using such similar material in both border
and panel.
In the border B, while
ornament,
The
formal.
the
is
it
reduced
we
between the material of
slight similarity
border and that of the panel
purpose of securing unity

while
the
is
adopted for the
the whole
in
treatment
of
difference
foliated
and rendered more
quality,
in
have
still
is
composition
employed
to
concentrate or localise interest.

In
Fig,
composition
panel
the
the
border
occupied with
is
figure
composed of elements of
is
a lower*grade conventionally treated, and
is
of interest subordinated to the centre, while
it
harmonises
with the foliage which
the group of
In Fig.
figures.
interesting
forms
we
ornamental
for the panel.
is
start
curved
lines,
with,
elements
to
perhaps,
namely,
we
lines.
The
least
geometrical
adopt, for the contiguous
which are
higher
of abstract elements, as those lines possess
than right
the
point
In order to give interest, and to
maintain unity in the design,

border,
accessory
in
in
the
more
class
interest
centre filling will be subordinate
46
and
order to further accent unity
In
thereto.
to give firmness to the design, there
of effect,
added an
is
outer border of elements, similar as regards their rectilinear
In
character.
conventional
rendering
To
sycamore.
panel
the
(Fig.
buds
spring
the
of
and
confine the interest
we have a
4)
to
of
the
direct
the
attention to the central subject, a border of geometrical
character
is
attached
in
it
are included
some severe
forms of leaves, in order to correct any excessive contrast

that
might
lines alone,
by
echoing
from the employment of geometrical
arise
and
to bring
in
it
slight
into unity with
degree
the
the centre
same
of
class
elements.
kj
setting
out
surround panels,
it
ornamental
will
the structure of frames
to
i.e.,
of the joining and mitring
several
square
Frames are formed
ways,
(2),
by an
may form
provide decoration
the
basis
accenting
nor
that
shall
(3)
mitre,
concealing
is
of
patterns.
to enable
harmonise with
The
it.
apparently the weakest part of the

fore,
in
oblique (1),
or joggled
object of regarding construction
neither
entirely
each of which methods of joining

_,
The
that
be found advisable to consider
of the parts composing them.
**2,
borders
structure
any ornament added should appear
joint
;
one
it
is
there-
to strengthen
frame.
of the
part
this
For
this
reason,
it
first,
and
to apply
ornament
visable to attack the corner

in
such a
held
5, 6,
way
that
it
will
look as though
together the vertical
and
7).
47
it
grasped and
and horizontal pieces
This being done, the
ad-
is
{see
rest of the decoration
may be more freely treated on the same lines, which

may be simply repeated or reversed as the case may
and with large and small
require,
to
the
necessities
of scale
intervals according
and proportion.
Besides
which surround spaces having bound edges,
borders
there are others
which are
not so restricted, such as are

S5\
seen on the edges of china

plates,
and used as
on draperies,
stripes
laces, etc.
Of
these there are two kinds, (a) those having one bound
and one
free
edge,
(b)
those in which both edges have
free terminations.
Ornamental borders may be broadly divided
into
two
Plate XI.
pot
VeRTICAU,
HORIZONTAL
,niiim!iiininiL,
utnrmmrc
m ,
^^m
lllfflMllt'lllMlllllW
OBUOU6
HHMHHHimn
^^Â^
SiESl
m
HSU
mauuif
'.,.'!.
vmmsm
m
Wm
IB 5
fi
Ml
rara
lUOffllllll!
liiiifinf
WMSW
I.B^JI,
liMfifc
^^^
^^
v.&j
classes
the
interrupted and the continuous
according
out, as the
spot, vertical, horizontal,
{see
Plate
to
XL).
particular
and oblique
the
Some
be
similar
application of
and
horizontal
laying
of the lines for
seen,
to
those
upright
oblique,
and so
borders are,
out
used
friezes
for
may be
severe treatment required for a frieze
on.
will
it
but the
less im-
The somewhat
portant function exercised by a border.
and
the
them must be regulated by the
the case of a border
treat-
Additional varieties are formed
by combining the above methods;

horizontal,
these are
methods of laying
subdivided
ment
49
relaxed in
may
the regular outline of the one
be, as already explained, departed from in the other.
Besides horizontal borders, there are vertical ones.
Under
head may be included
this
Vertical borders are for the
upright divisions of surface.
most part
identical with horizontal ones
panels,' resulting
speaking, borders
them under
this
them somewhat
that
character.
;
regular repetition of parts, and

alteration of pattern.
;
pilasters
and
we
not, strictly
shall consider
head, and that their proportion gives
difference between the two
so arranged
lines
from their use, are
notwithstanding that
same
the
Decorated
can often be used in both.
narrow
and other
pilasters
there
is
There
just
this
border consists of
may be extended
The ornament on
less
is
repetition
without
a pilaster
is
not
the parts are disE
5o
posed evenly but not
The
equally.
proportion and
extent of the panel being determined at the outset, the

limit of the pattern
is
thus fixed, and the pattern becomes
While many of the
a complete organic whole.
used for horizontal and other borders

used for the decoration of
lines
and have been,
are,
pilasters, subject to certain
modifications arising from the needs of adaptation, there

are
systems which appear to have
four
adopted
generally
when
(i)
been more
;
the elements of the
design are built up
and
when they
in
a cord or ribbon
spirals
and
(4)
central
are
is
(2)
together
(3)
These arrangements are
and a moment's
reflection will
artistic values.
of suitability requires that the use to which an
put should be taken into account
ornament
The
office
of pilasters
masses or support weights
therefore,
applied to
It will at
stalk
tied
enable us to determine their relative and
object
disposed
when arranged upon a succession of

when based upon " wave " lines crossing
less satisfactory
The law
stages
bunches and suspended by
and recrossing a central stem.
more or
in
symmetrically
around
namely,
to
it.
when applying
is
to strengthen
any decoration
them should harmonise with these
functions.,
once be seen that the leading lines upon which
2
and 3 are constructed render them
decoration
No.
than
of a support
less suited to the
Nos.
being decidedly structural
1,
and
in
a conventional treatment of the
setting
out a design for
on
pilaster
architectural
elements are
will
In
details.
principle,
this
care must be taken to have the axis strong
purpose
Again,
4.
arrangement,
require
51
and
for this
admirably
suited.
Horizontal lines should be so disposed at intervals as to
harmonise with the short boundaries of the space, to

serve as start-points and as
ties,
The
empha-
to further
which a composition of
size the quality of strength,
kind should possess.
and
foliage that
this
may be used
to
decorate these main structural lines should be firm and
The secondary
and graceful. They should
should have a certain rigidity of character.

structural lines should be firm
compose
but
may
smaller
well with the boundaries
carry
filling,
struction, can
foliage
less
and with one another,
severe
having nothing
to
in
character;
do with
the
may be introduced into the still less

By observing some such rule as is here
for the distribution of the different qualities of
we
con-
be free and playful, and even naturalistic
elements
parts.
the
essential
indicated
ornament,
are enabled to import into our work, by an orderly
method, variety of treatment and, therefore,
interest.
Again, the proportion of the panel of the pilaster should
be regarded
in the
spacing out of the ornaments

E
tall
52
divisions are decidedly inharmonious.
point
iM
tall
starting-
essential as the key-note of
is
the composition
Mf
kWI-
Fig. b the
In
divisions should prevail, as in Fig. a.
5. 6, 7. 8,
and
(^
VI 1 1.,
Plate
Figs.
9).
The second method,
in
which the
materials of the design are suspended,

is
mands
a less symmetrical treatment
The masses
larger
Fig. a.
Fig. b.
The
arranged.
on either plan
used at the
will
be
and there
will
in the lines
will
start,
first
proportionally
be
less variety
on which the
details are
distribution of the elements of a design
be similar
i.e.,
whatever element
is
should be repeated, in some degree,
throughout the composition and

taking the
and consequently de-
less structural,
we
plan
at the
start at the
member, other
or other architectural
extremity.
If
base with a vase

details
of a like
character should be repeated in the process of building
up
and a cup or tazza
same
crown the whole
will fitly
rule applies to vegetable, animal,
This rule also applies
to
in a freer
* For
for spaces
pilasters
manner, as they have a
this reason, the
between
The
may be
long,
treated
less structural value #
hanging arrangement (No.
pilasters
the
and human forms.
tone and colour.
narrow panels occurring between
2)
is
more
than for the pilasters themselves.
suitable
ornamentation
their
and,
if in relief,
may
53
towards the
incline
pictorial,
should in parts melt into the background
while the caved ornament of a pilaster should be clearly
and sharply defined on a firm and even ground.
them varying
different uses of pilasters give
values, the general decoration of
The
accordingly.
structural
be modified
will
severity necessary to a pilaster which
has to carry actual weight
be judiciously relaxed
case of one which
which
The
is
may
the
in
used either
as an ornamental adjunct or for
the mere division of a surface.
Take,
for instance, the pilaster
doorway and
of a
that
of a
The cornice is the

crowning member of the wall,
casket.
and, in
its
relation to the frieze,
may be regarded
as a develop-
ment of a moulded abacus
it
corbels out from the line of the

wall
on
which
it
to the horizontal
surface of the
should compose.
Generally,
suite of contrasted
ogee
and
is
mouldings
and
flat,
usually treated as a
subordinated to that of the

position
frieze.
it
is
ceiling,
with
made up
of a
concave, convex, and
mass
its
decoration
Bearing
office of the cornice, as
in
is
mind the
a whole, individual
54
may be
mouldings
coration
by raised or painted de-
relieved
some of the
and, for this purpose,
borders already given
be found
will
lines in the
But regard
suitable.
should be paid to the principle upon which the selection

is
made.
to be
mouldings
a
This principle applies to
decorated
all
As
whatever purpose they may be used.
for
the leading lines of the ornament should in a
rule,
measure repeat the profile of the moulding to be deco-
harmony between the decoration
rated, so as to ensure
and the object

concave
in
or
lines,
versed,
priate.
pattern
thus
or, if
which
it
is
If the profile is
applied.
form, then patterns based simply on these

re-
as
*\ .fgggr. V^WWTW
t * tM <* * -* ""
be appro-
will
to
'
*%&.
iiiv
moulding has an ogee
If the
may
outline, then the
..
convex, so
*
^- rrw7r~W^c
patterns will be
While the
"
may
profiles
^ at
'
stra ig nt - nne d
applicable,
and so on.
generally be the guide in
apportioning suitable patterns,
it
does not follow that
the profile or simple vertical section need in
determine the choice

circumstances
lines
may be
may
of
arise
lines
when
to
all
be employed
for variety's
cases
;
for
sake other
necessary to the general effect of the group
APPLICATION OF
mouldings forming the
of
sections will be
oblique
from those of the
may appear
they
O/hMMIj^*
55
Transverse and
cornice.
found to yield lines differing
profiles
and, though at
sight
first
to controvert the general principle laid
down, their use
will
result
in
though subtle
real
harmony.
We
now come
surfaces of a
the ceiling
room
namely, the
it
is
so
is
it
and
ceiling
First,
floor.
decorated part of
this is generally the least
Why
a room.
to the consideration of the horizontal
hard to understand, for
economic reasons do not explain
The
it.
traditional
white ceiling has a cold, cheerless, and unfinished look,
which
walls.
less
is
often intensified
Too
space
covering of the
rich
often the only relief accorded to the cheer-
the addition of
is
from which depends the

a
by the
room the
ceiling
is
some cheap
Of
gasalier.
the
one
centre ornament,
which
all
surfaces in
decorator the best chance to display his art

his
to
offers
;
for
the
here
whole scheme can be seen without any interruption

decorating a ceiling,
whatever.
In
membered
that
therefore,
more
ceiling
airy
that
it
it
is
depressing effect
loftier ceiling
should be re-
a source of reflected light, and,
should be treated in a lighter and
manner than the
be low,
it
for
walls,
particularly
if
the
heavy decorations would have a
and lessen
may have
its
reflective
power.
stronger tones and more power-
"
56
ornament, but
ful
be
still
less
The
than the vertical surfaces.

extent echo
and
preserve a general harmony or unity
whole decoration of the apartment.
may
out
some
ceiling should to
colour treatment of the cornice
the
frieze in order to
in the
pronounced, as a whole,
a simple scheme, limited
be, in
may
with corner ornaments, or
in
The
laying-
to
borders
a richer scheme be
arranged on some structural lines covering the whole

surface, and, as a rule, the
whole ornamentation should
On
be definite and approach the commonplace.
Plate
XII. are given a few examples showing some of the
methods used
structural
sizes
in decorating
arrangement resulting
and shapes, and
several
filled
parts are treated
This example
is
in
the latter
is
an " all-over
sizes
flat
in
panels
with
is
of unequal
ornaments
the
according to their " values."
French manner which prevailed
in the
of the eighteenth century.
part
"
in
Fig.
ceilings.
Fig.
treatment, consisting of panels, of certain
and shapes, repeated over the entire
containing conventional ornaments.
surface,
In Fig. 3
is
and
given
a Jacobean example of raised tracery relieved with " spot

patterns.
Fig. 4
is
a design for a printed ceiling-paper,
arranged on a multi-symmetrical basis
an arrangement for decoration by means
and painting
with
the
Fig.
shows
of stencilling
while Fig. 6 shows a method of dealing
surface
of
ceiling
whereof one
side
is
Plate XII.
58
broken up by the projection of the chimney

In
laying-out
the
proportion
a
of
and the leading

it
i.e.,
similar
principle,
as
the
space
division,
the sake of unity.
This
ceiling
it
Figs,
in
at
be
should
and
5,
6,
considered,
should agree with
least,
should
proportion
i,
breast.
be repeated
for
Thus
will
not
be
//A
seen, has been observed in
the illustrations given in Plate XII.

Details calling for continued examination should be
excluded, as the positions
favourable
for
minute
occupied by them are not
observation
the
of
operation
puzzling out a complicated design, or reading an interest-
ing subject, would at the best result in cricking the neck.
Therefore, the design should be of a pleasant character,

easily seen at a glance,
and readily understood^
that respect should differ from a wall,
may be composed
be more
of
more
and
in
whose decoration
interesting
material,
and
intricately arranged.
Subject to these considerations, the same principles

that
have been advocated
for
ceilings, as regards laying-out,
composition of
*
The
line,
other surfaces apply to

distribution of elements,
and mass.
ceilings of large halls
and rooms can be reasonably decorated
with more interesting subjects than smaller ones, because of the

of points of view from which they can be examined.
number
Besides
ceilings,
flat
there
59
others
are
of different
forms that should be mentioned, such as the coffered,

arched, and domed.
The
having sunk panels
lying
transverse
beams
its
first
is
a horizontal
between
ceiling,
and
longitudinal
decorative treatment does not in
principle differ materially from that required for other
panelled arrangements
severe
ornament on the
beams, and freer ornament
tural
in the panels.
deep recession of these, however, often

definition of the decorative details than
calls
is
for
The
more
accorded to
Arched and domed
panels of shallower depths.
struc-
ceilings,
applied respectively to rooms of oblong or circular plan,
graduate from the vertical walls of the rooms to the

crown, and thus afford opportunities for a more varied
decorative
treatment by the introduction of elements
not fitted for a horizontal surface.

these curved surfaces
figures, etc.,
;
at
the lower part
decoration of
combine the treatment
fitly
and horizontal ones.
of vertical
top
may
The
Vertical
ornaments,
horizontal ones at the
the whole being graduated together.
decorating
In
carpets
the
or otherwise,
floor
the
of
house,
whether by
prime condition to be met
the essential flatness of
its
surface
any decoration that tends
in
appearance to interfere
is
with
this
quality
is
wrong.
This
and, therefore,
wrongfulness
is
second only to that of making the floor actually un-
60
The
even.
general practice of decorating by the use of
more
carpets leads to
methods
such as
than the use of other
artistic sins
encaustic
tiles
or parquetry.
Carpets
are too frequently designed with a view to produce effect
when displayed
the purchaser,
shop windows, and
in
who
suitability of his
for the
time
may be
to catch the
eye of
so forgetful of the
purchase to the apartment which
it is
destined to adorn, as to allow mere prettiness of pattern

In order to design patterns for floor-
to rule his choice.
covering, the expression of even flatness and firmness
To
should be the aim of the designer.

will
have
to consider the class of forms
employed,
and
the
of
relation
this,
he
lines to
be
effect
and
tones
and
colours.
Patterns of a rectilinear character will better express than

curvilinear ones the
qualities of
solidity
and firmness,
while tones closely related will convey an idea of flatness
While firmness
better than those not closely related.
may be
expressed by the use of geometric elements
composed of
right lines,
it is
quite possible to interfere
with the sense of flatness in more ways than one, either
by the
appearance of lying
laced
by giving the pattern the
selection of tones, or
work
(see Plate
of bands, as in Fig.
therefore, unfits
it
in
more than one
XIII.).
i,
The
passing over and under
indicates an
The
for a floor.
of this kind suggests that
it
is
plane, as in inter-
uneven
surface, and,
adoption of a pattern
a border
borrowed from
Plate XI TT.
^SE L,BR^
r
ftrn:
TTKIVKRsiTT
62
decoration used for another purpose
but adopted.
fairly
An
Tones
not of such paramount importance.
is
may
where the unevenness of the
wall,
wrongly applied lead to similarly faulty
and
adapted,
interlacing pattern of this kind
be applied to a
surface
and not
results (see Figs. 3
In Fig. 3 the effect produced by the injudicious
5).
arrangement and application of widely dissimilar tones

is
of unevenness
that
has the appearance of a
this
of cubes set anglewise, and suggests a most
collection
uncomfortable walking surface
These
pleasant.
slight
defects
modifications.
In
Fig.
may be
the
first
made
instead of interlacing, are
easily
cured by only
if
the
be secured
Figs. 4 and
(as in
bands,
to intersect each
be rearranged and
in the second, if the tones
one another
equally un-
is
case,
(as in Fig. 2), the quality of flatness will
relation to
6),
in
the
other
and,
nearer
same
result will accrue.
In carpets the patterns

those
used
addition
to
may
take less rigid forms than
for
parquetry,
mosaics,
the
expression
of
etc.,
firmness
because,
and
in
flatness,
regard must be paid to the nature of the material, which
may be more
or less flexible in character.
Apart from
the essentials pertaining to
all
quality belonging to carpets,
and more particularly charac-
teristic
of
some kinds than of
siderationnamely, a
soft
floor-coverings, there
others,
and
is
which requires con-
slightly yielding surface.
Hence
will
it
be well that patterns
combine curved
lines,
purpose should
for this
which express softness and
with straight lines and
bility,
63
angular
symbolise firmness and strength.
It
is
flexi-
which
forms,
just this
happy
combination of qualities which gives such pre-eminence

to
Oriental carpets, and
design
European
most
to
these works, there

ditions
sought
them so superior
renders
Throughout
productions.
a general regard for essential con-
is
and a ready acceptance of means
While recognising the
after.
ing lines to represent
flexibility,
Oriental artists are quick to

of
forms
which
often
rules
the
result.
of
is
the ends
no omission of
and so we
find that
themselves of the
accepting
England
instead
and,
In
avail
by
loom
to
suitability of flow-
there
rigid ones as expressive of firmness
peculiarities
in
the
frankly
the
angular
contrary
too
accepting
the
natural results of the process, designers are apt to regard
them
as difficulties to be
we may have
Again, although
right as far as
all
lines are
wrong by the
may
Take,
patterns which are
concerned, they
is
and unevenness
an uneven
effect
to
the
designs.
but there
is still
In
and hardness of outline
resulting from tones of great intervals.

;
all
may become
example, the illustrations on Plate XIII.
Fig. 7 there
in effect
with.
injudicious application of tones which
give harshness
for
combated and struggled
Fig. 8
is flatter
some harshness, because of the
64
great difference between the tone of the ground and that

of the outline of the pattern.
brought
and
together, and
nearer
softness
mode
result
even flatness
in
the outline of the pattern melts, so to
speak, into the ground.
of a
In Fig. 9 the tones are
In Fig. 10
of applying tones which
which should be avoided;
the
is
is
given an example
too often seen, but
"lumpiness " of
resulting from such a distribution of tones
When
pleasant.
is
effect
most un-
may
devised, this "lumpiness"
first
have secured praise as
but could not
"novelty";
expect to endure the test of just criticism, which requires

that a novelty to be acceptable
must come within the
limits
of artistic requirements.
The
decoration of floors, by whatever means, should
be so designed and used as to be

the sense of repose and in
cheerfulness--^-the
sympathy with
in
harmony with the

one calling
desire
for
effect,
the other for variety and contrast.
in
As
unity
of
The degree
which these mental desires should be met
on circumstances.
in
for
natural
will
depend
a general rule, the floor ought,
the treatment of tone and colour, to so harmonise
with
the
dado that the walls of the apartment may
Although the
be united thereby.
with
the
dado,
this
amount
will,
to
is
harmony does not
introduction of a certain
this
floor
to
harmonise
preclude
the
amount of variety and contrast
some
extent, be regulated
by the
character of the
to
65
Contrast and variety are not
dado.
be excluded, but kept in subordination to unity of
effect.
The
of actual
use of a bordered carpet, with a margin
between
flooring
and the skirting board,
it
admits of more variety and gradation in the decoration

of the
surface
floor
than was formerly the case
was covered.
What
when
the entire
has already been said about
borders generally applies to these special ones, subject,
of
course,
to
the
belonging
conditions
to
carpets.
Borders have a structural value, and require to be duly

proportioned to the enclosed centre of the carpet, and
also
some considerable thought

In
carpets
will
reference
and rugs
afford
to
this
will
matter, the study of Oriental
well
him many a
in suitably arranging.
repay the student,
silent
as
it
and valuable lesson
in
the proportionate adjustment and grouping of borders
with proper regard to the general effect to be produced.
CHAPTER
III.
METHODS OF EXPRESSION.
IN ofthisthe chapter
modes
and the purposes
to
it
is
proposed to consider
by which ornament
is
some
expressed,
which those modes may be applied.
There are three ordinary methods of expression:

surface lines, as in outline
as in painting',
and
drawing
(2)
(i)
surface massing,
(3) relief massing, as in modelling
and carving.
The
first
and second are appreciable by sight only,
the third by touch as well as by sight.
of
these
outline
methods
so
or in painted masses,
touch as well
are
occur
incised or
as
by
sight.
raised, as
in
pottery and metal work, and
is
For
that
often
Modifications
ornament,
in
recognised by
instance,
when
lines
the decoration of ancient
when forms
are painted
with
work,
the
etc.
slight
modelling or
linear
by
modes of decoration
these
degree,
line
may be
of the readiest means of execution
Good
and pen.
to the artist, to
devote himself.
outline
is
this is true
whatever branch of
We
are told by
but, while there
definite limits to objects
to
be defined
accurately
line
practical
the simple
first
Expression
etc.
modern
necessity
is
the
the outcome
stylus,
art
pencil,
he may ultimately
some people
in nature.
is
no
that there
Theoretically,
outline,
there are
and natural forms, and these
in the linear
following
it
of the greatest importance
no such thing as an outline
have
belong to
the one very generally used, and in
education the one mostly encouraged
is
appropriate,
seen in the decoration of pre-
engraving,
etching,
pottery,
is
Take
from
later,
which
characteristics
relief expression.
method, which
historic
and other ceramics, gesso
but this arises, as will be seen
that
fact
in
as in Oriental
"slip,"
67
method by a decided
Admitting the
those limits.
of an
outline
for
forms
depicting
and expressing ornament, the next thing we have
do
is
to determine the quality of line to be used.
to
In
outline drawing, as a general rule, the lines should be

intentionally
of a uniform
found necessary to
employing
for
the
depart
strength
from
this
lines of different thicknesses,
purpose of
but
it
when
it
uniformity,
is
by
should be done
expressing some additional facts

F
68
connected with the subject of representation, and not
To
solely for " effect/'
strengthen the outline for the
purpose of representing shade as seen

ornament,
relief
it
altogether wrong, not only because
is
attempts to express badly an accident of lighting,
which does not belong
to the original,
puts
it
"
circle represents
you thicken
it
in
some
senting shade, the shape
wide
if
a sphere
it
in outline
but
part with the idea of repreis
no longer that of a true
on the outside
If thickened
sphere.
because
but
As Mr. Ruskin
results in a false representation of form.
if
a piece of
in
on the inside the space within
the same time shade
not
becomes too
it
not circular,
is
expressed."
But
and
at
this
does not preclude the use of light and dark lines

it
is
them
is
simply an argument against using

in a
wrong way.
lines can, without
any
Light and dark

sacrifice of truth,
These two
be used to express form.
drawings of the same form both express

the same facts, and are as true in the
one case as the other.
upon the amount of

our work.
and
If,
The
choice of line will depend
distinctness or force
for instance,
we wish
we
to express the bold
distinct relief of a piece of sculptured
strong line will be the better to use

subject be a delicate low
relief,
require for
if,
ornament, a
however, our
then a light line will
be the more
In the
suitable.
69
case,
first
we use
lines
strongly contrasting with the surface on which they are
drawn
in the second, lines that assimilate
with the tone
of the ground.
When we
represent a piece of work
desire to
which are combined both bold and delicate

as a
group of
relief,
the
may be
lines
represent the different degrees of
varied
relief,
such
which are
objects, or a plant, portions of
near and remote,
in
so
as
to
and may be so
thoughtfully carried out that an outline drawing would
convey a
of the various
recession
By varying
idea
accurate
fairly
parts
of
composing the
the lines in this manner,
we
is
by the use of
lines of
unequal thickness, there
sacrifice of truth in the representations.

2,
and
show
height
modelled
from
the
consequently,
sufficient for
lies
Fig.
ground
the purpose of
in
XIV.
See Plate
line
its
of
is
on
from a
relief of
which
equal
it
was
strength
is
representation, as form
parts have a higher relief than the rest
pattern
be no
will
lying in one plane only had to be defined.
some
and while
different outline treatments of
similar pieces of ornament.
uniform
us,
rendered more interesting and effective
the drawing
1,
subject.
are enabled to
express more than the shapes presented to
Figs.
and
projection
the
In Fig. 2
i.e.,
two planes, one above the other
the
the
higher portions being the central bud form, with the
7o
rosette at
base,
its
The
side leaves.
and the upper side of the two large
differences in the relief are expressed
by the use of strong contrasting

and of
in
lighter ones for the lower; and, as
all
the parts
lie
only two planes, the sets of lines used are each of
uniform strength.
is
lines for the higher parts
In Fig. 3 the relief
is
more
varied,
graduated from the lowest to the highest plane
therefore, the lines required for
vary
in
Figs. 4
its
and
and,
expression are such as
thickness or strength throughout their courses.
and
show the
application of lines of varying
strengths to decorative work.

Outline, besides being used for the purposes indicated,
can be employed to express various qualities, such as

softness, rigidity, flexibility, grace, etc.
But, although the point or stylus
may be used
for the
production of line work expressing a great variety of
forms and
qualities,
its
capabilities
are
limited
and
masses and quantities should be expressed by the aid

of the superior powers of the brush.
It
is
very remarkable that
in
the prevailing methods
of art instruction drawing with the brush has received

little
or no attention.
perhaps, too
While our
national
much encouragement
to
scheme
line
gives,
drawing,
it
gives no stimulus to space or mass drawing by the brush.
This omission
is
to
be regretted, as practice of
kind bears so directly on
many
artistic industries.-
this
The
Plate XIV.
72
use of the brush
is
drawing beyond
all
other means
the
more
student to
quantities
capable of developing powers of
rapidly
by directing
the solidity
his
and, while
it
will assist
the value
appreciate
attention to spacing
of
and to
forms used, the freedom of hand
of the
acquired by the employment of the brush will affect his

line
work and
raise
its
Whatever may be
quality.
thought of the Japanese as decorative designers, there

can be but one opinion as to their merits as draughts-
men, and
their skill
in
drawing
largely
is
due
to their
being accustomed from their youth upwards to the use of

the brush as a writing and drawing implement.
power of drawing seen

vitality is
much
work of a
in their line drawing,
The
which
for
superior to the generality of European

nature,
similar
has been
the restricted use of a hard point.
on " Line," Mr. Ruskin,

the Old Masters, says
after
"
The
developed from
In his Oxford lecture
speaking of the practice of

fact is that, while
we have
always learned, or tried to learn, to paint by drawing,

the ancients learned to draw by painting.
was put
into their
The brush
hands when they were children, and
they were forced to draw with that
until, if
they used the
pen or crayon, they used them with the lightness of a

brush or the decision of a graver."
By
substituting the
have a direct means
brush for the pencil-point,
for expressing
we
mass and space as
METHODS OF EXP
Linear ornamental elements translated by
well as line.
become enriched and gain
the brush
by the process
istics
are
the
changed, and forms which
lines so
special character-
outcome of the implement, not only
natural
largely increase our
range of ornamental material, but
augment our methods of expression.
also
With the
brush we are able to readily render ornament (i) by

accented
lines, as
of
tints
flat
masses
(c)
(3)
at
(2)
uniform
by simple
strength
in
by graduated tones
(b)
(d)
(4)
by the superposition of tones
(5)
by an arrangement of tones side
by
work
side, in imitation of relief
Simple brush work may be used

or
positive
negative
way
^r^
(e).
i.e.,
^k^mA*
&**% Jki4
in
by
^^Sgjr
painting in either the pattern, as at<,

or
By
ground, as at f.
the
mk
ê
ifcij
p)
juxta-
posing different tones and colours (g) very rich effects
be
can
obtained,
and
still
richer
by superposition.
These methods of applying brush work not only serve

to
enrich
them
to
our
patterns,
particular
but also enable us
grounds,
secure distinctness or softness of
On
require.
of brush
tones.
Plate
XIV.
work showing the
The upper
are
or
light
dark,
effect,
to
adapt
so as to
as cases
may
given several examples
different
modes of applying
left-hand corner of Fig. 6
shows the
74
laying of uniform tones
same pattern
around
the
flowers are
composed of forms
In Fig. 7 are
juxtaposed tones.
same tone
of the
line
same design
In the lower part of the
it.
juxtaposed.
by a
enriched
is
laid
the right-hand corner of the
different
in
shown other arrangements of

group of examples
Fig. 8 consists of a
illustrating the superposition of tones,
and
an example
is
of this principle seen on a clover-leaf, where
takes the
it
form of a connected pattern covering the three
shows
the
application
ornamental pattern.
'relief
work.
way brings us
this
an
to
given the method of
is
superposing tones after the manner of

in
leaflets.
foregoing
the
of
In Fig. 9
employment of tones
tones
The
a form
to
of decorative painting which comes very near to imi-
work imitative
tative
relief sufficiently to
flat
be carried
is
either
it
extent
far this
in to the
a fictitious realism.
by the
surface
suggests
it
should, however,
extent of producing deceptive
by imitating strong cast shadows on the
interest of the work,
amount of
it
imitative quality should
ground or by adding anything that

it
that
out of the category of mere
a question of taste
never be indulged
relief
take
How
decoration.
the
to
relief
The aim
and not
will
tend to give to
should be to increase the
to cheat the vision.
The
given to the work should be regulated
conscious
knowledge of the character of the
upon which the pattern
is
produced.
It will
be
Plate XV.
76
obvious that
all
these simple methods of treating surface
decoration, indicated at a, b y
exception of
suitable for application to
e,
such as textile hangings, pottery,

fitted
manent
brush
Plate
work.
;
while e
objects,
is
better
occupy some fixed or per-
to
Fig. 10
position.
etc.,
movable
is
an example of ornamental
lines.
On
tiles
made
for designs
with the
are,
d, e, f, g,
c,
Figs.
XV.
I,
Fig. 3
are given illustrations of direct brush
2,
4 and 5 are taken from old Damascus
from Chinese pottery
taken
is
Fig. 6
from a Flemish earthenware plate of the seventeenth

century
plate
and Fig.
an
was drawn from an old Persian
example of pure brush work
colour, ex-
in
pressed by line and mass.
Modelling and carving, unlike the other modes of

giving expression to ornament, are not restricted to one
plane for their development

are
concerned
with
actual
but
lie in
light
many
and
appreciation of sculptured and modelled
very largely upon
and shadow.
its
planes,
and
Our
shade.
work depends
being designed for holding shade
Whether
it
be made
for
graduated shade,
or for the exhibition of strong contrasts of shadow, will
depend on circumstances of position and of
There
namely
are
(1)
sunk
line of the
work
two
distinctive
relief,
is
kinds
of
lighting.
relief
work,
or cavo-relievo, in which the out-
deeply incised, and the spaces between
77
caved, the design being slightly below the ground

Plate
XIV., Fig. 11)
and
(2) raised relief,
ground surrounding the design
work projecting from
many
there are
it
is
to
relief,
relievo
relief,
half
or stiacciato
first,
the
on our
coins.
work
low
;
is
relief,
parts are detached
or basso-
and full
in
relief,
but slight
or
relief
little
pro-
In the second, the
relief is
more
variety,
and the forms are rounded, as
we have
The terms
relief.
greater, the modelling of the design has
In the third,
raised relief
forms have very
from the ground, and the

jection, as
or mezzo-relievo
In the
alto-relievo.
Of
which names have been
applied to indicate various degrees of
used are flat
wherein the
lowered, leaving the
(see Fig. 12).
varieties,
(see
the subject
in
Assyrian sculpture.
more
still
from the ground.
raised, but
The
no
fourth kind
shows the greatest amount of
relief possible,
entirely free from the slab
upon which the work was
wrought, as
in
the
metopes
development of alto-relievo
of
the
results in
with portions
Parthenon.
entire relief, or
sculpture in the round, as seen in statuary.
Low
tion,
relief requires clear, bright light for its elucida-
while high relief with bold undercutting
for cloud or diffused
The rounded
light.
form of
relief is best
seen
a direct side
in
light, as in this
sketch
is
better
78
The same
becomes
only,
seen in shadow by reflected
relief,
and only the
lost,
as
ineffective,
the
light
surface modelling
is
^^
deep cutting and

definite
edges are
visible
thus
i|l|
square-edged treatment, with strong incisive
therefore
adapted
better
for
dimly-lighted
Again, objects which are movable and

spection,
work
in
may be
low
lines, is
situations.
close
for
in-
appropriately decorated with modelled
relief
while
for,
can be
they
always
placed in a light that will bring out the beauty of the
modelled surfaces, the
relief
will
with their use or their outlines.

to
in
no way
If
the decoration
is
occupy some permanent position, then the nature of
the relief will have to be specially considered

it
interfere
will
be Viewed
whether
it
As
tance.
sculpture
will
will
in
regards lighting,
make
shadow, or
a comparison
at a dis-
of Classic
South with Northern Gothic
clear the broad general principle
which the selection of
effect
in
be seen near to the eye or
of the sunny
serve to
XVI.
open daylight or
whether
relief
should be based.
On
upon
Plate
shown two treatments of relief work, and the

that different ways of lighting have upon them.
is
The two
distinct
ways
in
which
relief
may be executed
Plate XVI.
EFFECT OF LIGHTING ON RELIEF WORK.
No.
I.
No. 3.
No. 2.
No. 4.
Square edged relief, flat surface, side lighted.

(B) Rounded relief, undulating surface, side lighted.
(No. ia) Seen in dull light.
(No. 2b) Seen in similar light, surface modelling lost.
(A)
(No. 3A) Light directly in front, flatness accented.
(No. 4B) In extreme side light,
rounded relief
intensified,
^sTUb^
OFTHF
XTKIVERSITT
F.G.J.
80
are by carving and modelling
and as both the methods
of execution and the materials employed vary, so the

results should exhibit distinct characteristics.
work you have, so

a hard material
in
to speak, to dig out
The
for these reasons, if for
be easily
other, terra-cotta should
from stone carving.
your design from
modelling you build up your forms
with a soft and pliable material
no
In carved
distinguishable
finishing of terra-cotta should
not be carried on in the direction of imitating carved
work, but
clay
so
that,
process of
the
conformity with the plastic nature of the
in
when converted
firing,
when
work may be
modelled, remains as the
some
when
some other
metals.
it
final
the pattern
is
material with a
soft
preserved.
still
either direct or indirect
the material in which
indirect
medium
first
for its expression
modelled or carved
view
in
to its translation into
In the case of direct work, such as
is
applied
woods employed
Dark and heavy-looking woods
is
of
require
broad treatment, while light-coloured woods
require delicate execution.
When
relief
work
indirectly, a consideration of the material in
be
direct
material, such as bronze, iron, or the precious
importance.
to
wrought, carved, or
is
to furniture, a consideration of the
bold and
hardness by the
the characteristics of the material and
method of work should be

Relief
into
finally
expressed
is
essential
is
which
used
it is
bronze and iron, for
81
and bolder treatment than
instance, requiring a larger

is
necessary for silver and
gold.
as
much by
the metal used
intrinsic
obviously
have
will
justing
of
be
to
taken
decoration,
relief
account
into
in
or,
principles
its
are
minuteness of an
or
size
by
as
must not be over-
scale
the
determined
is
these general
question
the
for
object
While
value.
observed,
looked
colour of
the
This
ad-
in
decoration
fact,
of
any kind.
Again, in modelling or carving for reproduction in
different materials,
be
reproduction
it
his
in
becomes necessary
for
cheap
of
repetition,
relief
the
metal
In
can be used
of any
number
accurate
copy
varied
cutting will
moulding
of
of pieces
of
the
relief
and
artist
is
but,
if
ornaments
checked
the
first
case,
indulged
a
the
in
be
in,
by
high
because
mould
requisite
for
In
avoidance
producing an
the
of
second, a
all
under-
be essential, so that a simpler kind
may be
for
moulds being composed
original.
an
of
relief;
plaster
producing
such
cost
will
may be
mode
costly
out will
economy, as
or
castings,
freedom
this
casting
less
to consider
with undercutting
more
the
rendering of the
considerations.
practical
When
it
of secondary importance, the
is
fairly free
case
ways of carrying
by circumstances.
dictated
left
certain
employed.
The annexed
of
simple
82
diagrams
will further explain.
of
piece
of
necessary
^^
The
pieces
the
indicate
shows the section
I.
ornament.
relief
J||w^
No.
into
The
is
in
order to
reproduce the undercutting,
and
formation
shows the necessary

ornament
it
mould,
the
which entails
of
No.
considerable labour and, therefore, expense.
similar
lines
which
the
divide
to
dotted
alterations
to adapt
it
in
II.
the modelling of a
to a one-piece mould.
effect of relief is often
aided and heightened by
for instance, in the plaster decorations
the use of colour
of the Moors,
appears to have been adopted in order
it
to give distinctness to the relief

their dimly-lighted interiors,
was
fusion which
likely to
ornaments which adorned
and
arise
also to prevent the con-
from their practice of
superposing one pattern upon another,
schemes of decoration.
The want
in
their richer
of light in
Gothic
churches no doubt primarily led to the use of colour in

connection with carved work, to help
increasing the depth of the cutting.
decoration
i.e.,
work
moved.
to
to
is
in
be found
its effect
variety of relief
in pierced or perforated
which the ground or pattern
is
This method of treating ornament
various
metal, and
materials, such
is
instead of
as wood,
stone,
work,
entirely reis
applicable
ivory,
and
invaluable in combining richness of effect
with actual lightness of material.
In pierced relief work,
the effect chiefly
spaces
relief
the
or
work.
XIV.
Plate
be subordinated, so
of the pattern, should
that low relief
of
the ordered spaces and inter-
in
therefore any carving or modelling of the spaces,
or masses
high
lies
and
soft
deeply
hollows should be preferred to
treated with
Compare
Fig.
it
and clear as possible
oblique crossings and complicated
16,
same
Plate.)
which decoration of
tion,
The
this
and
some woods,
that
end
all
which tend
to
(See Figs.
15
peculiarity of the material in
kind
stone,
to this
details,
is
wrought, requires atten-
and should influence treatment.
e.g.,
so
used, or in
principles
confusion, should be carefully avoided.
and
pattern,
often
is
is
on
14
Thus, the pattern should
regulate piercing are constant.

distinct
and
expressed, the
is
Fig.
Whatever form
results.
whatever material
with
13
may have an even
Pierced work
good
upon the surface
cut incisions
untouched by carving of any kind
be as
83
Brittle materials
and pottery
require
broader
treatment and stronger attachments than are necessary

in the case of iron or brass.
If
work of
this
be executed with the fret-saw, long simple

pattern are
best
intricate
details
kind
is
to
lines in the
and sudden turns
impede the action of the saw and prevent easy execution.
When, however, such work

punches or
chisels, these
is
to
be
more complex
executed with
details
may be
introduced into the design, consistently with clearness.

G
84
Whether
depend
the
be
the ground
upon
former
certain
at
hold together,
interrupted
if
to be connected
the
" ties "
stencil
will
have
to
that
"ties,"
or ground
it
being
have
crossing the pattern, which
becomes interrupted and the ground

annexed
will
If
the ground will
the latter, then
by
by
interspaces
away
application.
of
points
cut
is
pattern
the
desirable,
connected
may
circumstance
the
is
pattern
or
The
patterns).
continuous
(see
use of pierced work
has influenced and generated other forms of decoration.
Much Arabian and

is
English Elizabethan
evidently derived from pierced
even surfaces
while
ornament
work superposed upon
marquetry, though properly be-
longing to surface decoration,

of the
relief
same work, consisting
practically
is
as
it
an adaptation
does of the interchange
of pieces of fretwork in different coloured materials

tortoiseshell, brass,
white metal,
etc.
Stencilling, again,
is
only the
work
open
of
application
production of surface decoration, and
manner
following
and
zinc
colour
brushed
then
removal of
the
pattern
pattern corresponding with

Sgraffito
plate.
it
another
is
the
decoration, and
to
zinc,
be ornamented
there
pattern
mode
be well to notice here
will
effected in the
is
over the openings,
paper or
the
and,
remains a
of the stencil
it
used for wall
is
in
various
its
work
treatments, which range from simple incised line

to
low
produced
cement
pared
is
coloured
and then
on
through the
to
of
the
paper,
pattern
light,
under,
plaster,
pattern
which
mass
taste.
layer of light
thin
on
the
thus
coloured plaster or
design,
previously
pre-
transferred to the sur-
is
next cut with a knife
is
upper,
or
dark,
or
layer
may
down
substratum
vealing
re
a light
dark
ground,
be
in line or
cording to
ac-
a thicker
If
uppe r
plaster
is
superposed on a dark one, either black or
The
face.
This kind of decoration
relief in mass.
on
of decoration which
exceedingly effective
is
the easy
to
cut out in paper or
is
upon the surface
laid
is
85
layer of
2.A"
be em-
86
ployed,
may
it
then be carved
the effect being a low-
relief
on a coloured ground, rather
wood
ware.
Gesso, again,
is
like that of
a variety of relief work
may be
executed with the brush, and, therefore,
called relief painting.
diluted glue
and
this
thinly
made
properly
mixture of plaster of Paris and
of about the consistency of cream,
painted on the surface to be decorated
is
afterwards,
up
piled
is
Wedg-
first,
by successive touches, the gesso
until the limits of
low
relief are attained
is
by
the addition of cotton wool or tow a high relief can,
however, be secured, and when
do
in
little
coloured.
mie
time, the
sets hard, as
work may be carved,
harder and a finer variety
part resin, four parts of linseed
of melted glue
in
it
water, being
is
it
will
tinted,
and
composed of
and
oil,
six
parts
a small portion of whitening, soaked
added
to give
This takes longer to dry
substance and opacity.
but,
when
very hard and can be highly polished.
set,
it
becomes
Latterly,
some
patent materials used by house decorators have been

successfully
bastine"
employed
for
and " Denoline."
easily manipulated.
gesso work
The
such
former
is
as " Ala-
the
more
CHAPTER
IV.
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
THE
character of ornamental
on the
details
of arrangement.
art
depends greatly
employed, as well as upon
Although good ornament
is
mod
possible
with simple materials, yet, undoubtedly, the higher forms

of
decorative
While we are
art
must include the noblest elements.
drawn
naturally
to
compositions
those
which include the highest organic forms, we should not

discard the use of those
composed of
materials, because they hold a place
though humble function
and
fulfil
many
broadly classified under two heads
ficial and the natural.
be subdivided into
(i)
a useful
in the decorative systems.
elements of ornament are drawn from
may be
interesting
less
sources,
:
(2)
and
the arti-
These, for convenience,

Geometrical,
The
may
Architectural,
88
(3)
Vegetable,
Industrial, (4)
Human
Under
Figure.
the
first
geometrical diapers,
traceries,
Animal, and
(5)
come
frets, interfacings,
Under
etc.
(6) the
the second,
columns, entablatures, pediments, pilasters, labels, car-
Under
touches, etc.
fourth
leaves, flowers,
include, plants,
will
roots, festoons, acanthus foliage, rosettes
quadrupeds',
birds,
fishes,
The
dolphins, shells, etc.
insects,
To
consider
come under
fully
and the
and
fruits
reptiles,
fifth,
griffins,
sixth division will comprise,
telamones, terminals,
adult figures, amorini, caryatfdes,

etc.
The
vases, arms, etc.
candelabra,
ribbons,
draperies,
the third, tools, musical instruments,
the elements which might
all
the several heads would be quite impossible
within the limits of this work
and we
will, therefore,
some of the
commencing with those
content ourselves with the consideration of
more important
each
in
included under the
Elements
The
ornaments, the
flat
surfaces,
are
their
firmness
frets,
Japanese and
borders,
may be
purpose
for
in
for
variously
historic
all
borders,
which
for
eminently
Egyptian
set
ornamenting
for
formed of them are
diapers
in
which are useful
expression
of
Geometrical
(1)
elements are the right-lined
employed
chiefly
many
especially
simplest
sub-division.
and which occur
They
but
first
class,
out,
fits
to
art.
styles.
which
them
be found,
Frets,
according to
they are required.
as
the
Usually the
ELEMENTS OF OKN^MENT.
89
pattern and the ground are equally spaced, as in Fig. a
but this need not always be the case, for a more pleasing effect can be obtained by unequal
spacing, as
Fig.
in
Then, again,
b.
nj HJ p
~Z"
cv
they need not always be based upon the

square, but
may be based upon
oblong, as shown in Fig.
be better
will
,,
the
*lllu~liSlBrr
This form
c.
many
frets are to
be met
for the expression of hori-
zontality, but
n r_
^3v
/<
~l
with, chiefly Oriental, in which oblique

lines
are introduced, as in Fig. d\ and these are very
suitable
for
traceries,
lines,
inclined
composed of
serve
interest
flat
for
Interlacings
surfaces.
oblique, vertical,
similar
purposes,
and
and
and horizontal
possess
more
from the variety infused into their composition.
The
use of curves,
lines
or
either
in
conjunction
by themselves, leads on
to
with
richer
right
series.
Interlaced patterns, based wholly on the circle, will give
such patterns as the Guilloche and the
Money
border
Plate XL).
(see
Geometrical
elements, and
figures
lie
at
intricate patterns in
the
and
spacings
are
valuable
base of those elaborate and
which the Oriental
artists
and the
mosaic workers of the Middle Ages so freely indulged.
The
use of these figures in the construction of diapers
has already been pointed out
in
Chapter
I.
p^/gggagggg
CHAPTER
V.
ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS.
NEXT
come
in order
architectural elements.
tecture, rightly understood,
construction
allied
not
is
Archi-
the art of aesthetic
construction merely, but construction
with beauty
not
made
beautiful
decoration, but by beauty inherent in
In good architecture
we
by superadded
its
construction.
recognise the fullest expression
of the inventive and constructive faculties, together with
a regard for beauty

ness, proportion,
and, as
stability,
it
is
based upon order,
fit-
and grace, elements drawn
from such a source necessarily possess qualities so high

as to
command
chief concern of decorative art
form, and colour, and

necessities
The
the attention of the ornamentist.
it
is
with beauty of
line,
has less to do with constructive
than architecture.
The freedom
it
enjoys
from that restraint which attends
is,
without some counteracting
liberty, liable to
run
riot
In
all
the
decoration
but the employment of archi-
is
distinctly seen.
and painted
of panels,
It is
traceable
glass, iron-work, jewellery,
pilaster
shafts,
Archi-
etc.
forms, pure and simple, are often incorporated
tectural
in
a dangerous
influence,
the best periods of ornamental art the
influence of architecture
in pottery, stained
aesthetic construction,
a means for minimising such a
tectural elements offers
tendency.
91
decorative designs, but are oftener modified by the
imagination, so
and
other
as
freer
details,
Hence,
associated.
bring them
to
while
into
which
with
harmony with
become
they
some forms
are
distinctly
XVII.,
architectural, others are but suggestive (see Plate
Fig.
13,
capital
by
Now,
Holbein).
architectural forms in a design,
it
is
in
adapting
not essential that
the rigidity necessary in pure architecture should always
be maintained, because the same structural conditions
have not to be dealt with.

actual
physical
weight
has
In the case of architecture,

to
be
provided
decoration, the appearances of weight only

as the eye
is
satisfied with
for
in
and so long
the semblance of stability,
freedom of treatment can be indulged
in.
The
reason
given above for modifying the severe forms of architecture
namely, that they may be brought into harmonious
relation with
more ornate elements
justifies such treat-
92
ment
and the history of architecture
itself
furnishes
instances in which forms, taken from a severe style to be
used
fit
in a
them
Roman
underwent considerable change to
richer one,
for their
new
Take one example from
position.
In adopting the Grecian Doric column
art.
was necessary
to so soften
severe features as to bring
a, it
and tone down

into
it
its
harmony with
the richer ornamental system associated with
practice.
The
column would
original
been discordant and disturbing

unity of the
it
It
work
was made
to the general
was employed
it
it,
distinct
necking was given
Whatever
and a base added.

in,
that the variations are
and
principles.
b).
and more slender, had a
taller
cations are indulged

,fe;
which
have
was, therefore, so to speak, revised (as Fig.
moulded abacus, a
to
in
Roman
This was the
the Corinthian order.
To
upon
do
knowledge of pure architecture
care must
is
this,
modifi-
be taken
architectural lines
it
follows that a
of vital importance,
if
the elements from such a source are to be intelligently

used.
The
study of architecture
ornamental material, but
will
high decorative importance.

the crowning of supporting
will
not only furnish
bring to light principles of
For
instance, in regard to
members
like
columns, the
higher the column in proportion to width, the
taller
the
Plate XVII.
M7NIVERSITY
94
capital,
and
This principle,
vice versa.
it
be seen,
will
is
also recognised in the relative pitch of the roofs of classic
buildings and those of northern Gothic.
Apart from climatic and other conformer
ditions, the horizontality of the

~
rig.
artistically requires
i.
pediment (Fig.
The
i).
a lower gable or
tendency of Gothic
vertical
buildings calls for a higher pitch
(Fig.
2).
Reverse these and the importance of the

principle
The
is
seen at once.
value of this principle would appear
development of Gothic windows,
to
be attested
in
which we have the long narrow ones of the lancet
in the
/^fffh^v
period surmounted by an acutely
pointed
arch
while
in
the
later
phases of the style these apertures

widen, and the crowning arch beFig.
Fig. 4.
3.
Fig.
comes depressed
5.
This general principle
is
(Figs.
3, 4,
and
5).
a guide in proportioning the
superadornment of rectangular spaces, whether of
frontis-
pieces of books, or a pair of park gates in wrought iron

in fact,
many
historic
examples show that
this proportion
has been observed by their designers (Plate XVII., Figs.

4,
5,
Plate
10,
14,
and
Each of these
15).
XVII. appears
to
be controlled,
by the proportion of the
classic
five
in its
figures
general
pediment, which
on
lines,
may be
roughly determined as shown at Fig.
95
Place one leg
3.
of the compasses on the point where the vertical central
and extend the other
line crosses the horizontal cornice,
to
extremity of the
the
latter,
and
then describe a
Taking the
quadrant, cutting the vertical line below.
made
intersection thus
as a centre,
and with the chord
of the arc as a radius, describe a semicircle upwards,

cutting the vertical line, which will determine the slant
Again, mouldings usually have
of the raking cornice.
a projection, from the body of the work to which they

belong, equal to their depth
when
decorated, the
Such
agree with the section.
lines of the pattern
ciples
and,
have influenced
all
good decorative work,
of course, to modifications by material
prin-
subject,
for instance, the
tenacity of metal over that of stone will allow the projection of metal mouldings to exceed
what
is
the safe
limit for stone architecture.
Having pointed out some

pass
on
to
notice
It
more
angular
abacus
columns and
assumes
originally
bell of
;
the
as
pilasters
the
detail
modified,
less
was designed
between the
it
or
we
now
will
few ornamental details derived
Perhaps no
from architecture.
used,
principles,
in
capital
the
of
the
volute
scroll.
occupy the space
to
(Plate
function
as
so frequently
is
and the
soffit
Corinthian
XVII., Fig.
support
for
of the
capitals
6),
the
left
of
where
over-
96
hanging portion of the

strength render
friezes
it
gracefulness
Its
latter.
particularly suitable for setting out
and other ornamental arrangements where these

n).
qualities are desirable (see Fig.
Figs.
and 20 show the development
19,
and
undergone.
On
the
same
this
Figs.
Plate,
17, 18,
16,
element has
and
show
forms often seen in old iron-work, which are derivatives
from architectural
Fig.
details.
dwarf column, as shown
at
a "broken pediment," as
at
is
is
abstracted from
b\ Figs. 7
and 8 are door
Fig. 2
hinges, and obviously their form
round arch used
The
hinge,
9,
is
influenced by the
Norman period.
period when the
of the
in architecture
Fig.
from a baluster or
belongs to the
pointed arch came into use, the influence of which
seen
in the
spring
change of form and
from the central
in the
Fig.
strap.
way
12
is
the scrolls
shows
the
decoration of a narrow upright panel with an ornamentally

treated architectural support.
Cartouches, which
owe
to
we
their origin, as the
the
ancient
include in this section, appear to
meaning of the word
use of paper or parchment labels for
holding inscriptions and badges
when
the latter were
used, the cartouche took the form of shields.
of these labels or shields,
curled
into
indicates,
scroll
when
forms of
The edges
fancifully cut, naturally
an ornamental character.
This, attracting attention, led to a systematic develop-
Plate XVIII.
M,,
(JlHI'Mi
'MI!||||||
Plate
XIX
^^^
^
tig-
hi
y\b
m^mm^W^
^îM^rmJ^
iral
<
fo^rlT^
WtttttJ
F.G.J
and ultimately,
ment,
ornament, resulted
known
detail
is
set
conjunction
in
valuable in design, both in
more
off
rolled
ginnings of the cartouche
to
and as a tonic
to
On
Plate
XVIII. are
Fig. 12, cut as at a, with the
Fig.
13, cut
on the
the parts rolled backwards and forwards
of
b>
is
a variation of the same,

;
Fig. 15
Figs. 16, 17, 18,
in the
flat.
all
and 19 are obtained
Plate
XIX.
is
e,
f
t
lines
Fig. 14
the parts being curved
shows a richer form, cut as
the diagrams attached,
edges
probable be-
the
illustrate
projections rolled backwards
forwards
it
foil
cut paper, with the
various ways, to
in
As an element
interesting ornament,
shown some sketches from
interlaced
capacity as a
its
give strength to a composition.
with
kind of decorative
in that particular
cartouche work.
as
99
and
in
the
at c;
and
same way,
being their forms
devoted to examples showing
the further development of the cartouche
different
at
After the ornamental elaboration of the edges
periods.
they become thickened, a result no doubt obtained from

their reproduction in carving.
The
thickness was some-
times uniform, but more often graduated, a refinement
which added greatly
to the character of this
element
4,
(see Figs.
1,
ornamental
and 6 from French and Flemish
examples of the sixteenth century).
Then we have
the
borders of the cartouche foliated and adorned with masks
and other
details
based on natural objects
(see
Fig.
2
2,
IOO
from a German design of the
after Holbein, Fig. 3,
teenth century, and
Fig.
10,
from
late
six-
French Renais-
Another way of treating the edge was by the
sance).
application of distinct architectural features,
severe, as in Fig. 8, which
is
more or
less
an illustration taken from
Italian art of the sixteenth century.
Figs. 9
and
1 1
show
the modelling of the edge into rounded forms, a treat-
known
as " Louis Treize."
ment
peculiar to the style
Some
cartouches have their surfaces pierced, as in Figs.
4 and
5,
of
tion
and
two,
in
or
very rich examples
even
portions of the upper

as in Fig.
as
in
the
4.
strap
Again, the surface
superposed,
is
Fig.
often seen panelled,

7,
whilst
Fig.
12
application of the idea of the cartouche
work, which largely
Renaissance.
cartouches
a combina-
one interpenetrating the lower,
Jacobean example,
illustrates the
to
three,
we have
dominated the English
CHAPTER
VI.
INDUSTRIAL ELEMENTS.
WE
now
pass on to consider the industrial elements
comprised
in
our third division.
convenience we have assumed

class, yet
the
it
might be
architectural
the distinction
is
every
and
the
at
article
regarded as a sub- division of
but slight.
it
is
If
fashioned for useful purposes should be

to the
eye,
it
follows
and architecture have much
art
Although
industrial
character
our definition of archi-
the art of aesthetic construc-
formed and made pleasing
purposes of
practically
same time we accept the dictum
industrial
life,
for
for these objects a distinct
Theoretically and
group.
tecture be right, that

tion,
fairly
Although
objects
have
to
serve
in
that
fitly
that
common.
the minor
they are nevertheless architectural in
the difference between a cup rightly designed,
102
and a building
truly planned for a specific purpose,
rather a matter of degree than of principle.
The
mating principles of architecture and industrial
art
identical in spirit,
distinctly
very
is
ani-
being
the results are often similar; and so
this the case, that occasions arise
difficult to classify
The
them.
in the present instance is therefore
for
is
when
it is
adopted
classification
an arbitrary one, used
convenience only.
Industrial objects, such as tools, musical instruments,
vases, armour, etc., are used in a variety of ways, often

in
purely aesthetic manner, but more generally for
mnemonic and symbolic purposes.

of objects
is
By
the aesthetic use
be understood the inclusion of
to
details,
such as those just named, without any other aim than

pleasing the sense of vision
are
selected
means
sition
for
and, therefore, the objects
the beauty of their forms, and as a
for
infusing variety
and
the mnemonic, as the word
tion for the purpose of aiding the

facts
set
and events
forth
These
some
different
and the symbolic
idea
implies,
their
uses of industrial
in character
one another.
their adopin
recalling
employment
to indicate a virtue or an
mnemonic, and the symbolic
to
is
memory
the two
from the
to
office.
and other elements
divide ornamental art into three classes
very distinct
compo-
interest into a
the aesthetic, the
latter,
first,
while being
are nearly allied
symbol may be used
to
aid
the
memory as well as
may serve to recall
an
to set forth
103
Thus
idea.
a cross
the circumstance of the death of our
Lord, and at the same time stand for the symbol of the
Christian faith
or a lyre be used to bring to recollec-
tion the ancient use of that instrument or to typify the
general
mnemonic have much

For
While the symbolic and the
of music.
idea
in
distinctions.
inscriptions ornamentally treated
written
instance,
common, they have
are mnemonic, and in no sense of the term can they
On
be regarded as symbolic.
examples of symbolic
emblem of
The form
Deity.
The
sun worship.
details.
Plate
Fig.
XX.
is
survival of this form
asps,
circle
is
retained,
symbols of wisdom
indicate
Deity.
sovereignty
Fig. 3
is
to
ubiquity,
emblem
Above the
unstrung.
Being a race given
the pursuit
of hunting, their
was as a King mighty

symbol shows a King
In Fig. 4
is
we have
more complex
attributes
a similar
a form shaped as a
disc
seen in the
and on either side are
is
central
is
while the outstretched wings
and
used by the Assyrians.
bow
prehistoric
In Fig. 2
the Egyptian symbol of divinity, but in a
The
given
of a circle points to early
halo or nimbus of the Middle Ages.
form.
are
of
the
t
$l]~fi$
conception of a god
in the chase.
in the act of
variety of this
drawing the bow.
given the Egyptian scarabczus, or beetle,
io4
symbol of
The
creature deposits
which
rolls
it
which
creation, the idea of
up
eggs
its
mass of earthy
in a
and which, by
into a ball,
drags into some spot exposed to the
it
sun's rays
upon
these, acting
it,
full
its
refuse,
hind legs,
power of the
When
hatch the eggs.
accomplished, the earthy matter breaks up, and
this is
To
the larvae issue forth.

typified
this
thus explained
is
of the
rebirth
of creation, and even
mysteries
the
mind of the Egyptians
the
The
Resurrection.
by the frequent use of
idea
supported
is
mummy
symbol on
this
the
cloths
and other things connected with the burial of the dead.
we have
In Fig. 12
the Christian symbol of the glory of
the head, the nimbus; and in Fig.
glory of the body.

a
Fig.
monogram composed
shows the symbol of Christ
18 the aureole, or
Greek
of the two
His eternal character.
symbol
of
Saviour's
sacrifice.
shows
the
Maltese, whilst
Fig.
Fig.
Fig. 6
of
15
is
This
is
the
is
the
and
the Cross
is
cross,
of
the
Latin form of cross.
Greek form,
17
14
to
Fig.
of St.
16
the
Andrew.
a classic symbol, the caduceus, or winged staff
Hermes, the god who,
commerce and
industry.
had the power of uniting
was
it
The
when giving a golden wand

it
Fig.
and a remembrance
Christianity,
His
Omega added
name, Chi and Rho, with Alpha and

indicate
letters of
to
said, presided
over
story runs that Apollo,
Hermes,
in love all
told
him
that
beings divided by
Plate XX.
MGt 2-
VMO 3
TIG 36
^^ 37
io6
Hermes,
hate.
to test
threw
it,
snakes which he found fiercely

ceased
they twined about each other in loving embrace,
round the
curling
and,
its
been
caduceus has
commerce and the

it
staff,
From
tached thereto.
the
down between two

The combat
fighting.
it
became permanently
industrial arts.
symbol
as
the
The
parts
accepted
Hermes,
with
association
at-
of
composing
each have separate symbolic meanings, thus: the
staff
power, the wings despatch, and the serpents wisdom.

Fig.
is
1 1
a modern symbol of handicraft
work directed by the

symbol of
thyrsus, a
and
Figs. 9
Two
intelligence.
festivity
i.e.,
of hand
forms of the
and gaiety, are shown
in
Its origin is attributed to the ancient
10.
practice of crowning a spear-head or a staff with bunches
of
vine-leaves
or fir-cones, for use
Bacchanalian revels.
The
in
dance
the
at
vine-leaves had reference to
the wine used on those occasions, and the fir-cones and

leaves to
fire,
because,
as the revels
were held
at night,
or in dark retreats, torches were used, and these were
made of the wood of fir-trees. Figs. 19, 23,

show the different ways in which torches can be
generally
and
24,
employed
upright
to symbolise various ideas.
position,
is
a symbol of
torch
was inverted
it
{see
naturally
Fig.
24),
Its
life.
position, as in Fig. 23, signifies death.
the flame ascending, as
Fig.
By
19, in
its
reversed
representing
would do when the

it
will
serve as an
emblem
of death and resurrection.
tion, etc., is
Figs.
107
Progress of
civilisa-
symbolised by a winged wheel (Fig.
32 and
33,
29).
the trident and rudder, are nautical
emblems, and are associated with the sea-god Poseidon,
The
or Neptune.
lyre
and sistrum (Figs. 27 and 34)
are musical emblems, and, as before pointed out, can also
mnemonic
be used as
symbols of the drama
Figs.
signs.
tragedy
30 and 31
are
These
and comedy.
were derived from the ancient Greek practice of using
masks
special
during
its
to
indicate
the
characters of the
is
from
and represents the sacred tree of
life.
representation on the stage.
Assyrian
art,
Fig. 20
a symbol of the course of
is
play
Fig. 26
human
life,
and
is
The
of frequent occurrence in Renaissance decoration.
upright position of the symbol indicates the beginning or

start in
life,
and leads on
diverge to right and

25 are examples
left
of
ornamentally treated
which abounds
modern
in
to the point
to good and
evil.
mnemonic ornament
Figs. 22
and
inscription
and Fig. 22 from the Moresque,
this
class of
ornament.
Fig.
25
is
the letters of the quotation are interwoven and
treated as ornamental elements.
With
symbols are combined to indicate the
wings
where the roads
at
this
flight
inscription
of time
each end, and a winged hour-glass in the
centre.
The
objects grouped in Fi g 28 are used to symbolise

.
UNIVERSITY
.California
108
Monograms
learning and literature.
are often used in
decorative designs, and consist of letters interlaced, as
shown
Fig.
at
When, however,
36.
the
are
letters
reversed and more intricately combined so as to be less
and
easily read, they are called ciphers (see Figs. 35
grouping
In
elements
tools,
together,
filling panels,
musical
or
centre ornaments
as
either
instruments,
$j).
other
or for
other industrial products, such as draperies,
ribbons, and cords, occur and are of very great use,
draperies for giving flexible masses

together,
in
for
practice,
effect
filling
and
awkward spaces which
also
likely to result
for
relieving
in
and suspended,
the
it is
when
of ribbon
to
for
but, primarily, in actual
them
inevitable
mode
in
as
knots,
of treatment
the lines of exquisite
beauty which they reveal, not only
is
the decoration
present
The
form as possible.
be carefully studied
Their value
material
desirable not to hide, but to show,
bows, and ends connected with this

should
detail.
the objects are strung together
means of suspension, and
pleasant
heaviness of
the
some arrangements. In
of an upright panel,
often occur
from the use of massive
The employment and development

comes naturally
ribbons for tying
in historic
examples,
ones formed of different materials.
mostly to be appreciated
in conjunction
with other elements, but even used by themselves they

furnish very fair
ornament
(see
headpiece,
page 10 1).
Plate XXI.
no
The
the
in
flying ends of ribbons
assume a variety of curves,
movements of which have been taken advantage of

Sometimes we have a simple flowing
historic art.
movement
(a),
ness of flow
at other times the
is
smooth-
by a rippling of
relieved
the surface, which adds materially to the

richness of effect
On
(b).
XVIII.
Plate
are given examples of ribbons, narrow draperies, and
knots
sketched
from
origin
of these
details
of
illustrations
historic
armour,
examples of the
tools,
Fig.
etc.
(see
Figs,
treatment
the
ribbons will be found on Plate

to
show the
which so frequently occur
the ornament of different periods
Further
to
material,
actual
XXL,
is
and
which
ornamental
to
is
in
n).
use
of
devoted
grouping of
group of
musical
instruments strung together by drapery, an example of
French decoration of the eighteenth century.

is
Fig.
a cluster of instruments consisting of a tambourine,
trumpets and
olive-leaves.
flutes,
with which are entwined wreaths of
The whole group
is
suspended
by
ribbon, the flying ends of which have a rippled surface.

Fig. 3
is
a modern example of a decorative arrangement
of tools by the late Alfred Stevens, and shows a very

skilful
Fig. 4
adjustment of unpromising ornamental material.

is
a panel decoration, composed of shields tied
together with ribbons.
Fig. 5
is
taken from a piece of
sixteenth century Italian pottery.
in
In this example the
ribbons play an important part, and are ingeniously used

to
fill
up the somewhat awkward spaces between the
groups of arms,
labels, etc.;
although the result
is
not
altogether satisfactory, for the redundancy and fluttered
character of this element conveys a feeling of unrest and
want of repose.
Fig. 6
is
modern design composed of
musical instruments and art objects, with foliage appropriate to the
idea of the composition.
the foregoing examples
it
will
On
comparing
be seen that where the
elements are" so different in form and
the groups are
suspended, the arrangements are upon the principle of
Balance
but where the
forms are selected
for their
similarity of shape,
and the groups are merely superposed
on a ground,
which they adhere
to
approach more or
less to
for support,
a Symmetrical order.
they
CHAPTER
VII
VEGETABLE ELEMENTS.
WE
the
first
have now
to consider those classes of
elements
which are derived directly from nature, taking
Here the
subdivision, namely, vegetable forms.
material presented to the ornamentist
is
both varied and
abundant, capable of easy adaptation to his requirements.
The
history of decorative art
ment of such
material,
shows the constant employ-
and exhibits
also great variety of
treatment, from the realistic to the severely conventional

at
times dangerously near
to
be consistent with good ornament,
only suggesting
produced
ment
the
realistically,
to
too
originals.
literal
When
at
transcription
other times
plants
are
re-
they cannot be regarded as orna-
because they show no attempt
adaptation, principles which
lie at
at
idealism or
the root of
all
good
VEGETABLE ELEMENTS.
Therefore, except for symbolic or
ornament.
purposes, plants should not have a

for,
113
interpretation
literal
as Sir Gardiner Wilkinson points out
tion of natural
objects,
mnemonic
"
The
imita-
mere ornamental purposes,
for
usually disagrees both with the material used and the
place where they are introduced
of poverty of invention, and

design."
Omega
So-called
also an indication
a deficiency of taste
decorative
who,
nature-worship,
often
in their
grossly
in
whose Alpha and
art,
consist in the copying of natural details,
refuge of the ignorant,
violate
the
is
narrow view of
her
and
laws
In the study of plants for decorative pur-
principles.
poses,
it is
become acquainted
necessary that one should
it is
not only with the ideal forms of leaves and flowers, as set
forth in
Chapter IV., "Lessons on Decorative Design," but
also with their
life's
the
their habits,
history from the cradle to the grave,
conditions
under which they
and the nature of the curves that
Rose and
suggest.
artist
The
be
tree should
their varied
infinitely
thrive,
growths
more
to
an
than they are to a mere cultivator of flowers.

latter
may
revel
in
and the doubleness of
the
his
symmetry of
blooms
but
his
the
plants
former
should discover other beauties than those which consist
of a
in
" well-shaped
" doubled
simplicity
of
flower."
form
are
shrub
"
or in
the
complexity
Suggestiveness of line and

of
more importance
to
the
114
decorator than the peculiarities of the latest product of

the scientific cultivator.
Consider plants
flowers,
and
gestions
fruits,
are
roots, stems, leaves,
and what a boundless store of sug-
presented
to
us
Yet how
little
some
themselves of them, being satisfied to
designers avail
repeat old
in their entirety
conventional
or
forms,
take
to
most
the
ordinary ready-to-hand treatments of natural forms, or

culling
from the pages of some "herbal," and never
troubling
themselves by personal
inspiring
motives with
them.
For
instance,
which nature
how
often do
naturalistic
panel decoration pots
start-points,
till
Not
one
is
research
sick of their
that pots in themselves are
those
surrounded
has
we
for
see in so-called
and vases used as

wearisome
bad as
the contrary, they are reasonable ones
repetition.
start-points,
;
but
it
is
on
their
constant repetition, to the neglect of those furnished by
nature
the
in
The many
varied roots from
different forms roots
which plants spring.
assume
afford admirable
much more might be done with them

than has been attempted.
On Plate XXII. are given
some types of roots, and Figs. 1-9 show their simple
suggestions, and
ornamental rendering.
Figs. 10-13
show the adaptation
of plants, with their natural start-points.
given the adaptation of the white

fancifully
shaped space, the earth
lily
In Fig. 10
to
is
a somewhat
line entering into
com-
Plate XXII.
TGJ
I
u6
with the bulb and root.
position
Fig.
12
a study
is
from the couch grass, and shows a further ornamental

treatment of the ground through which the underground
stem of the plant runs
Fig.
the top view of a plant,
1 1,
showing the fibrous root developed
tracery,
into
accented so as to form a contrast with the foliage.

13
and
foliage of the parsnip to a vertical border, the
between the tracery of the
introduced
tones
being suggested by the element

grows.
These examples
growth,
which
work
that
too
is
its
leaves
departure
intervening
which
kind,
axis
In
an
in
either
'
if
even
more than one

to arrest
will
distinct
by
it
a'
one
is
in
law pertaining
but
the
of
the
of
the
earth
in
^'
be, this
law has been
never so
;i>
start-point
is
used, a stop
plant
is
introduced
and
harmony fh^LdM^fe!?
to
thickening
line
may
â^"J/^
5^*-\
Z^~
<cr^
<
appendages of
the
the flow, as at
be seen,
points
good ornament of a flowing
all
and,
have
ornamental
in
opposite
by the
however conventional
observed, thus
neglected
direction,
or
portion,
grows.
it
naturally
an important law of
growths
one
marked
is
it
rootlets
ascending axis of a plant throwing
in
descending
the
often
which
in
illustrate
reversed
of departure, the
off
Fig.
the conventional treatment and adaptation of the
is
root
and
>';
^P^^
with
life.
this,
it
the
Plate XXIII.
n8
In
and
all
their general composition should
for the
for
stems
naturalistic treatments, the direction of
may be
ornamental lines that
decorative
purposes.
obtained from any plant
be closely studied
abstracted from
them
follows that the lines so
It
be better suited
will
for build-
ing up a design founded on that plant than those of a
purely inventive character
between the
first
there
will
and the general construction
detail
case that will be wanting in the
XXIII.
are given
some sketches
young hawthorn,
Fig. 3
the
is
latter.
of trees,
therefrom, for decorative purposes.

a
be a sympathy
On
Plate
and abstractions
Fig.
i,
ornamentally treated
is
in the
drawn from
Fig.
in
2.
an ornamental rendering of a pine-tree shown

Fig.
sketch,
realistic
pattern, Fig.
4, is
The ornamental
6.
in
frieze
based upon the lines derived from an
and 8 are decorative
espalier cherry-tree.
Figs.
tree forms, the lines of
which are abstracted from nature,
taken
kind
Plate
from Italian
will
textiles.
7,
5,
Other forms of a similar
be found on Plate XV., Figs.
XXIV.
abstraction
are given
of
lines
some
getting fresh ornamental elements.
Figs.
1,
2,
3,
4,
5,
will
and
6,
and
2.
On
further illustrations of the
from nature
which they were taken
for
the
purpose of
The drawings from
be found on Plate
Plate
XXIV.
are
XXV.
simple
analytic lines taken from the corresponding figures on
Plate
XXV.
Figs.
7, 8,
9,
10,
and
12,
Plate
XXIV.,
Plate XXIV.
FGJ
university)
Plate XXV.
VEGETABLE ELEMENTS.
show abstracted
and
16,
17,
XXV.,
drawn from the same

of
its
growth.
method
the
and forms from Figs.
lines
Plate
121
12,
9,
with others,
which,
13,
were
tulip flower in the various stages
Figs. 13 to 20, Plate
XXIV., demonstrate
of dealing with abstracted forms in building
up new ornamental
details;
and
serration of edges,
in
Figs.
13 to 17 by simple
Figs. 18, 19, and 20
superposition of tones and lines,
by the
resulting in the pro-
duction of varied elements suitable for use in designs of

a conventional type.
The
lower part of Plate XXIII.
examples of patterns based upon

cloud and
forms.
and Fig. 10
nature,
is
wave
its
occupied with
is
lines abstracted
Fig. 9 shows
a sketch
ornamental interpretation.
from
from
Fig.
a drawing from nature of waves breaking upon the
shore,
and Figs.
of the same.
and 12 give ornamental treatments
11
In Pig. 14 are
shown cloud forms from
Japanese book.
Again, leaves
in their various stages of
from the bud state to their
final
development,
expansion, together with
their surface decoration
by veining, superposition of tone
and
shapes
to
colour,
the
The
life,
and
the
ornamentist
of
their
margins,
abundant hints and
offer
suggestions.
purity of form and line observable in early plant
the graceful lines of the tender branches, and the
exquisite shapes of leaf-buds, should
command
attention
122
and
careful study.
patient investigation of
alone, in early Spring-time,

for
many
Fig.
it
are
the
is
would amply repay the student,
the
shown
graceful
are given a few studies of early leaf-buds.

Fig. 2
lilac.
is
from the sycamore, and
way
in
particular notice.
in
growth of the buds
different stages in the
which the lower one leaves the
stem, and the composition of line
it
displays,
worthy of
is
Further developments of the buds of
sycamore are shown
the
On
a hidden delight would be revealed to him.
XXVI.
Plate
bud forms
in
Figs.
8,
9,
and
10,
11.
Attention should be given in Fig. 9 to the termination

of the upper scale of the bud envelope, which
resembling a sculptured
finial.
buds of the horse-chestnut

ment.
They
Figs.
is
3, 4, 5, 6,
in various
foliated,
and
7 are
degrees of develop-
are characterised by a sturdy and vigorous
growth, and the forms composing the envelope have
very pronounced shapes.
Figs. 12, 13, 14,
and 15 were
sketched from the buds of the ash-tree.
While
been
less
leaves,
and the forms of leaf-buds, may have
regarded than their quiet beauty
same cannot be
said of flowers.
Their
justifies,
-brilliancy
the
has
caused them to be universally admired, and as a con-
sequence they are largely used as an element

mental art of
all styles.
They
are
in orna-
more pronounced
styles of a naturalistic character, but modified in
in
what are
usually considered conventional styles, such, for instance,
Plate XXVI.
124
Greek and Roman.
as the
made
has been
reason
ill
accord with the con-
ventional lines prevailing in classic ornament

find
use
Anything approaching a natura-
rendering of them would
listic
little
of positive forms of flowers, and the
not far to seek.
is
In these styles but
and so
we.
most
that the terminations to scrolls consist for the
part of groups of leaves disposed in a multi-symmetrical
or bi-symmetrical manner, on the principles observed in
modern
In
flowers.
practice the results of the classic
method have been adopted, and few attempts appear

to
have been made
further develop the application
to
of similar principles to those which animated the

ancient
open
although
times,
of
as
illustrated
the
utilised
masters,
nature
still
is
book on elementary botany, and note the
student
thoughtful
if
of
Glance down the pages of any
yore.
various orders of inflorescence
how many
book
work of
search
in
and
it
of ideas
must
the
same way
would lead
to
good
as
of which,
all
was done by the old
results.
For example,
take the simplest form of inflorescence, the spike

small
its
diagrams on Plate XXVII.), and adapt
principle of growth,
we have
scroll,
while
character
of
Taking
perfectly consistent with
harmonises well with the
the
it.
(see
and not any individual specimen,
termination
it
any
and principles
suggestions are here presented,

in
strike
border
pattern
(see
the
longitudinal
Fig.
i,
same
Plate XXVII.
warn
126
On
plate).
again
taking
adopting the principle,
number of
it
flowers on a disc
and
capitulum
the
which
or
the
merely
placing
of
head, as diagram
b,
is
admirably compose with the spiral lines of the
will
XXVII.,
(Plate
scroll
Fig.
Fig.
2).
shows
the
application of the principle of an unfolding leaf-bud to
the
a scroll
of
finish
Fig.
4,
the
ornamental ex-
pression of the principle of the glomerule (diagram

Fig.
f)
the application of the principle of the scorpioid
5,
(diagram d) to a wave line pattern.
In Fig. 6
is
shown
a scroll termination based upon the umbel (diagram

Fig. 7
Flowers being the crowning glory of plants,
they
as
mostly
are
distinct colouring,
is
it
made conspicuous by
their
that they should
have
essential
some emphasis, whether expressed by
The purpose
mass.
fruit
c).
a diaper arranged on the lines of the umbel and
is
scorpioid.
and
of plant
life
is
line,
space, or
the production of
The
and seeds, whereby they are propagated.
forms which carry the seeds assume a variety of shapes,
and are suitable
many
more
require but
little
On
Figs.
and Figs.
Plate
and
3, 4,
is
XXVIII.
2 are
and
by that interesting
Very
adaptation, as their forms
and regular than
set
leaves.
the needs of the decorator.
to
are
the case with flowers and
are given examples.
the seed vessels of the nasturtium,
give the different forms assumed
plant,
"love-in-a-mist."
Fig.
Plate XXVIII.
128
presents front forms of the wild rose.
show the seed
16
glove.
Fig.
is
<c
heads
"
and 12 are given the
11,
10,
9,
tomato a
useful form
for bold deco-
In Fig. 17 are given sketches of the
The ornamental
sweet pea.
when they
present
lines,
the
liberate
of a very attractive character
many
furnish
will
once a quaint and sug-
at
is
of different kinds of poppies, and Fig. 14 shows
the fruit of the

ration.
and
common
the seed receptacle of the
In Figs.
15,
7,
and appendages of the fox-
vessels
garden marigold, which

gestive form.
Figs.
a bold
of the
which the envelopes

generally
are
seeds,
and the study of them
decorative
the cone of the fir-tree
fruit
Fig.
hint.
shows
18
form richly ornamented.
It is
a natural example of decoration by oblique striping,
and
in
respect
this
offers
contrast
to
the
vertical
divisions seen in such forms as the tomato, poppy, " lovein-a-mist," etc.
Algae,
material;
tion
or
sea-weeds,
abundant ornamental
and should not be neglected,
of their
varieties
search and research.

their use
furnish
is
will
well
for
an investiga-
repay the trouble of
For designs of a
nautical character
obvious enough, but their employment need
not be restricted to any special purpose any
other forms of vegetable
which are drawn

possibilities of
some
life.
See
Plate
more than
XXIX., on
sea-weeds having decorative
decided character.
At the bottom
of the
Plate XXIX.
Plate XXX.
VEGETABLE ELEMENTS.
same
131
examples of
plate are sketched a few selected
shells
Fungi and mosses
as suggestive forms for ornament.
should be studied, as they also have great decorative

value.
On
principally
Plate
XXX.
shown some
are
drawn from examples appearing
" Herbal."
The
grouping and
the
shapes of
Gerard's
in
line in the
infinite variety of
in
varieties,
them
render
fungi,
attractive to the eye of the decorator
natural
while the rich
convolutions and continuity of the repetitions in mosses

are of nearly equal interest, and their suitability to serve
the
purposes
organisation
is
to
plants
of
once obvious and suggestive.
at
regarding ferns,
carefully
backgrounds
of
it
is
higher
Again,
quite worth the student's while to
examine the spores and
way they
the
are
disposed on the undersides of the fronds, not only on
account of the
disclose,
many
examination
beautiful forms
will
but for the lessons he will receive in surface
enrichment by superposition of
distribution of masses.
On
Plate
detail
XXXI.
and the varied

are given
some
drawings made from ferns while under the microscope,
showing the various orders

vessels
are
arranged
Lower down on
hints of the way
The
veining
in
the plate
in
which these curious seed
spots,
groups,
some sketches
these arrangements
and
stripes.
are given as
may be
utilised.
seen in the cut timber of trees
may
profitably arrest the attention of the student of design,
132
not for the purposes of imitation, like house decorators'

" graining," but for the sake of the beauty of individual
lines
and
this
kind of natural decoration are here given.
their
harmonious arrangement.
Illustrations of
No.
T4<M
is
No.
from a plank of pitch-pine.

a
piece
of
2 is
carpenter's
finial
work,
from
in
the
same wood,
in
grain
with the form, and result
in
fall
in
quaint
which the
kind
of
lines
of the
decoration,
re-
minding one somewhat of savage ornamentation.
No. 3
is
taken from a moulding occurring
on a piece of furniture made of birchwood.

lines flow
from the concave to the convex, as
specially for the purpose.

is
The
Here the
if
designed
headpiece to Chapter
a design based upon wood-graining.
Plants
II.
may be
Plate XXXI.
FGJ
134
used
any of the modes indicated
in
by
either
or
etc.,
"chequering,"
festoon, or scroll,
basis of the
be secured
selection
easily
such
to
harmony between the
two
different
of those
conform
to
plants
ways
whose
and
details
and
either
spiral,
and the
may
this
by a
careful
growths
natural
detail,
conventional
the
appearance of copied nature
By
adapt
will
them, or by a process of abstraction,
using them for the creation of
with
To
wave,
the
i.e.,
I.
''striping,"
order.
as
lines
or
ornament must be preserved

in
the natural
Chapter
"diapering,"
any other geometrical
in
however,
them,
in
so that in combining
there
may be no
allied with unnatural
lines.
the latter method has the so-called acanthus scroll
been generated.
foliage
In the " Lessons on Decorative Design," the develop-
ment of
Gothic period,
this class of foliage, as far as the
has been dealt with; and
it
will
only be necessary here to
point out that the Renaissance style which followed, re-
vived the classic forms, infused into them renewed vigour,

turn
but in
will
illustrate this.
sixteenth
the antique
ment on
this
decadence.
On
XXXII.
Plate
be found a few selected examples of historic art
which
the
suffered
Fig.
century,
not
classic lines
i,
from Italian carved work of
shows
distinctly
revival
of
mere reproduction, but a developand methods.
The
leading lines of
design flow with grace and in melodious order
the
Plate XXXII.
^WM<vu
MMwnU'tfrrnniMMiiii-m^ ffiwW3 HMitw> iM itinTt
HjllllllliJillllMin
lifllHlllllllllllllllM
'FIGr
(S
T=vo.7
136
details clothing
disposed as
to
them are
carefully thought out,
and so
any monotony of direction by
relieve
The
arresting the attention with various pleasing forms.
from which the ornament starts
foliage
vigorous,
and the
free terminations of the scrolls
of the composition,
remembrance the lovely

forms which
abound
effect of this
example
which
to
its
it is
strong and
have a
Notwithstanding the so-called conven-
delicate grace.
tionality
is
based, and
it
forcibly brings
leaf- edges
is
The whole
beautiful because of the truth on
its
consistency throughout
Towards the end of the sixteenth
beauty.
our
and beautiful bud
growths.
in natural
to
is
equal
century,
however, from various causes, chiefly dexterity of hand
and
less frequent reference to nature, signs of
began to show themselves
the
characteristics of natural foliage
crispness
were
decadence
and other
and
less
less ex-
pressed, and the points of the leaves ran into weak-looking

curves,
and the vigour, which was such a marked feature
of cinque-cento work, was ultimately
teenth
In the seven-
lost.
and eighteenth centuries the degradation of a
noble detail
is
still
more apparent, and
it,
in
common
with other ornamental elements, suffered in a marked

degree.
The
points of the
squareness of treatment was given up, the

leaves
became attenuated and
twisted,
while the general design betrayed carelessness in composition.
On
reference to Figs. 2 and 6
it
will
be seen
VEGETABLE ELEMENTS.
137
was the aim of the
that effect, rather than beauty,
artists
of these periods, and such effect as could be obtained by

the use of violent contrasts of line, form, and light and
To
shade.
such an extent was this carried, that in the
phase of the
last
character,
curves
style, the "
Rococo," the foliage
lost all
and consisted of mere bundles of unmeaning

Fortunately, at a
(see Fig. 7).
later period,
still
a revulsion took place in favour of a better form of art

a revulsion brought about by the discoveries of ancient
Greco-Roman decoration
known
formation of the style
5),
"
this
style."
Although
and
in this
country as the
was an attempt
forward a more classic style of design, yet

with
difference,
forgotten,
and
for
their
the
Fig.
thin
and
One
"Rococo," which long survived

1
85
demonstrated
is
to
its
practice
be seen
foliage,
for the better did not
employment of the over-free and

of
result
classic
were not
styles
somewhat attenuated
This change
4.
art.
to bring
was
it
remembrance influenced the
of the newer form of

in
previous
the
to the
France by the name of
in
" Louis Seize "(Figs. 4 and
Adams
This led
Pompeii.
at
as
in
check the
rollicking style of the
and the great Exhibition
existence as a favourite style
for all classes of industrial art.
The
the
festoon,
catenary,
or
which consists of the decoration of

swag,
with
largely used in decorative art,
floral
and
is
details,
has
been
useful for obtaining
THEORY AND PRACTICE OF
138
DESIGN..
contrasting lines or for the purpose of securing unity
The
in a design.
developed festoons are composed
fully
of two start-points, from which they hang, and of sheaths,
out of which issue the
fruit,
and leaves
flowers,
these
generally increasing in bulk towards the central or lowest
thus
part,
Sjk
Their treatment should vary
Jjj
^Û--^
according
to the character of the design
composition into which
or
they enter, whether
light,
fanciful, dignified, or severe.
The
toon,
is
historic records of art
show
that the swag, or fes-
based upon three simple types, more or
less invol-
ving the catenary curve.
The
first is like
a simple
N.J.^ \j
p^
^^JL^
hanging cord or chain,

having the same weight throughout
the second
in
bunches
is
entire course
its
like a necklace, the details
being arranged
the third, thicker in the middle and gradu-
ating upwards,
somewhat resembles a piece of hanging
The
order of development, from the simplest
drapery.
form of festoon to the

first
the
elaboration
and
which the
the
of the
appears to have been
parts
near the points
of
by the addition of some purely inventive
suspension
shapes,
richest,
by the
details of
arrangement of the ribbons on

the
swag
marking of the central
are strung
and
curve by some pronounced feature.
lower
and then
part
of
the
Festoons arranged
VEGETABLE ELEMENTS.
according to the
strictly
139
type can never be quite
first
satisfactory in themselves, because of the
want of gra-
though they may serve special purposes.
dation,
It will
be found that when they are based on the third type,
whether made continuous or interrupted

the
details
their design will

is
composed
are
in
graduated
be of a brighter quality.
undoubtedly of
festal origin.
The
when
i.e.,
quantities
The
festoon
stringing together
of fruits and flowers with ribbons and draperies for the
adornment of buildings on joyous occasions, whether

secular or religious, would
be the readiest
natural form of decoration for the purpose,

to
have been indulged
The
in
and most
and appears
from very early times.
beauty of the lines into which these extempo-
raneous decorations naturally
fell
struck the eyes of artistic
who, taking advantage of the suggestions presented,
folk;
were led
to construct
more enduring form,
XXXIII.
is
ornaments from them, but
in painting
and carving.
On
in
Plate
given a variety of examples, showing various
treatments of this ornament from the simplest form to

the most ornate.
Fig.
9,
from the Greco-Roman,
simple one, based upon the

to, in
first
which the elements composing
the
same
details
type previously alluded
one direction and without gradation.

to the
is
style, is a festoon of
it
are repeated in
Fig. 10, belonging
more complete form
graduating from the points of suspension
Plate XXXIII
VEGETABLE ELEMENTS.
towards the centre, which
Greco-Roman,
a
Roman
is
is
well marked.
Fig.
a compact and severe form.
sculptured example,
construction
141
3,
also
Fig. 14,
heavy and compact
is
in
the ribbon with which the leaves and fruits
are tied together becomes a feature in the design
bows
of ribbon form the start-points, and the middle of the

festoon
Fig. 7
accented by the crossing of this material.
is
an early Italian specimen,
is
graduate
one direction only.
in
example, possessing
simple in form.
all
source,
is
Fig. 2
made
Fig.
which the
is
details
also an Italian
the essentials of a festoon, but very

is
a richer example of Italian
work of the sixteenth century.

same
in
still
Fig. 4, another from the
richer
by the use of a greater
variety of detail and a further elaboration of the ribbon

Fig. 5
is
a somewhat later example, and
the second type
and made
is
arranged upon
the ends of the ribbon being prolonged
to play a
part
greater
in
the composition.
Figs. 11
and 12 are simple forms based on the same
type, the
one incorporating
conventional ones.
naturalistic details, the
Figs. 15
other
and 16 are taken from
late
French Renaissance, and show the use of drapery with

natural group of fruit
20,
and
21,
mostly
and
leaves.
Italian, are
Figs. 13, 17, 18, 19,
given to show the varied
treatment of the parts next to the points of suspension,
by the use of ribbon,
floral,
and architectural forms.
CHAPTER
VIII.
ANIMAL ELEMENTS.
of natural elements
the second sub-division

IN have
those derived from
quadrupeds, birds,
less naturalistic
more
animate nature, such as
fish, reptiles,
always been largely used
manner.
difficult to treat
in
and
fact that
art in a
more or
animate forms are
ornamentally than inanimate ones,
not deter the old artists from
did
These have
insects.
ornamental
The
we
their use
on the
contrary, they grappled with the difficulties because they
were
fully
alive to
increased interest that
the
forms would give to their compositions.

art
instances occur of their
with
the
interlaced
mote
periods.
those
times
In
point
appear to
In prehistoric
employment
ornaments
of
have
peculiar
fact,
the
restricted
animal
in
to
art
connection
those re-
workers of
themselves in
ANIMAL ELEMENTS.
choice
their
of
143
from nature to the use of
materials
animals only as ornamental elements, rarely using vege-
The
man in
table forms.
that
fact
interest
in
reason for this

his
be found
to
which
in the
had an intense
early condition
animals
those
is
aided
him
his
in
struggle for existence, such as the horse, dog, reindeer,
His
etc.
interest
recorded by the addition of their
is
representation to his other ornamental details, and arose
from
his admiration of their usefulness rather than
any appreciation of
business in
their beauty of form.
then
life
from
Man's chief
being the provision
for
natural
wants and for his own protection, the liking for any
was inspired by
particular object, natural or otherwise,

fitness of
purpose rather than by aesthetic considerations.
The hard
conditions of his
awakening of
only
in
the
did not conduce to the
dormant sense of beauty, and so
his
later
reached, that he
life
when an
periods,
became
easier
led
to
many
is
was
alive to the beauty prevailing
throughout the whole natural world.
doubt that symbolism
state
it
in the early
There
is
little
days of historic art
of the animal details found in the later
epochs, such, for instance, as
griffins,
dragons, and other
grotesques.
In the history of
of any " style "
much may
art, it
owes much
differ
the
is
seen that the formation
to a preceding one,
ruling
principles
however
which animate

144
Hence,
them.
development
the
in
an
of
aesthetic
ornamental system, details were often borrowed from

a symbolic one on account of their
as
vehicle
offering a
for
graceful
and
artistic merits,
There
expression.
being no need or intention to set forth any mystical
meaning
directed
in
adopting such forms, the sole attention was
emphasizing
to
and
refining
which would harmonise with other

In Egyptian and Assyrian
characteristics
details of the style.
art,
we
find the use
of
composite animals, for conveying to the beholder distinct

ideas.
To
put a
or
is,
from a
bull
human head on
the body of a lion
matter-of-fact point of
view,
monstrous proceeding, but, regarded from a symbolic

standpoint,
it
To
perfectly justifiable.
is
convey the
idea of strength and intelligence combined, what better
plan could have been adopted than to select a creature
having great physical power, and then to give
human
head, which
lectual
force
in
owe
animals
principle
Other forms of composite
origin to the exercise of the
by taking the forms of
idea.
On
Plate
same
certain creatures,
for the sake of their chief characteristics,
them with other forms
the symbol of the highest intel-
nature
their
i.e.,
is
it
and combining
for the expression of a concrete
XXXIV.
are
given examples
of
these fabulous animals, creations of art in early times,
and upon which
the grotesques
of later times
have
Plate XXXIV.
SPHINX
N-WTUR.AU USOUOHIK
146
Some
been founded.
The
bird,
The
of these
thus explained
composed of the body of a
griffin,
and wings,
which contribute to
qualities
lion,
head of a
and
this idea of watchful-
Alertness
swiftness.
accented by the forward position of the ears, as
if
was often used by the Greeks

of
acroteria
pediment
the
of gateways
wyvern
is
to
for adorning the
and
of their temples,
modern times
appropriately used in
to
to
The
catch the slightest sound of approaching danger.

griffin
regarded as a symbol of watchfulness.
is
ness, are strength, alertness,

is
may be
is
crown the piers
The
mansions and public buildings.
a winged serpent, with bird's head and legs,
and has the same symbolic meaning, although other

qualities are
added
such as subtlety and wisdom, indi-
cated by the serpent body,
and alertness
in
hours of
darkness, by the bat-like form of the wings.
The
chimaera
lion, goat,
is
a monster combining the forms of
and serpent, from whose mouth
issue flames,
The
typifying a volcanic mountain in Greece.

for the combination of the creatures
is
thus given
top of the mountain was the resort of lions
of goats
while the foot of
it
was
reason
the
the middle,
infested with veno-
Hence it became the symbol of terror

and devastation. The dragon, a winged reptile, was an
earlv emblem of the evil forces of the natural and moral
mous snakes.
world.
It
combines
in its
formation the terror-inspiring
ANIMAL ELEMENTS.
character of the lizard and serpent, and the swiftness
of action which belongs to creatures possessing wings.
To
intensify
as belching
is
its
potency for
forth
evil, it
flames of
often represented
is
By some
fire.
writers
thought that the root from which the name
is
it
derived
points to the probability of the term having been applied

to
meteors or shooting
stars,
which, in early times, were
regarded as potents of disaster and
evil.
given of the natural dragon, so named from
The
blance to the fabulous creature.

bird of very beautiful plumage,
of
some hundreds of
a funeral
years,
is
to
sketch
its
resem-
phcenix, a female
supposed, after a
have
is
built
life
for herself
which with her wings she fanned into
pile,
flames and was consumed, but afterwards rose from the
ashes in
all
the freshness of youth.
This
is
symbol of resurrection and immortality.
winged horse,
is
Pegasus,
or
the adopted symbol of poetical aspiration,
from the supposition that

the Muses.
the accepted
it
had been
in the service
Besides this winged horse of the land,
of
we
have sea-horses, with and without wings, used as emblems

of the
watery element, which are generally associated
with Poseidon, or Neptune, and the Nereids.

horse, partly horse
affixed
to
the
and partly
forepart,
at
fish,
the
fin-like in
character,
sea-
has fishy appendages

elbow,
extremities of the limbs; and the wings,
become
The
and
at
the
when added,
and may be regarded as

L
148
developments
of
the
pectoral
name hippocampus is applied

same term is used to designate
of which a sketch
to
The
fishes.
sea-horse
the
a curious
Below the
given.
is
of
fins
creature,
little
latter
are drawings of the dolphin in nature and
the
examples
art, to
show
the points of difference and agreement between them.

Fig.
on the same Plate
is
a prehistoric example of the
use of a bird form appropriately applied to indicate the

progress of the sun through the heavens.
Fig. 2
is
an
early Celtic illustration of the termination of tracery or
animal forms.
The
and varied
interlacing
with
growths of
plants, with their multitudinous repetition of
free
them
parts, enable the ornamentist to easily adapt
to his
requirements without violence to their nature.
But
the
in
case
number of
the prescribed
organisation
limit
forms
parts
it
is
different
belonging
to
in
met
difficulties
their
must be regarded, and thus a narrower
accompanies their employment, presenting
culties
not
of animal
the
way of
with
successful
dealing
in
adaptation
with
which are greater or
less,
that
vegetable
diffi-
are
nature
according to their
biological rank.
To
successfully
ornamental lines
it
combine natural forms with purely

is
necessary that
we should
analyse
them, in order to ascertain the general flow of line that

exists in their composition,
and thus
to secure
harmony
ANIMAL ELEMENTS.
in
the combination.
plants,
If this
how much more
animal
forms!
accurately
is
important
it
must be when using
less
accurate
while
it
may be
it
in
in
for these
possible to
may have
the first may
composition and continuity of
in
the latter these
It is
is
totally
representation which
high decorative quality, for the reason that
be wanting
and
carefully
to
draw an animal form, and yet

;
adapting
necessary in
possible
quite
a decorative purpose
unfit for
have a
It
is
149
may be
line,
while
preserved and emphasized.
reasons that
barbaric ornament are so
some animal forms found

often
ornamentally true,
while their accuracy, from a realistic point of view,
is
defective.
we
Besides the inclusion of animals in decoration
have the amalgamation of animal forms with ornament.

This
practice, dating
from prehistoric times, has survived
tinuance of this
some extent explains the conmethod of treating animated nature.
Other reasons
be given, when considering the highest
in
modern
art,
and
will
to
organic form, the
human
natural elements.
Birds are particularly useful in adding
figure, in
our
last division
They
variety and interest to ornamental compositions.
are
graceful
in
themselves,
and
associate
of
well
and
pleasantly with ornament based upon vegetable nature.
In scroll work, while their general shapes
may
flow in
with the lines of the ornament, the variety of action
ISO
opportunities
offers
and
brilliancy
adding
for
force, relieving the
contrast
and giving
tendency to monotony
from the use of oft-recurring curves.
On
the
XXXV.
Plate
ornamental
Fig.
i,
dog
treatment
in
quadrupeds and birds.
of
running after a
the act of
adapted to undulating
in Fig.
given a few examples of
are
lines
bird,
clothed with foliage
is
and
a are given the analytic lines which regulate
the composition.
Figs.
and
are
examples, from
sixteenth century Italian stone carving, of the adaptation
of bird forms to ornamental foliage, and Figs. 2b and
show the
Fig.
is
arrangement of birds and conventional
an
foliage taken from
severe
in
3^:
which form the bases of the designs.
lines
wood
Indian
but
treatment,
the
carving.
It is
whole pattern
rather
is
well
Fig. /^d gives the abstracted lines devoid of
disposed.
and 6 are sketches from nature, and
details.
Figs. 5
Figs. $e
and 6/ respectively show the ornamental lines
that are to be found in them,
when adapting
Fig.
is
and which should be studied
these elements to ornamental purposes.
sketch
of a
dog, given to illustrate the
arrangement of the parts of the limbs, which

those of
human beings
further
should
start,
illustrates
if
from
the extremities consisting of an
elongation of the bones of the hand and

figure
differ
required
the place
i.e.,
foot.
This
from which wings
from the spine of
the
152
scapular or blade-bone.
we have
In Fig. 8
the adapta-
tion of a deer to an oblong panel.
Supplemental to
Plate are given drawings of
this
On
wings and wing structure.
XXXVI.,
Plate
Fig.
shows a wing stripped of the coverts, revealing the bony
By comparing
structure.
human arm,
Fig.
but
structure,
it
2,
be seen that
will
adapted
specially
drawing of the
this with the
by
is
it
readjustment
parts to the purposes of flight through the
what answers
to the wrist
a similar
and fingers of the
proceed the long or primary feathers
of
From
human limb
air.
to the underside
of the forearm are attached the next important feathers
the
secondaries
while the humerus, or upper arm,
carries the tertiaries,
and
to the
small feathers forming what

3
is
is
thumb
are attached
called the winglet.
shows the structure of the wing of a

a different arrangement, but again
it is
an adapted arm; in
membrane
forearm
thumb
is
is
it
Fig.
Here there
bat.
will
some
be seen that
this case, the substitution of a thin
for the feathers favours noiseless flight.
extended, and the fingers lengthened
developed into a hook, by which
when
The
and the
^^^
shape,
/0^_
V
though agreeing with a general form, which,
^7\_^
the
The wings
however,
The
suspends
creature
of birds
itself
are
differs materially
varieties
result
various
in
at
from that of
rest.
bats.
from the development of
parts
Plate XXXVI.
\A/I
NOUT
154
according to the nature of these aerial creatures.
wing of rounded
cavity on
form, especially
inner surface,
its
is
con-
v/ith
allied
if
not conducive to high or
The
rapid flight, as in the case of the barn-door fowl.
wings of the sparrow
Figs.
(see
and
6)
more
are
pointed and less concave, and therefore are better suited

to
and
sustained
Wings of birds
much pointed,
that
through the
progression
rapid
have great rapidity of
flight are
air.
very
the goat-sucker, falcon, sea-swallow,
as
pigeon, and curlew.
On
will
Plate
XXXVII.,
some
be found
Figs.
and
animal
be
in
the
deity,
etc.
Egyptian
It
"
will
9,
and
10,
examples of the orna-
historic
mental treatment of wings,

forms,
8,
7,
4,
winged
their
seen
globe,"
application
in
the
Fig.
to
that
emblem
of
the feathers of the wings are rendered in strict
accordance
with
the
severity
Notwithstanding
style of art.
characterises
that
this
diagrammatic
ment, the
idea of wings as regards
of feathers
is
the
that
treat-
arrangement
well preserved, while the all-encompassing
nature of this symbolic attribute of the Deity
is
beautifully
much finer in
conception than the similar Assyrian emblem shown at
Fig. 3. Fig. 2, given as an example of the way in which
and
effectively expressed.
It is
symbols are oftentimes rendered

of ornament,
is
altogether
in
purely aesthetic styles
taken from Italian art of the sixteenth
Plate XXXVII.
JE&1

156
Here
century.
symbol
the general
regarded, the globe
is
and the wings are
shell,
form
whole composition
is
transformed into a
naturalistically
The
treated.
mere piece of eye
is
only of the Egyptian
pleasing
ornament, having no symbolic meaning whatever.

5
shows the application of wings
one of the
which
attributes
to the
Fig.
Greek sphinx
distinguish
it
from
Egyptian creature bearing the same name.
the
Fig.
13
shows an ingenious conventional treatment of the wings

of a bird taken from a fifteenth century
11,
12,
and 14
treatments.
19
Fig.
1 1
are
illustrations
from stained
is
textile.
Figs.
of various
wing
glass.
Fig. 12
was
taken from a carved wooden panel of the sixteenth

century, and Fig. 14 from the base of a bronze candela-
brum.
Fig.
15
is
an
illustration
painting by Holbein, Fig.
by Perugino
book
borrowed
from
16 from a ceiling decoration
while Figs. 17 and 18 are from
illustrations,
and Fig. 19
is
modern
a sketch from a painting
by one of the old masters.

Besides the structure of wings, the decorative character
of the plumage of birds should engage the attention of
students of design, not only for the beautiful colouring
and
detail,
but for the hints to be obtained for setting
out ornament.
and
The
forms and arrangements of spots
stripes are almost infinite in their variety.
XXXVIII.
are given
some examples
On
Plate
of feathers with
Plate XXXVIII.
Fi<3.
a
lrt& 13
158
ornaments suggested by their markings.
Figs,
and
are peacocks' feathers in different stages of development,
and Figs.
At
Figs.
and 16 are ornaments based upon them.
11,
8,
5,
4,
3,
and 6 are shown some pheasants'
and
feathers exhibiting various arrangements of spots

Figs.
stripes.
9,
10,
12,
and 13 are simple patterns
designed upon the general forms and upon the principles

of distribution seen in the natural markings.
follows the lines of Fig.
Fig. 12 those of Fig.
4,
3,
Fig.
10 those of Fig.
6,
and Fig. 13 those of Fig.
Insects have decorative value
may
Fig.
5.
and, although
they
not so easily as birds lend themselves to compo-
sition
design
of
line,
when
yet
may be
contrast
is
effectively
used as spots
desired.
Their shapes are
in a
suggestive, while the markings on the wings of some,
such as butterflies and moths, afford excellent examples

of surface treatment.
shown the
wing,
Plate
application of the
given at
pattern.^
On
The
Fig.
insect,
24,
to
Fig.
XXXVIII.,
marking of a
Fig.
is
is
butterfly's
an ornamental
17,
7,
translated
repeated
into
an
* Decoration which mainly consists of the adaptation of natural
markings such as are seen on the skins of animals,
butterflies' wings,
feathers of birds,
and
as naturalistic.
This term applies to another kind of naturalistic de-
in the graining of
woods,
etc., is
sometimes classed
coration which concerns itself with the idealising of natural forms, as
explained in " Lessons on Decorative Design," page 100.
Plate XXXIX.
OOiXSAU
CTUJDfl
160
ornament
at Fig. 18;
and
Fishes and reptiles, again,
based upon a similar form.

are
renders
flexibility
purpose
general
decorative
source of
fruitful
them
easy
In
using
required.
given a diaper
in Fig. 19 is
adaptation
of
Their
material.
any
to
however,
them,
their
arrangement or structure should be borne
in
mind, and also the principle upon which nature produces
On
her varieties.
XXXIX.
Plate
a few typical fish
forms are given with their ornamental renderings.

a sketch of an idealised
of
means of progression
fish
showing the arrangement
namely,
the fins
of these vary in different kinds of

division
dorsal
of the
fin
into
shows the
fish.
two
the forms
At
parts.
have a large development of the pectoral

have the appearance of wings.
has a divided dorsal
developed
in
The
part
in
portion
length and depth.
is
extended
which there
of the
developed
is
dorsal
At e
fin
is
some
shown
at
r>
given the
is
divided
the
fins,
especially
curious fish in
extended along the whole upper

;
the
graceful
examples of natural
which
F shows another variety,
At h we have a
one.
we
while the back
a suppression of the
border of the creature
developing
fin
in height,
in length.
is
which the dorsal
fish
fins,
the forepart being enormously
fin,
representation of a fish with the back

front
is
beginning,
appendages.
fish will suffice to
at
the head
These
few
show the variety
ANIMAL ELEMENTS.
161
of lines upon which ornamental fish forms can be con-
below
while
structed,
method adopted
are
given
practice.
in
two renderings of the natural

Snakes and
on.
of
illustrations
the
Thus ic and nc are

type marked c and so
;
lizards are also
useful for decorative
purposes, in introducing an element of playfulness, and

in relieving the seriousness of
by
their graceful forms
that
Plate
XXXVIII.
history.
lizard taken
from a Japanese book
all
periods.
modern and an antique use
first
is
turning back to
Serpents have always been favourite
forms with designers of
the
On
the reader will find, in Figs. 20 and 21,
examples of snake and
show
and the variety of ornamental
they naturally take.
lines
on natural
constructive composition
Figs.
22 and 23
of these creatures
taken from the border of a small
tray, the
second shows their adaptation to the handle of a vase.

Shells again, the product of the lower forms of animal
life,
have great ornamental value, which
is
attested
by
their frequent use in historic art,
where they are
more
according to the style
in
or
less,
to
modifications
which they are found.
the treatment of the shell to

it
is
little
ment,
Natural shells
taken.
adaptation
yet
in
amplification
when used
others
In
fact, it
name the
in many
in
is
subject,
possible from
style
from which
cases require but
simple schemes of orna-
they readily lend themselves to
and enrichment.
CHAPTER
IX.
THE HUMAN FIGURE.
OUR
and
third
use of the
human
figure
elements
and
In
spite
the
fact
to
the
in
this
brings us to the
ornamentist
that the interest given
the
all
has
difficult
to
deal,
to
treat.
we recognise
human figure
however,
difficulty,
The
ornament.
and noblest of
same time the most
the
of
figure
highest
which
with
at
is
human
the
is
sub-division
last
by the
any decorative scheme, surpasses that imparted by
any other elements, be

parallel with
fining
the
influence
associated with
of such
they what
which
interest
which
it.
nature,
that
exerts
it
The
it
excites,
over
study of the
it
is
may
they
is
the
and,
the
re-
elements
human form
is
pursue
it
impossible
to
without benefiting the use of the lower elements of
THE HUMAN FIGURE.

ornament and raising
of
Gothic
their general character.
examine a piece of good
this,
foliage,
and compare
creations
latter is
of the styles
study of the figure
be wondered
is
at, for
first
Italian
In proof
or English
with the best obtainable
it
foliage to be found in Asiatic art
once how tame the
163
and
it
will
be seen at
by the side of the
living
mentioned, in which the
Nor
so greatly fostered.
is
this to
the subtlety of line, composition of
mass, proportion and balance of parts are so perfectly

illustrated in the
human
had concentrated
creation,
all
form, that
it
seems as
if
nature
her wealth in this one supreme
which presents an epitome of the qualities
essential to
ornamental
art.
In adapting figures to design,
it
is
of the utmost
importance that they should harmonise with the flow of

the ornament with which they are allied, and with the
shape ojfthe space to be
filled
imitative rendering of the figure
purpose.
is
by them.
The mere
not sufficient for the
Figures so drawn would have the appearance
of being " stuck " in the composition, instead of forming
an integral part of the whole.
To
deal
successfully,
therefore, with the figure as an ornamental element, the
student must not depend on merely copying his model,
but must idealise by every possible means,
and by searching
be found
in the
after the
human
by
analysis,
ornamental lines which are to
structure.
The
study of anatomy
164
will to
some extent be a
upon altogether;
as
help, but should not
the surface forms and lines
is
it
be relied
which concern the ornamentist, and they do not always

agree directly with the under structures.
is
Perhaps there
nothing more noticeable in a young student's
attempts in drawing the
human
figure,
first
than his failure to
grasp the continuity and beauty of line on which
human form depends,
unity of the composition of the
and the general
He
does not
lines
see, until
upon which
it is
the.
its
details
are built.
pointed out, that, in the case
of a figure standing with the weight upon one leg, as in

Plate XL., Figs,
i.,
n.,
and
v.,
there
a general and
is
controlling line running from the pit of the neck to the
inner ankle, which brings into unity
all
the varieties of
trunk and lower limbs.
Or, again, in draw-
ing the upper and lower limbs,' a
beginner invariably
form
in the
seizes
upon the
appreciate
govern
details
values
their
their disposition.
he would observe that

of convex lines
its
of their shapes, and
and the
lines
to
which
In the side view of the leg,

outline
and, dwelling
and not comprehending
general
fails
is
made up
upon these
of a series
details of
their relative values
and
form
their
subordination to the shape of the whole limb, would give

a result like that
shown
at Fig. vl, Plate
XL.
a closer observation would lead him to see
that,
Now,
not-
withstanding the convex curves of the shin, the general
Plate XL.
166
line of the
front
the back
convex
adding
is
detail,
of the leg
as
if
ix.,
general
shown
here
given
and
the
to
concave, while that of
regard to which
fact,
while
The
would give the form as Fig. vn.
same with the forearm
but
is
were
taken
a result
like
lines
drawn thus
often
is
it
Another example
is
into
this
given
when studying
not only be a guide to
its
account,
would be
in Figs.
which the foregoing remarks apply.
analysis of this kind
vm.
Careful
the figure, would
truthful representation, but
would disclose many an instance of subtle composition,

confirming and emphasizing the value of the funda-
mental principles of ornament

without monotony,
variety
continuity and repetition
without pettiness, contrast
THE HUMAN FIGURE.

without
disunion,
On
formality.
examples
of
same Plate
the
ornamental
the
symmetry
and
radiation
167
be found several
will
lines
be
to
figures in different positions.
Fig. x.
of the muscles of the back.
Fig.
traced
shows the
in
lines
in
lines
xn. illustrates the

Fig. xvn.
composition of the foot with the ground.
shows the radiation of the
without
of the fingers, seen
a partially closed hand.
Let
now
us
consider the direct application of the
figure to decorative purposes (1) for the filling of spaces,
Of
such as panels, spandrels, and tympanums.
down
the same rules hold good as those laid

tion with foliage, but
we
v0tey
human
not do with the
with plants
we have
without adding to
therefore,
it
all
for decora-
because
difficult,
what we may do
figure
to take figures in their entirety,
structures.
their
behoves the student
of his elements,
capable,
becomes more
it
course
the
To
fill
space,
to study well the lines
movements of which
and any accessories that
will
figures are
aid the
work of
composition, such as draperies, architectural details, and

foliage,
so
that
adaptation
spaces
to
without undue strain or seeming
effort.
may be
On
effected
Plate XLI.,
which consists of the adaptation of figures to variously
shaped spaces, Figs.
and
adapted to a square and

in
circle.
show kneeling
It
will
figures
be seen that
both cases the object has been to evenly distribute
i68
the action of the figures so as to fairly
the shapes.
fill
Recognising the rectilinear character of the square, the

figure
out,
is
so arranged that
and auxiliary
The
space.
more severely
but
the
effort
obvious, as
Fig.
curved
dominating influence
have
of
contrast,
harmony.
The
an almost
in
been
too
9.
In
perimeter
is
the
so
been
Fig.
velopment of angularities
way
thus
space,
its
the case in
is
the
would
measure the shape of
of course, might have
figure,
fitted to
in
introduced that the
so
details are
whole mass may repeat

the
angularities are brought
its
that
is
rounded
de-
the
not necessary, except by
being
forms
required
for
curve of the back of the figure flows
parallel direction with the right-hand side
of the space, while the vase and spray of leaves balance

it
on the other
side.
In the annexed illustration
given
is
an example of the adaptation of the figure to a space
bounded by a curve and

Fig.
2,
Plate
straight line
XLL, shows
de-
the
coration of an elliptical-shaped panel
by a youthful
" spot
"
figure
arranged as a
within an imaginary line harmonising with the
boundaries of the shape.
by
and
the
late
Alfred
Fig.
Stevens,
harmonious adjustment
to
and
a
is
from a design
shows
given
an
space
easy
;
the
Plate XLI.
V16
"FIG
2.
FIG.
170
leading
Fig. 5
of which
lines
Godfrey Sykes, and
after
is
example of the
excellent
angular space
principal
here shown
are
the
(see
At
mass).
parallelism
and
of the
given examples of figure treatment

sketches showing
analytic
is
In Fig. Za the
based.
below, parallel for
wards diverging
some
until
an
is
of a rect-
filling
Figs.
the
lines
first
line
are
spandrels,
in
with
upon which each
drawn
starts
from
distance with the arch, after-
it
assumes a horizontal direc-
tion towards the vertical side of the
Lines
spandrel.
corresponding to the wings are then put in to further

repeat the horizontal boundary, while the lines of architecture
are
added
In
complete the composition.
to
Fig. lib the starting line radiates from the arch in an
upward
direction
and
are horizontal lines.

parallel
to
at the termination
vertical
the upright side of the spandrel, upon which
the details of the wreath,
shows the
rectangular
seen
space.
Fig.
" Pan-pipes,"
in quasi-pictorial
;
etc.,
are arranged.
10
Fig.
of a narrow longitudinal
figure decoration
illustrations to
how,
line is
on either side
then introduced
12
is
selected
from
by Walter Crane,
to
the
show
work, the composition of line
note the uplifted arm and the line of the
In the history of ornamental art

figures terminating in foliage.
is
left leg.
we constantly meet with

Some people there are
HUMAN
7W.E
who
such
deride
FIGURE.
examples on the score of their im-
and, therefore, not
possibility,
lightened
designers
do not hesitate
171
be used by the en-
to
of to-day
but
same time
at the
human animal
to convert the
into a six
limbed creature by adding wings to the shoulders
impossible or monstrous than that
combination no
less
they condemn.
With such
do, for
to
little
criticism,
however, we have
our business as students
rather to
is
ascertain the reasons for the creation of such creatures,
and
employment
their
in
There
art.
harmonic, and other reasons for their
The
but there remains an important
matter of high importance

decoration.
If
it
artistic existence.
been already pointed out
consideration has
first
symbolic,
are
one,
that
of scale, a
a complicated scheme of
in
were required to introduce the figure
element into a space forming part of a design,
it
might
very possibly be found that the use of an entire figure
would give
XL
Plate
masses too small
in
size,
as
in
But, by using a demi- figure, as in Fig.
I.
the defect in respect of scale would be remedied.

it
will
Fig.
be seen that by
this
means
6,
7,
Here
larger masses are
introduced, and the quantities throughout the design are
thus varied, while the dominant feature of the design

the figure
To
is
accented.
prevent a crudeness of effect in the bare use
of a portion only of a figure, ornament
was developed
172
from the sectional
line,
such ornament having harmonious
This treatment may
relations with surrounding details.
have gradually obtained form
Having
way.
this
in
found that a half-figure suited the scale of the work

in
hand,
terminate
a
with
it
method
busts
any desire
as
survives
and,
more
be
drapery,
which
sculptured
folds,
would
nothing
in
due elaboration
after
by shaping the outline as
at
b.
little
of
of
the
was no doubt
by ornamenting the edges of
satisfied
to
(a),
termination
further enrichment
for
XLII.
Plate
the
in
than
natural
material
the
exercise of the
imagination would convert these cuttings of the edges

into foliated forms, as at
For the purpose of further
c.
harmonising the foliage with the
accompanying
details
it,
figure, as well as the
the addition was
made
to
grow
out of the figure, taking certain anatomical lines for the

start,
as at
d.
On
the
same Plate are given compo-
of figures with and without ornament
sitions
amalgamated with
Fig.
supports.
amorini,
i.
foliage,
is
panel,
and
is
lines.
it,
Fig.
is
1.(0),
foliage to
accompanied by Sketch
Fig. v.
of
the elemental
Fig. in. shows a composition
of figures with conventional
leading
frolic
of the early part of the
artist
present century, and below

lines of the composition.
figures
and figures used as structural
a design representing a
by a French
after a
fill
in. (a),
an upright
showing
its
drawing by Le Pautre,
Plate XLII.
174
the composition
illustrating
work, and below
arrangement.
of figures
it is
Fig.
of figures with rich
given a diagram of the lines of
iv. is
and ornament
at
Figs
the lines of the latter were
and
n.
its
an example of the amalgamation
suggested by the action of the figures shown

sketches
scroll
Fig.
in.
vin.
in the small
is
a drawing
of a figure used as an architectural support in place of
This application of the human form by the
a column.
Greeks probably arose out of
their misconception of the
Egyptian use of figures with

Fig.
ix.,
in
which
be seen that the figure does
will
it
as at
their architecture,
not support the structure immediately above, although
may appear from
the front view to do so.
rests against the wall

at
and,
rather than that of a column.
figure
has any structural value
if it
which may be doubted,
all,
The
it
it
The
is
that of a buttress
Greeks, acknowledg-
ing the want of fitness in employing animate forms for

the support of massive superstructures, were careful to
give to these caryatides, as they are called, a strong

architectonic character, which to
their
in their
disguised,
which
in
But, notwithstanding the
inappropriateness.
shown
is
and
some extent concealed
treatment of the subject, the error
forms a bad precedent, a
skill
is
but
precedent
answerable for much of the bad art exhibited
subsequent periods
structural purposes.
The
in
the
adaptation of figures to
artists of
the Renaissance period,
THE HUMAN FIGURE.
175
seeing only the idea of using figures in place of columns,
and without
Greeks
the
artifice
cover any weakness
to
more or
regarding
less
gracefulness
natural
of
In
treatment.
stability
adopted
effect,
the pursuit
they lost sight of
line
nature of a support
of
by the
practised
the
and strength
a
of
essential
and they
perpetrated caryatides and telamones that conveyed to

the
beholder an
idea
of
See Fig.
insecurity.
vn.,
an illustration taken from a work on architecture by
De L'Orme,
Philibert
also Fig.
vi.,
still
later
example
from a German source, further showing the neglect of

the principle of stability,
ment of strong muscular

of
all
three
much
Take
figures.
of these structures, thus
and, on comparison,
a
notwithstanding the employ-
it
will
-,-.
be seen what )*\
Greeks
conception the
better
the medial lines
had of adapting an unsuitable subject

to
the
purposes
They based
strongest
their
line,
of columnar support. J4
adaptation upon
vertical
one
the
their
successors
on
curves, graceful but weak, having no supporting qualities
whatever.
There
is
another class of architectural supports into
which the figure element enters, used
in a similar
manner
to pilasters, called termini, consisting of half-figures, or

busts,
and united by draperies or other ornaments
to
176
pillars
Fig.
In the example given in
which taper downwards.
be seen that the
xi., it will
of support
office
slight;
is
the general purpose appearing to be that of the decorative

filling
up of the gap found
On
Plate
XXXVII. some
shown of the treatment and
human
which
wall, to
applied, rather than that of bearing any-
is
actual weight.
between the upper
and the face of the
architectural projection
the terminal
to exist
illustrations are
application of wings to the
In Egyptian art the wing feathers are
form.
usually attached
to
under-sides of the arms, thus
the
avoiding the anomaly which would result by adding the
whole of the wing structure, and giving them

points
their
of attachment
winged
The
Fig. 4).
(see
figures altered this
distinct
Assyrians
in
arrangement by making
the wings to issue out of the shoulders, giving to the being

instead
limbs
six
of
four
method of applying wings

the
biologist
survives,
dealing
of
6
and
and
10,
the
at the
with
these
taken
decorative
from
vase
is
is
is
to
the one that
appendages.
paintings,
of the limbs are well
outline
it
subject
way
Figs.
show some
In their upper margins the
In the Renaissance examples,

this
human
this
present time, the accepted
Greek treatments of wings.

structures
to the
Although
7).
satisfactory,
least
is,
(Fig.
and
shown
at
much exaggerated, and
not agree with the hidden structure.
finely indicated.
Figs. 8
and
the curves
Fig. 8
is
9,
do
from a
THE HUMAN FIGURE.
177
carved wooden chest, and, although the sinuous curved

outline of the top of the wings
open
is
way in which the wings are

They are developments of
able.
applied
the
added
Fig.
limbs as
case
the
in
of
to objection,
the
the
arms, and
not
example below,
9.
In the course and current of decorative

fabulous
creatures,
human
partly
and
have based
later periods
animal,
partly
their grotesques.
many
art,
have been created, giving forms upon which
art,
reason-
is
artists
To
of
Grecian
the central idea of which was the glorification of the
human
form,
we
are indebted for most of the mythical
creatures that have been
handed down
Rocks,
to us.
trees, woods, mountains, rivers, and seas, Literature and
the Arts, had each, in the
Greek system, a human
sentative, depicted in an ideal form
calamities
human
repre-
and even natural
and the vices of mankind had symbols
guise.
When
the
latter,
however, did
sufficient degree, express the idea intended,
were added
for the
in
not, in a
animal forms
purpose of rendering the symbol as
complete as possible.
Thus,
free,
untrammelled woodland
of a
man
in their personification of
life,
they gave to the figure
the legs and horns of a goat to intensify the
idea of wild freedom, and hence resulted the mythical
forms of Pan and Satyr

this Plate will
(see
Plate XLIII., Fig.
7).
On
be found other fabulous creatures, which

N
178
may be
briefly described.
Fig.
having a human head and

is
one, as
it
Fig.
an Egyptian Sphinx
The combination
wisdom and power. The
lion's
a symbol of intellectual
Greek Sphinx,
is
body.
in
2, differs
form from the Egyptian
always represented as being of the female
is
sex and having wings.
It
appears to have been adopted
She
as the personification of malignity and mystery.

credited
those
who
with the practice of propounding riddles to
who
visited her,
failed to solve
gracefulness
employed
of the
in
and of tearing
for the
used
creature's
form caused
an aesthetic way, and
art,
adornment of bronze
in a similar
way and
it
those
purposes
At
3).
man and
be
to
decoration,
tripods, etc.
for similar
half
it
was a favourite
in. mural
subject to modifications (see Fig.
shown a combination of
in pieces
Apart from symbolism, the
them.
ornamental element, frequently used
and
is
It
in
was
Roman
Fig. 4
is
half horse, called
a Centaur, a creature which appears to have been the

symbolic representation of a race of warriors
celebrated for their great
said that their skill
skill
horsemanship.
in
was so great that
appeared as one, hence the symbol.

combination of half
denizen of the
woman and
forest.
Fig.
6,
who were
half deer,
a Siren,
is
is
and horse
rider
Fig. 5
It
is
a similar
a mythical
a beautiful
female with bird-like lower limbs, terminated by powerful talons.
Wings
are attached to the shoulders.
Some
Plate XLIII.
180
writers regard this creature as symbolising the unseen
dangers belonging to rock-bound coasts.

said to
have possessed wonderful
sweet songs to have lured

struction.
By
others
delusive nature of
human
and with
voices,
are
their
on to their de-
mariners
thought that they typify the
is
it
Sirens
Figures of sirens
pleasures.
holding lyres were often chosen for the decoration of

Attic graves, and would
Fig. 9
wailers.
thus appear
as
mourners or
shows the form of a Harpy, composed
of the head of a fair-haired maiden and the
Harpies were credited with wonderful rapidity
vulture.
of
body of a
flight,
greater than that of any
known
bird,
and were
considered to be the personification of sudden events.

If
mortal
suddenly disappeared,
supposed to have carried him

arose they were regarded as
were
harpies
If a
sudden tempest
authors.
Fig. 8 repre-
off.
its
the
sents Triton, the attendant and trumpeter of Poseidon
(Neptune), usually depicted as being half
having a
shell
man and
fish,
which he used as a trumpet, and carrying
a rudder in one hand.

Fig. 10, the head of
Fig. 13
Medusa,
Medusa was
extreme
fear.
Gorgon
Sisters,
is
shows an
an emblem of terror and
the most celebrated of the
originally a priestess of
having broken her
vow
infant triton.
Athene
but,
of celibacy by listening to the
wooing of Poseidon, and ultimately marrying him, was

fearfully
punished by the goddess
each of her beautiful
THE HUMAN FIGURE.

wavy
locks of hair
her person
became a venomous
assumed a horrible
siren,
called
headed serpent, used

intelligence.
a Mermaid.
to
Fig.
and
serpent,
Fig.
aspect.
another fabulous creature of the sea
form of
181
is
more peaceful
12
is
man-
symbolise subtlety guided by
CHAPTER
X.
THE EVOLUTION OF INDUSTRIAL OBJECTS CUPS,
WHATEVER
may be thought
of
VASES, ETC.
evolution
in
regard to biology, there can be no doubt as to

its
being an important factor
in the
development of
whether we regard the progress of a picture from
art,
its first
rudimentary conception, or the gradual completion of

useful objects based
upon some primeval model rudely
designed to immediately serve some special purpose.
The
history of industrial art exhibits the evolution of
forms, by the endeavour to fully

necessities of
mankind, and
to
fit
them
meet the growing wants
pertaining to the progress of civilisation.

it
in
could be
shown how
all
furniture, jewellery,
to the varied
Did space
allow,
the familiar and elaborate forms
etc.,
elementary beginnings, and
were evolved out of very
how the changes were wrought
THE EVOLUTION OF INDUSTRIAL OBJECTS.
183
convenience and in accordance with the
for reasons of
While
altering conditions of society.
not possible to
it is
undertake so comprehensive a task, the purposes of such
an inquiry
be served by directing attention to the
will
named
of objects
class
at the
head of
this
chapter
namely, to the consideration of cups, vases, and other

hollow vessels, showing their origin and development,
and
and decorative value as
their artistic composition
be found
in the
The origin of these vessels is to

wants of man in his early condition, who
required
some
vessels of capacity, in which to collect
ornamental elements.
water for drinking and other purposes.
Doubtless, the
cups or bowls were natural ones, such as the hard .rinds

of nuts, gourds, shells, and horns of animals (see natural
types, Plate
XLIV.).
found to answer
and
satisfied
were more
fully
awakened.
in
vessels
rough way the several
in a
man's varied requirements,
period
cultured
These ready-to-hand
history
were
necessities,
until his faculties
When, however, a more

was reached, we find that
objects for similar purposes were fashioned out of plastic

materials,
The
made.
fluenced,
early
and vessels more suited

natural
more or
forms
less,
the
while
some
types,
other
shapes
specially
designed
to
were
w hich had been used
pottery,
natural
to special needs
artificial
forms
were
productions.
were
copied
purely
in-
In
from
inventive,
meet the increasing wants
of
184
an advancing
its
civilisation.
purpose,
useful
its
departure from the

felt
that certain
original
but
when
model, but
fulfilled
little
it
was
requirements were but imperfectly met,
form
natural
a natural cup
reproduction showed
modifications took place.
no
When
When new
answered
to
his
wants arose, and

necessities,
man's
inventive powers were stimulated into action, and this

activity resulted in the creation of
to the particular
new
vessels, suitable
needs of his improving condition.
But
while these inventive shapes answered his purpose in
some degree, they were

first
necessarily incomplete, as
conceptions are, and, consequently,
subject
find they
and modified by, developments
to,
The
first
were
in the direc-
Let us take an example by way of
tion of fitness.
tration.
we
most
illus-
notion of forming a vessel for catching
water from a spring would be a wide-mouthed bowl,

with the addition of handles for carrying
Now, although
the water,
it
well designed for receiving
was not so well adapted
after process
of conveyance
for the
from the spring, because
the motion imparted to the large surface of water at

the orifice of the vessel, by the act of carrying, would
cause
to
it
be easily
spilled.
For carrying purposes a
narrow-mouthed vessel was the

ditions,
better.
The two
con-
however, of receiving and carrying had to be
provided
for,
and so we
find the
form has been modified
::

by a consideration of the double
Here, while the wide mouth
underpart
a
is
smaller
narrowed
in
is
use, thus
retained, the
order to present
surface
oscillating
185
reducing
consequently
For
the chances of accidentally spilling the contents.
reasons
similar
we
find
at
country places, where water

distance
float
is
wood
the
is
present day
that
often carried for
in
some
open buckets suspended from a yoke, a
in
commonly
used,
composed of two pieces of
nailed together crosswise, thus dividing the sur-
the
face
of
Now
turn for a
liquid
into
moment
narrow sections
to the consideration
of one of the simplest of the primitive forms

of drinking cup, the one, perhaps, suggested
by a section of an animal's horn, as Fig.

a form similar to the
as
we
shall
modern
Plate
glass tumbler.
the parent of the
see, is
1,
XLIV.,
This form,
modern
vase,
and
through the successive stages of
has been developed
the beaker and hanap to the fully constituted vase with

its
multiplicity of parts.
Throughout the ages mankind has never been wholly

contented with merely satisfying his utilitarian requirements.
its
However
special
remain
in
well a useful object
purpose,
its
it
may have
served
has never been allowed long to
bare and simple condition.
always been a tendency to elaboration,
riot
There has
only by the
86
addition of decoration, but
by the enrichment or
finement of the contour of the object

of elaboration
This form
itself.
the result of a finer perception
often
is
re-
of the law of fitness, as well as of the desire for beauty
The
and variety of form.

been
from
the
progress of art has always

simple
severely
and
ornate
the
to
complex.
The
shows
minds
use of this horn shape
it
to
be a
fairly serviceable
has appeared that
it
by provision being made
it
materials
various
in
one
but to some
would be further improved
to prevent its slipping
from the
The
hand, and also from being so easily overturned.
tendency to
in
two ways
Fig. 3)
slip
by
first,
secondly,
mouldings (Fig.
holding has been counteracted
while
alteration
the
modern
outline
(see
by the addition of a moulding or

Stability has
4).
tending the area of support, as

(In
of the
glass
tumbler
in
been given by exFigs.
stability
2,
is
3,
and
secured by
Other
the additional weight of material at the base.)
changes came about from
aesthetic
4.
reasons,
and were
added without interfering with the usefulness of the

object
for
instance,
greater variety was
after
the
addition
of
the
foot,
given to the form by turning
in
the lower part of the body and introducing a short stem

(see
Fig.
5).
The change
in
the outline necessitated
the addition of a moulding which also
marked a
further
Plate XLTV.
3 Bo&y
CAUX
TOOT
rifcii
T=K>lS
88
way all the

which may be enu-
division of parts, giving us in a rudimentary
members of
merated
Fig.
a developed
thus
body,
lip,
Amongst
5).
have four varieties
beaker,
the
calix,
forms
early
and
stem,
resulted
to
we
beakers
of
and
2, 3, 4,
8).
of development which led to the varieties

;
(see
the straight, the convex, the con-
cave, and ogee (see Figs.
not stop here
foot
The process
now given did
further changes are to be noticed which
from the application of a different principle,
which allusion
has
not
been
yet
made
namely,
the principle of partial development, as (1) the develop-
ment of the
lip
(Figs. 7
calix (Figs. 7
and
and 18); and so
10);
(2) the frieze
and
For the purpose of
on.
keeping out the dust, covers were subsequently added

(see Figs. 11
On
Plate
beakers,
Figs.
and
14).
XL IV.
including
the
are
shown
examples
already
in early times.
The
referred
Fig.
1 1
Renaissance example, Fig. 13

an
old
is
Fig.
16
is
15
from
German
glass
is
Fig.
taken
from a drawing
by Holbein, a very graceful composition.

-sketch
German
modern English,
Venetian shape, and Fig.
from Flemish stone-ware.
a Flemish
is
form of the seventeenth century, Fig. 12
to.
rest of the illustrations
are taken from various sources.
is
of
1-10 are designed to show the different forms
developed
14
forms
various
hanap
Fig.
in
17
is
South

Kensington Museum.
18
Fig.
is
189
Japanese, and Fig.
19 from Venetian glass.
The word hanap now

these covered beakers
yet
show of
term hanap
signifies
but, while there
reason for so naming them

a covered vessel
appears in connection with
it
as the
is
is
usually applied to the next
stage of development under consideration.
Covered
so large that they

great inconvenience and
beakers came to be made of large size

could not be handled without
this led to
an alteration
convenient for
lifting,
in construction.
two courses were open, either
elongate the stem so that

a side handle.
To make them
it
to
might be grasped, or to add
The first, which immediately concerns
us,
produced the hanap, the second developed the tankard.
With the elongation of the stem came the introduction

of another member, the knop (see Plate XLV., Fig. 8),
for the
purpose of presenting a firmer grip, and to prevent
the vessel from slipping in the hand.
being extended,
we
The stem now
find that the knob, or finial, of the
cover acquired increased importance, and this for

reasons.
But whether the height of the
some covered beakers
called for a
finial
artistic
found
in
more lengthened stem,
and directed the choice between the two methods of

or whether the develop-
construction before alluded
to,
ment of the knop came
with the elongation of the
stem,
is
of
little
in
consequence, seeing that the aesthetic
TQo
result
developed are
have now
in
the
The
the same.
is
various parts of a hanap as
illustrated at
to see
process
Fig. 8, Plate
now
We
XLV.
what further developments took place
As
of elaboration.
luxury advanced,
these drinking vessels became enriched in every possible
way, and were ultimately regarded as articles for show

rather than as articles for use
rooms of
The
state
to
adornments
as rich
be displayed on special occasions.
possession of such articles often indicated wealth
and even the
hanaps
enrichment of these
appears
outline
first,
sub- division.
To
already been
made
importance
will
in
and
of which
thirdly,
more
fully
light
on
this
but,
has
developed vessels.
in the outline
ductility of metal allows of its
be handled
by
but their
arose out of the
nature of material and the method of working.
lightness,
to the
be better appreciated when con-
important alteration
of great
been
allusion
reference to beakers
sidered in relation to the
One
some
methods
these
all
by adding variety
secondly, by developing parts
The
have
to
mainly effected by three modes of procedure,

bear upon the contour
upon which they
particular form of dtage
were placed indicated the rank of the owner.
full
for
The
being wrought into cups
a quality requisite for a vessel
though a cup of
account,
also be strong to resist
it
is
this
necessary
any damage
to
to
kind should be
that
its
it
should
surface
by
Plate XLV.
192
So we
indentation.
that
find
one method employed
consisted of bulging or beating out the light material

forms, and thus securing the two
into certain regular
important desiderata
lightness and strength
This characteristic mode of working, while

answering
its
useful purpose,
was soon adopted
and was often used on certain
as a decorative feature,
parts of these objects for the sake of artistic
alone
XLV.,
(Plate
Figs,
i,
4,
5,
and
6).
balance
Another
was
source of enrichment, arising out of construction,
found
the
in
supports
strength and
the
first
was
and
of
small
cast
stem,
the
metal
give
to
These were
the whole.
in
place adopted to counteract any pressure that
where undue
3, 6,
to
stiffness
might be brought
occur,
points
different
at
of adding
necessity
to bear
upon the
vessel.
strain and, therefore, injury
at the junction of the calix
These
7).
to the work,
was
The
part
likely to
and stem
(Figs.
supports, while they gave firmness
produced a pleasing
effect,
and doubtless
suggested to the mind of the worker extended applications.
Hence
their use
soon became a matter of orna-
ment, and details of this kind were applied where they
were not actually

the aesthetic
requisite, but
effect.
Like
all
merely as contributing to
other ornaments arising
out of necessity, these have been abused, and, where

little
or no restraint has been exercised in their use, they

have degenerated
as in Fig.
the
11.
variations
have
arisen,
unmeaning
has been pointed out
It
in
fussy and
into
general
the
adjuncts,
how some
in
of
forms of beakers may-
These
and examples have been given.
changes were retained
193
the subsequently developed
hanaps, as will be seen in the collection of examples
on Plate
Figs.
XLV.
1
and
2 are
hanaps of the Gothic period, show-
ing rich decorative use of bulbous forms.
Fig. 3
a seventeenth century example of English
work
same
Fig. 4 belongs to the
illustration of the fanciful
to the metal, as
many masters
hanaps taken from etchings by Virgil
was drawn from a
small
vase of
Solis.
the
is
South Kensington Museum.

all
taken from an Italian example.
four diagrams
Fig.
Fig. 8
is
the various parts of a hanap to
from a design by one of the "
The
of the
cinque -cento
which the reader's attention has already been

10
an
Figs. 6 and 9 are sketches of rich
sixteenth century.
Fig.
is
treatment of the bulbous forms,
already explained, and adopted by
diagram showing
from
goldsmiths'
Fig. 5
period.
originally beaten out to give strength
period, in the
is
little
called.
Fig. 11
is
masters of Germany."
on the lower part of the Plate are
given to show the probable lines of construction of some

of these vessels.
to
The
which each belongs.
small arrows indicate the hanap
194
change
in the
shape of the
lip,
which led
to the
formation of the fully developed vase, has yet to be
The body
noticed.
in
an open
closed
in,
of the vessel, instead of terminating
as in beakers
lip,
and hanaps, was gradually
and a shoulder formed
The
an urn.
like
object for this does not appear, but probably
it
came
about from following some different natural type, such as
This turning-in of the
a gourd.
some purposes, the
necessitated,
lip
for
member, a
introduction of another
"neck," the upper margin of which, turning outwards,

received the cover
Here, then,
Any
Plate
(see
we have
XLVI.,
of
addition
sub-division
(see
Figs.
character
to
portance
still,
13
by
parts
the
and
work
the
the
by the
exception
presently be considered).
minor
into
2).
by the
effected
any new members (with
mouldings not only has

contour
was
of the various parts, rather than
of handles, which will
and
the parts of a complete vase.
all
further enrichment of contour
sub-division
Figs,
effect
of
addition
of
enriching the
but gives fineness of
14),
more
im-
quality of strength.
By
and,
expresses the
the
The
what
is
of
the introduction of mouldings at the

different
changes
most any
outline,
of
curvature,
however weak, may
be made firm and strong
The
al-
rest of the
(see
Fig.
examples on Plate
).
XLVI.
illustrate
Plate XLVI.
9ueowiofro
2
tTNIVERsiTir)
S&X
196
Figs. 3 and 4 are
the various developments of vases.

Italian designs,
the neck and
Figs.
neck and
lip
(the covers are absent).
In Fig.
neck are repressed, while there

of the
Figs.
lip.
7, 8, 9,
the development
In Fig. 5 the
One
lip,
6 the body and
an enormous expansion
and 10 are given
to illustrate
Fig.
forms.
is
Greek, Fig. 9 Japanese, and

11 is an Italian vase of the
fifteenth century, simple,
decoration.
rounded
is
Fig.
Indian.
10
is
of bottle-like
Sardinian shape, Fig. 8

Fig.
is
developed and merged into the
greatly expanded.
is
which
and 6 are Japanese variations of the
vertically
is
which
particularly the latter,
lip,
inwards.
neck
given to show the different treatments of
and well balanced
illustration is
carved vase, wherein the plan
is
in
given at Fig.
form and
12
of a
angular instead of round,
from a design by Gibbs, an architect of the eighteenth

Fig. 15
century.
is
a rich and sumptuous two-handled
vase, in the Italian style of the latter
end of the sixteenth
century.
From
pears
which
bottle
result
to
the vase a class of useful hollow vessels ap-
have
carafes
been
and
shapes belong.
developed,
various
to
other
These forms
from an elongation of the neck
immediately above the shoulder, thus

(see
also
Figs.
and
10),
serving
as
handle
by

which
it
might be
Some
lifted up.
met with which seem
are often
examples, however,
to
indicate that
were primarily suggested by natural forms,

bashes or other gourds, and developed
The development
like
like
in like
they
cala-
manner.
of the upper portion of these bottle-
forms was accompanied by the gradual suppression
of the stem
to
197
its
ending in
disappearance owing
total
its
being no longer useful.
Another form of cup, the
chalice,
appears to have
been developed from the primitive bowl.
Greek
art
we have
a short stem, thus

of the
initial
a^
<
In ancient
~3jgj& drinking bowls raised on

These furnish examples
3S
stages in the course of development.
The
next step seems to have been the elongation of the
side handles,
stem and the suppression of the
which became unnecessary
This form of drinking cup
is
the one that was most
generally adopted for religious purposes, and
the subsequent changes in
its
many
of
form were brought about
by considerations of structure, and of the nature of the

The knop
special functions which it had to serve.
was added
its
adoption
to
in
however, was,
beyond
vessels;
stem
the
the
for
of
case
ritualistic
the dimensions
it
for
the reason which led

the
The
base,
reasons, greatly extended
assigned
often exceeded
hanap.
to
the
to
similarly
shaped
diameter of the bowl
198
This was done
itself.
order to minimise the danger
in
of upsetting the chalice
wine which
this
it
kind was
serious
and so
was designed
by
held
hold.
to
matter, and, therefore,
it.
Fig.
Plate
i,
accident
to
be
was
Hence
XLVII.
precious
An
ecclesiastics
against in every possible way.

as in
spilling the
to be
of
a very
provided
the form
became
Another change arising
out of special use was the alteration of the plan of the
base from the circular to a more complicated form.
was the ancient practice

to drain
prevent
this,
circular base
out of
roll
its
would render
position,
and
so, to
the base was either indented, scolloped, or
angularised, as in Figs.
the small plans, a,
main
to place the chalice, after use,
into the paten.
the object liable to
It
6, c,
4, 5, 6,
and
d.
and
knop, and wide non-circular base.
cup mounted on a stem
little
;
and as shown
Here, then,
characteristics of the chalice
of chalice differed but
7,
we have
from the old
the
tall
stem,
earliest
form
small bowl,
The
in
classic drinking
but gradually departed from
it.
In the earliest departure, the bowl became a plain half

globe, the
stem
tall
and the base spreading. Subsequently
the bowl became deeper and straight-sided, the stem

higher,
changes
and the base shaped.

in
still
Coincidently with these
general form, enrichment of the profile and
surfaces of these objects
came
in.
The stem was
riched by sub-division as in other vessels.
en-
Certain parts
Plate XLVII.
W&S.i;
THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN,
2oo
appear to have received special attention, such as the
knop and the base
the large surface presented by the
extended base offering a
The
artist.
the decorative
for
field
advantage was taken of
the resources of art have been expended
all
8,
fullest
fine
XLVIL).
Plate
artistic
(see
The knop
enrichment, but often
Plate
originated
XLVIL).
it
and here
and
(see 6, 7,
has also been subject to

has been unwisely treated
The
purpose which
useful
enrichment has been
this
it,
sight of
lost
by
the decorator, pointing a moral that decoration should
never interfere with usefulness, and that

only
the
consideration
to
be
regarded
effect is
not
designing
in
ornament.
Further
illustrations
are given on the
belonging to different periods, exhibiting the
chalices
various changes, already alluded

place in their development.
to,
Figs.
diagrams showing the alteration

Figs. 3
same Plate of
and
which have taken

1,
in
2,
3,
and 4 are
stems and bowls.
5 are thirteenth century examples.
That of
a chalice discovered near Dolgelly, North Wales, 1890,

is
from a sketch which appeared
London News
Sir
6, 7,
of that year.
Digby Wyatt's book on

and
8,
also
from Wyatt's
The
in
other
" Metal
"
The Illustrated
is
taken from
Work."
Figs.
Metal Work," are later
examples, as shown by the deepened bowls, and

decoration of these and other parts of the vessels.
the
The

XXWIVJEHSIT

remaining
show the
illustrations
elaboration
201
the
of
Figs. 10 and 11
chalice during the Renaissance period.
are sixteenth century examples, and respectively are of
Spanish and Italian workmanship.
Fig.
of the eighteenth century, while Fig. 12
from a drawing
We
will
French
Italian,
taken
pass on to the consideration of another
class of hollow vessels, the
to
is
South Kensington Museum.
in the
now
is
These appear
jug and ewer.
have been evolved by a
from that
different process
which generated the vessels already dealt with

adding a side handle
i.e.,
for lifting, instead of using the
by
stem
Ewers may have been derived from
for that purpose.
vases and beakers in this way, as an examination of
examples suggests
various historic
stem, as
its
office
is
handle at the side
downwards, as
beak
at
superseded by the addition of the
and by cutting the
a and
3,
formed by the process
y^\
\
a
\
to further facilitate the
deliverance of
liquids.
obliquely
lip
the
being afterwards developed and
shaped
by repressing the
%s^
IgjT
^)
^T^v
<r
Some
forms of these are shown on Plate XLVIII., Figs,

d,
and f, with sketches
The
records
in plan at a, b,
of ancient
Greek
e,
c,
g.
art will
supply ex-
amples of objects, so developed, which have furnished

the moderns with models for imitation and elaboration

(see
Plate
XLVIIL,
Figs,
i,
and
2, 4,
An
5).
important
consideration in the application of handles to pouring

vessels
and spouts of
their proper relation to the lips
is
those objects, so that the weight of the vessel and
may
contents
not be against the action of pouring.
often mistakes are
made
in this respect
by
its
Too
either follow-
some antique model which was formed for another

purpose than that of pouring, or by treating the handles
ing
and
as ornamental adjuncts, without regard to their full
Take any ewer with
complete usefulness.
and endeavour
to ascertain
part of the handle
it
reversing, and delivery of
discovered that
it
will
be
handle,
tall
by a few experiments which

to grasp for easy lifting,
best
is
contents
its
at a point
near
and
to,
will
it
and a
above, the centre of gravity of the whole mass.
shows that
it is
right relation to
* This
in
may be
as a section
it
when
in
it
and
in balance
sufficiently
edge,
first.
of a vertical
required.
with the
intersection of the
lip
vessel,
plane passing through
Draw
an upright position.
and from that point
The
This
placed in
;
that the
accomplished in the following way
centre of the card, then suspend

its
may be
cardboard the form of the proposed
it
little
of the highest importance to determine the
central point, # in order that the handle
Cut out
be
let
two
it
and regard
the middle of
a vertical line
through the
from any convenient point in
fall
a vertical line
lines will
crossing the
be the centre of gravity
Plate XLVIII.
T(6
HANDLE
C3MPO&1NO
with Boy &\
1V?<S.
ri&
ii
Lip
204
action of lifting and reversing, for discharging the contents,
may be accomplished with
the least possible
This
effort.
adjustment of handles, according to the balancing centre

of vessels of capacity other
than those for pouring,
applies with equal force to such as are used for carrying
by suspension or by support
On
Plate
and jugs,
are given examples of
Figs,
i,
4,
2,
and
applied
and
Fig.
shows a
Benvenuto
lifting
pleasantly
richly
The
Cellini.
and pouring
Fig. 6
is
less usefully
shapes.
their
ewer, attributed to
decorated
not well placed for
is
but, although in this respect
not useful, the handle
composed with the
composed with
handle
Greek forms
are
more or
of simple character, with handles
ewers
and adjustment of
illustrating the treatment
handles.
their
XLVIII.
is
vessel
of graceful form, and

it
adorns
(see
is
the dotted
it
well
lines).
another ewer of the Italian Renaissance, the
handle of which, like that in the former example,

placed
too
however,
is
high for ease
the
defect
is
in
is
In this case,
handling.
somewhat atoned
for
by
the
space between the lower attachment of the handle and

the
at a
" neck,"
thus allowing the handle
more convenient
place.
Fig. 7
on which a small winged figure

balance the fanciful handle.
that the designer
was more
It
is
is
to
be grasped
an Italian shape,
placed in front to
would appear from
careful to bring
all
this
parts of
his
205
design within a symmetrical outline than to
make
a serviceable
Renaissance,
Fig.
object.
an example of French
the stem and foot of
of simple form,
is
which are rectangular

placed for
8,
fulfilling its
in
The handle
plan.
purpose.
Fig. 9
ornamented ewer by an unknown

century, and
is
is
well
an elaborately
of the sixteenth
artist
another example of attaching a handle as
is
an ornament instead of
for
easy use. Figs.
10, 11,
and 12
show the proper adjustment of handles with due regard

to
and
composition,
shapes
the
to
which
they
are
applied.
Besides jugs and ewers,
we have
other varieties of
hollow vessels with side handles, such as tankards and

flagons.
The
tankard used for drinking purposes was,
as before intimated, developed from the covered beaker.
The
to
type upon which
it
was generally formed appears
have been one having a wide-spreading base, as
Plate
XLIX.,
Fig.
1.
Some
historic
in
examples are met
with which follow a type having a necking as in Fig. 4

on the same Plate. In addition to the handle, a distinctive
mark
of
tankards
is
the
attachment of the
cover to the top of the handle by a hinge, and a small

lever or thumb-piece for lifting
it
up.
This arrangement enabled the drinker,

while grasping the handle of the vessel
and conveying
it
to his mouth, to raise the lid
by simply
206
The uncovering
pressing the lever with his thumb.
of
the tankard by this
means did away with the necessity of
retaining the
which was essential
finial,
unattached cover of the beaker
for
and so
removing the
this feature
When
either partly repressed or discarded altogether.
how ever,
used,
it is
only for aesthetic reasons, as a matter
of composition, and to correct what to

to
some may appear

Tankards
be a too abrupt termination of the object.
are mostly
cylindrical
which deviate from
form
general
in
shape
this
are
these vessels taper upwards.

to
the
which
flagon,
the
varieties
similar
beakers which they appear to follow.
led
was
to
Later, however,
This alteration
in
form
from the
distinguished
is
those
tankard by increase of size and the narrowness of the
mouth; the
latter
or spout.
On
being sometimes developed into a beak,
Plate
XL IX.
are given various forms of
tankards and a flagon, to further illustrate the foregoing
remarks on these
vessels.
Figs,
i,
2,
4,
and
show
elementary forms of tankards, from the squat cylindrical
shape to the more elegant tapered form, which

resulted in the flagon.
are
decorated
Figs.
3, 6,
7,
8,
9,
10,
finally
and
11
examples, which in most cases appear
to follow the lines of the former,
the repression of the
finial,
to
and which also
illustrate
which allusion has been
made.
Having now
traced the development of a few of the
Plate XLIX.
fig /
Fl6 IS
K*2
208
hollow vessels,
important
be well to
will
it
Handles
few remarks upon handles generally.
be broadly
direction
vertical
into:
classified
(see
Figs.
1,
2,
may-
which have a
those
first,
offer
and,
3),
secondly,
those which are horizontally disposed, as
They
attached to vessels
are
purposes.
various
for
The
designed
particular
(ppf
purpose of any individual object determines the form

of handle to be used, whether of the
or second
first
Vertical handles are appropriate for lifting
kind.
and
pouring vessels, horizontal ones for vessels for carrying
and transporting
varieties
namely
point only,
others
(c)
(b)
(a) those
the
class
first
there are
which are attached
at
one
others which touch at two points, while
are attached along the whole of their inner
We
surface.
Of
liquids.
development.
have now
The
to
look
their
at
ornamental
extremities of handles where they
joined the body of the vessel to which they were applied

naturally
widened out
to give a large connective surface,
that the attachment might

fullest security.
first
These parts were the S$
to receive decorative attention,
and hence we
as
have the
shown
in
find
them elaborated
sketches here
(I
given
Again, to the middle. part of the handle, attention was

directed
to
fit
it
more
perfectly
smooth handle of uniform thickness
purpose.
for
its
(see
Fig. 1) would be

hand, and so
liable to slip in the
gradually, or
by adding
to convenience {see Fig.
distinct
it
widened
out, either
prominences according
This also offered a
2).
209
field for
decoration of which advantage was taken, and at last the
throughout
ornamentation extended
Fig.
{see
Some
3).
length
seen which
in their construction
spread out laterally
extremities
their
entire
vertical handles are often
combine the horizontal principle

i.e.,
its
and,
while
being more decorative, appear to have a firmer hold of

the vessel
to
which they belong (Fig.
3).
Handles,
having only one point of attachment, were subject to

different forms of
development, arising from difference
of character and from the use to which they were put.
The upper
part,
being detached, terminated differently,
and often finished with a
scroll
This
turned inwards.
served the purpose of checking any tendency to
slip
in
the hand, and consequently there was no necessity, as

in
the preceding variety, to introduce anything in the
middle for the same object
from which ornament could reasonably be developed.
less
For
further
illustrations
handles the student
he
and so there was one point
will
find
is
of
the
treatment of vertical
referred to Plate
XLIX., where
other examples, besides those
applied
to
tankards, at Figs. 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18.
The
object
in
tracing
varieties of cups, etc., has
and imitative
origin,
and
the development
these
of
been to show their inventive

to direct the attention of the
p
2io
student to the
first
which should guide him
principles
endeavours to originate new forms.
his
While he must
largely cultivate his inventive faculty, he
must
limit its
exercise by the particular necessities of the case.

brief survey
some forms
we have been
with which we
always open to
culled from nature
The
able to give indicates that
are familiar were originally
suggested by natural objects.

is
in
This source of inspiration
and many a valuable hint may be
us,
and
utilised
He
by the designer.
is
not to copy natural forms wholesale, and force them to
intended by Nature
serve other purposes than those

herself
but to adapt by his inventive powers any sug-
gestion which they
the acorn
(a,
may
may
Plate L.)
For example, the form of
yield.
arrest our attention,
and we
We
may
desire to adapt
first
take the form, having regard to the subtlety of curve
it
to a cup of the
and general proportion
hanap type.
here our imitative work ends,
and our inventive power begins
its
To make
function.
serve the purpose of a covered cup,
we
cut
it
across and
it
put on a moulding to mark the division, and to provide

a fitting for the cover.
We
then add a knob for raising
the cover, and a stem for support, by which the whole

vessel can be
To
lifted
(see
Fig.
Plate
i,
simply copy the form and raise
" rustic " stem with leaves,
disturbing
the
likeness
to
it
L.).
upon a
and, for fear of
the
original,
to
conceal, as far as possible, the opening, thus

is
may
make "
a procedure which, while
and
To
cannot but
unskilful,
it
please the thoughtless
the judicious grieve."
look to nature for models for imitation
our means
Leaves, buds, flowers,
our resources.
forms
to
is
to study nature for suggestions
is
narrow
to
On
inventive powers.
will stimulate his
widen
and animal
fruits,
yield to the diligent student ideas
will all
211
which
same Plate
the
are given other illustrations of the adaptation of suggestive
Fig.
forms.
natural
based upon the acorn.
is
a design for a jug,
by the
Fig. 3 a vase, suggested
general form of a leaflet of the horse-chestnut sketched

at
shows a form derived from the outline of
Fig. 4
b.
the campion flower, as at
c,
and immediately below (Fig.
another shape obtained from the same natural form
6)
is
by
utilising the
of
it.
From
space between two drawings
human
the
form, which of
all
created things contains the most beautiful and

subtle lines, can be extracted
many
pleasing
shapes by simply repeating the contour of some
on either side of a
detail
or
by
in the
filling
vertical axis, thus
space occurring between two profiles
symmetrically disposed, as shown on Plate L., Figs.

8,
the
and
Of
9.
course,
purpose of
consider
its
whether
for
new
in selecting
shapes,
it
a natural form
will
7,
for
be desirable to
suitability
to
the particular case
a useful
or
a purely
decorative
Again, other means of developing varieties
in hand,
object.
of
form
212
will
be found
and
in lateral
vertical
expansion, partial
development^ and varying the angle
of
inclination.
In designing a vase or cup, the attention naturally centres
on the body
first
we
and, whether
with a purely
start
inventive form, or one suggested by nature, the next

difficulty that presents itself to
and
position of a stem
the vessel.
of this end
is
the student
foot suitable to the
good method
to aid the
is
the com-
main part of
accomplishment
continue the general line of the body
to
downwards
in a
simple and easy way, forming a pleasant
shape that
will
harmonise with the form above, and to
let
that outline regulate the profile of stem
By this means
may be made,
order.
An
will
will
be found
be
in
that,
is
an agreeable and progressive
For
development.
this
often desirable, either
projecting
various
foot.
whatever projections
extended application of
whole design
the
it
and
parts,
or
for
method
to the
by way of testing
the
purposes
of
instance, suppose that to a completed
design an outline of a simple form be applied,
it
may
then appear that a moulding or some other feature of

the composition could, with advantage, be extended or
By
repressed.
reversing the
process, starting with a
simple controlling shape and developing the form within

it,
the
student
qualities,
so
will
be more
important
in
likely
a design
and XLVIII., where the controlling
to
(see
secure
Plates
those
XLV.
lines are indicated)
* See Chapter IV., " Lessons on Decorative Design."
Plate
L.
TIO
14-
214
and
gradation
adopted
Whatever
unity.
order to realise original and beautiful forms,
in
proportion and stability must be regarded,
would be
these, the composition
portion
may be
methods
will
for,
Good
defective.
depend largely upon the variety
When
dimensions, both lateral and vertical.
without
pro-
in
th<
these are
equal, or nearly so, the less satisfying will be the general

effect
because there
be too much repetition, and, as
will
a consequence, a lack of interest and vivacity due to the
absence of variety and contrast
But while
and n).
ment of
it
is
(see Plate
L., Figs.
10
important that in the adjust-
parts there should not be equality of quantities
or dimensions, neither should the other extreme prevail.
The
differences should
enough
apparent
be such
while they are
that,
give pleasure to
to
the
eye,
they
should not be so great as to interfere with the repose
Excitement from too much
and unity of the design.

contrast
is
exhausting
too
much
repetition
wearisome.
is
To
secure agreeable proportion, therefore, in dividing
the
height,
division,
to
should
which
all
be a leading
others
should
drawn,
will
regulate
and
harmonious proportion.
limit
It
dominant
or
be
in
the
will
lateral
shapes of vases,
applies
or
projections
be obvious
what has been advanced as regards proportion

general
pleasant
forms, imagined
while simple controlling
relation
in
there
in
that
the
with equal force to
the laying out of the surfaces of plain forms for decora-

tion,
whether divided by
If horizontal,
lines.
the
to
outline
if
215
vertical, horizontal, or oblique
they should be graduated agreeably

the
vertical,
spaces
naturally
will
To
graduate with the shape to which they are applied.
ensure the necessary amount of uniformity, the spaces

will
have
regular
be repeated round the circumference
to
and may be
order,
The
quantities.
latter case
possible
tion
vertical
first,
view circular vases, so
four different
on vases
striping.
ways of
In Figs,
a pattern.
should be observed
without
f, g,
horizontal,
and
well,
may be
classed
a narrow foot and be
made
made
but should have the look of
being well balanced.
weighting the base
and
another condition which
is
with these under consideration, should not only be

to stand firmly
h are
may be covered
every form that
not
more of the methods may
or
Stability
e,
is
it
setting out surface decora-
by spotting, oblique,
Two
as
divided,
be combined, or the whole surface

with
alternating
or
necessity for unequal divisions in this
the- modifications of perspective.
shown
equal
not so great as in the
is
to
in
in
vase
may be
constructed with
quite secure by loading or
but this will not
make
the
work
satisfactory to the eye, for, notwithstanding the device,

it
will
Apart from the
always look insecure and unsafe.
necessary width of the base, there
which the quality of
namely,
in the
is
stability is likely to
another
way
in
be interfered with
use of animals and figures in place of a
216
A figure
proper structural stem.
more
or cup, and
the
made
to support a vase
particularly if in action, will
convey
mind an idea of unsteadiness, no matter how
may be
executed.
Besides which, the use
tf\rrrrm
of figures for direct support will always
be productive of painful impressions by

reason of constrained positions and implied continuous action.
To
an offence against good
taste,
fore
to
be
sort
harm
is
in this faulty
do with errors of
often wrought by
When
thought.
to
figures
way, as
apparent that a similar
in
this
want of
have been used
No.
in
is
and there-
Carelessness
avoided.
much
design has
use them
i,
effect
it is
often
might have
been obtained, with a more satisfactory

result,
by using them
in
conjunction with
more reasonable support,
as in
No.
2.
?G>
F.
M.
EVANS AND
CO.,
well
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THEORY AND PRACTICE

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THEORY AND PRACTICE

BEING A SEQUEL TO THE AUTHOR'S

"LESSONS ON DECORATIVE DESIGN."

AND TEACHER OF TECHNICAL ART

PRINCIPLES OF ORNAMENT, ADVANCED DESIGN,

LONDON: CHAPMAN AND HALL, Ld

TO THE MEMORY OF THE LATE

THE FOLLOWING PAGES ARE GRATEFULLY DEDICATED.

a widely expressed desire that

should write a more

advanced work on the same subject.

and students, has led

of service to those for

Like the previous

does not pretend to be a book of designs,

and diagrams have been selected

and designed with the view of explaining principles

them are reproductions

impromptu sketches drawn on the blackboard while

Throughout the work

construction, and the law of development.

necessary aids in the infant stage of a student's education.

not seem so important to him as

increase of knowledge and

wisely relaxed, and will enter on the enjoyment

of that true freedom which

the heritage of the well-

Object of the book

Tendency of modern Decorative Art The prinprinciples

Fitness to purpose illustrated,/.

Elementary Forms and Methods of Arrangement

methods of laying out ornament

diapering, chequering, spotting,

powdering, striping, banding, panelling, p,

The difference between

Imbrication and vermiculation,/. 19 Some applications

characteristics of the surfaces of a wall

of patterns applicable to curtains, p. 23

rooms and the

division of the wall

and panels their relative

frieze, cornice, pilasters,

value Various proportional

and the distribution of elements employed illustrated,/. 52

between the walls and

by surface massing or spacing, and by relief-

Outline for the expression of

form, painting for expression of

importance of good outline, p. 67

for the expression of

and wrong use of thick and

Mr. Ruskin on the proper

Japanese power of drawing developed

by the early use of

from Mr. Ruskin on the use of the brush,

juxtaposed, and superposed tones, p. 75

two distinctive kinds, p. 76 Different degrees of relief

and dark woods, bronze,

work with the ground perforated, p. 83 Pierced work