ENGINEERED TIMBER

The words 'engineered timber' have become synonymous with the

sophisticated art of producing a wide range of structural forms using
computer technology to its limits in conjunction with 'state of the art'
manufacturing technology. Super-efficient jointing techniques have
evolved, the most versatile being effected using a variety of modern
adhesive formulations.
Engineered Timber is enjoying a new lease of life.
Glulam is perhaps the first form to be widely adopted and remains
the most versatile.

Contents

Page No.

Preliminary Design Guidance

Structural Timber

Joint Design

Fire Resistance

Prevervation

10

Care and Maintenance

12

Site Care

13

Site Advice

14

Preliminary Design Guidance

Glulam

Permissible stresses

Glulam has been developed over many years but

improvements in manufacturing techniques have
reduced costs and increased its viable range. It is
the original engineered form of wood and is made
by bonding together readily available section sizes
maximum 45 mm thick.

Comparative values for medium term duration (i.e.

roofs) at 300mm deep for conditions below.
18% moisture content: -

Glued laminated timber is available in straight or

curved profiles Size is limited only by transport
considerations and custom made shapes offer
unparalleled versatility. Appearance is an important attribute. Continental manufacturers dominate
the market but a few specialist British companies
have limited capacity mainly used for unusual
species (or shapes). Whitewood (spruce) is the
preferred material but Redwood is available at a
premium. Most beams have 45mm laminae but
some 33.3mm multiples are supplied.
For curved profiles lamination thicknesses are
reduced to facilitate bending say approx R/180

Straight Beams

Shaped Beams

Simply supported straight beams are widely used

for purlins, lintels, flat roof joists and similar
applications. Relatively light weight, combined
with ease of fixing, make the use of timber
popular with contractors and visually attractive.

For roofs that are nominally flat a generous fall is

strongly recommend. Timber beams can be
tapered from one end or both ways from centre.

Simply supported beams are usually deflection

governed in design. It follows that beams which
are continuous over multiple supports are more
efficient with consequent cost savings. Care will,
however, be needed to allow for the changed distribution of loading on the support structure.

This can be done with or without a camber which

can considerably enhance the appearance of
beams which might otherwise look quite deep mid
span.

Purlins & Lintels

Some alternative locations for local trimming or
longer span support.

Cantilever Beams
It is easy to taper Glulam. Balconies, canopies
and larger roofs will look better trimmed to a
structurally efficient profile.

Depth ratios are approximate to assist preliminary assessment

of proportions.

For breadth (thickness) assume approx H/5.

Post & Beam

Where some internal members are in compression these will usually be in timber but can still be
used in combination with steel tension members.
Complete timber trusses will often be chosen for
appearance and practical considerations. We
would suggest that the number of internal webs
be kept to a minimum to reduce assembly costs.

Simply supported or multiple span beams obviously need support and laminated columns are
frequently suitable. Some stiffness can be developed through the joints or knee braces can be
added to accommodate greater forces. Laminated
beams can also act in combination with other
materials and moment connections are quite
viable with steel or concrete.

Pyramids
Trusses are usually thought of as two-dimensional
but the same principles can be employed to form
four or more sided pyramids. Where the tension
from the reactions at eaves can be accommodated in steel, timber or concrete, appropriate care
should be taken to ensure that the centre lines of
force are correctly appraised. A laminated structure exerting outward thrust on top of a support
frame can result in eccentricity unless due care is
paid. Ties need not be limited to acting around the
eaves or directly across the void. Some very interesting patterns can be evolved with an internal
network of steel or timber.

A Frames & Trusses

Trusses can considerably reduce section size
compared with simple spans. Rafters can be held
together by timber or metal members, whilst in A
frame applications a concrete raft might be used
to accommodate thrusts. Tie rods will span substantial distances without intermediate support but
sag-bars of small diameter can be introduced if
necessary with normal cost penalty.

Lifting the tie above eaves reaction points will

introduce secondary bending to the rafter extension. This will increase rafter sizes but can have
appearance advantages in certain applications.

Arches
Where the foundations or structural
frame are suitably designed two or
three pinned arches are readily
formed in Glulam and are very
structurally efficient. A circular layout
will produce a clear, efficient dome
a form which has been used for
very large spans in other parts of
the world.

Tied Arches
Tie rods can also be used to
restrain thrust from arches where it
is difficult to accommodate in other
elements of the structure. In these,
as with other applications, the
warmth of timber creates a unique
environment which would be difficult
to reflect with other materials.

Three Pinned Portals

Curved laminated three pinned
frames will probably be familiar and
have considerable versatility from
the smallest swimming pool costing
a few thousand pounds to larger
pools, churches, community centres
and industrial applications, both
large and small.

Filling in the corners is fairly expensive and the use of a separate column and rafter, both saves money
and may lighten the appearance
where the member depth could
otherwise be quite large.

Framed corners can be economical and

have the advantage of fabrication from
straight components.

Curved corners may be intrusive the

use of finger joints can improve headroom.

Large finger joints are widely used on

the continent. The relevant Standard is
BS EN 387: 2001

Structural Timber
References
The principal standards governing the design and production of structural timber.

BS EN 1995:
2005

BS EN 336:
2003

Design of timber structures.

Part 1.1 General rules and rules
for buildings

Structural timber, coniferous

and poplar.
Sizes, permissible deviations.

Solid timber tolerances

A limit state code which has now been published
and can be used for design on a voluntary basis.
Will eventually supersede national codes.
BS 5268-2:
2002

BS EN 338:
2003

Defines the properties of C and D

classifications

Structural use of timber.

1996 Code of practice for
permissible stress design,
materials and workmanship.

Introduces much of BS EN 1995-1-1 in a

permissible stress form as a transitional
document. Some new material. Formalises the
EN production standards.

BS 5268:
Part 4
Section 4.1
1978

Recommendation for
calculating fire resistance of rs
timber members.

BS 4978:
1996
+ Amd No. 1:

Specification for visual strength

grading of softwood.

BS EN 301:
1992

Adhesives, phenolic and

aminoplastic, for load bearing
tmber structures: classification
and performance requirements.

Structural timber strength Structural

timber strength classes

BS EN 385:
2003

Finger jointed structural timber.

Performance requirements and
minimum production requirements.

BS EN 386:
2001

Glued laminated timber performance requirements and

minimum production requirements

Glulam manufacture. Supersedes BS 4169

BS EN 390:
1998

Glued laminated timber - sizes.

Permissible deviations

Glulam Tolerances
BS EN 519:
1995

Type 1 adhesives are suitable for exposure to

weather and/or high temperature. Phenolic
Resins (PRF) are dark coloured. Aminoplastic
Resins (MUF) are light.

Structural timber Grading

requirements for machine strength
graded timber and grading
machines.

Joint Design

Limit plate sizes

Space the fastenings to the timber rules. Then
keep minimum steel edge distances beyond them
(normally 2d). Any more could be asteful and create unnecessary tolerance restrictions.

High machining and jointing costs can often be

the sum of many apparently small contributions.
These pointers to better detailing also cover some
performance criteria.

Weight is not free

For ease of processing complex or fast track
inquiries many fabricators price on weight lone
based on experience of the average labour content. Even carefully costed items have a material
content. Dont read too much into that disappointing allowance for a weight reduction.

Note the pattern of forces

The choice of jointing systems should take into
account the extremes of loading conditions not
just worst cases.
Be aware of visual constraints
Appearance is often very important and may
preclude some types of fastener.

Fastener density
A greater number of small fastenings tend to be
more efficient than fewer large ones per unit area.
(E.g. Trussed rafter plates v bolts) Spacing rules
are more easily satisfied with smaller units but
labour content may rise.

Keep machining simple

Mixing hole dimensions in the same component
risks error and slow drilling timber.
Single crosscuts are preferred to double or
compound cuts.
Notches, grooves & slots add to setting out & processing times.

Shrinkage
Timber moves with variations in moisture content
across (but not along) the grain. Varies with
species but around 1% size for 5% m.c. Plate
sizes & orientation should recognize this and
avoid stress concentrations in large
sections. Joist hangers, for example, should not
be bolted top and bottom.

Avoid special fabrications

Even the simplest plate or angle can cost far
more than its proprietary counterpart and has to
drawn, priced etc.
Separate the artwork
If special fabrications are unavoidable make it
easy for the details to be copied for tendering and
subsequent processing controls.

Avoid eccentricity
Timber takes load far better to the grain. Make
sure centrelines of action intersect.

Standardize the fastenings

Using the same bolt with or without connectors
can maintain drilling & appearance but take varying loads. Repeat grouping/spacing helps jigging.
Keep the steelwork slim
Try comparing the bolt shear/hole bearing/timber
embedment capacities. Unless tension or buckling
govern, thick plates are seldom justified.

Fire Resistance
Timber is Predictable
The charring rate of timber exposed to fire is
predictable. BS 5268 : part 4 sets out the criteria
by which the strength of the residual section may
be assessed following specified periods of
endurance. This enables designers to ensure that
the required fire resistance can be achieved.

Bond Strength
The adhesives used in the manufacture of Glulam
and LVL comply with Type 1 of BS EN 301, are
not flammable and do not lose their integrity when
exposed to prolonged elevated temperatures.

Design Criteria
The load bearing capacity of timber beams 70mm
thick or greater should be calculated based on the
residual section and stresses of *2.25 x long term
dry stress (* x 2.00 for members under 70mm).
Permissible deflection is relaxed to span/30 and is
not normally relevant unless gross distortion might
de-stabilise other elements of the structure.
Charring Rates
For periods of 15 to 90 minutes a charring rate of
20mm in 30 minutes is assumed for beams and
columns with one concealed face. This rate
relates to most coniferous species (except
Western Red Cedar 25mm in 30 mins). The
nominal rate for a specified range of Hardwoods
is 25% slower at 15mm in 30 mins. When all
faces are exposed the charring rate is increased
by 25%.

90 x 315 mm
Glulam

Permissible Loads
The load to be supported is either the maximum
permissible design load or the load which the
member is required to support in normal service.
It has become custom to interpret this apparent
ambiguity to suggest that full snow load would be
unlikely under these circumstances and to reduce
the imposed load by two thirds accordingly.
Effect on Size
In practice beams 90mm thick and over will
usually endure 30 min fire without modification.
Longer periods will probably lead to an increase in
thickness although this may be partially offset by
a reduction in depth.

After 30 Mins
Fire

After 60 Mins
Fire

Preservation
The European View
BS EN 1995-1-1 will increasingly govern the
structural use of timber, requires designs to reflect
the envi ronmental climatic conditions from a
choice of three classes:-

Organic solvent based formulations are preferred

for Glulam and for joinery since they do not
discolour the timber or its finishes.
They avoid swelling, shrinkage and similar problems associated with water borne varieties. A
protective envelope or shell is provided rather
than deep penetration of the component.
Treatment of individual laminations prior to bonding is not viable since most would be removed by
the planning, which must immediately precede
lamination.

Service Class 1. Conditions in which most timber

will attain an average moisture content not
exceeding 12% - corresponding to a temperature
of 20oc with relative humidity of the surrounding
air only exceeding 65% of a few weeks per year.
Service Class 2. Conditions in which most timber
will attain an average moisture content not
exceeding 20% - corresponding to a temperature
of 20oc with relative humidity of the surrounding
air only exceeding 85% of a few weeks per year.

Glulam is usually made from European

Whitewood, which is Restraint to treatment.
Where slightly greater risks are envisaged than
European Redwood which is Moderately
Resistant can be specified but with an increase in
cost and extended delivery period. Knots will be
more prominent with Redwood.

Service Class 3. Climatic conditions leading to

higher moisture contents than in service class 2
but excluding continuous hot and wet conditions
such as in cooling towers.

Where a high risk is unavoidable, such as

bridges, then pressure impregnation with water
borne CC treatment can be applied to laminations
(max.33mm) prior to bonding. The salt retention
can be specified to suit a desired life in excess of
60 years. The process normally requires use of
Redwood for satisfactory penetration and when
extra drying and other processing costs are taken
into account, involves significant cost increases.
CC treated timber is characterised by green
colouring which fades to some extent.

The average moisture content of timber (A) likely

to be attained in service and (B) which should not
be exceeded at the time of erection are defined:Service Environment
Class
3
Covered, generally unheated
2
Covered, generally heated
1
Internal, continuously heated

(A)

(B)

18% 24%
15% 20%
12% 20%

BS EN 1995-1-1 with support standard EN 335-1

does not require treatment of timber in C1 and
most of C2. Although the per capita use of Glulam
is far greater in other European countries, the
non-essential use of toxic chemicals tends to be
avoided.

Some manufactures are able to supply Glulam

made from very durable or durable hard wood
species and not necessarily from tropical sources.
Significant cost increases will, however, be
incurred with possible extended delivery.

Choice of Preservative
If it is still felt that preservative should be applied
for reassurance, then for low hazard conditions
(say up to cat.2B or C) the industry standard
method of applying preservative to Glulam is by
flood coating, deluging, spraying etc to the point
of refusal.
Organic solvent based formulations are preferred
for Glulam and for joinery since they do not
discolour the timber or its finishes.

10

Points to Watch
Subjects which merit particular car in building
design include: Vapour Barriers
DPCS
Insulation
Flat Roofs
Enclosed Valleys
Gutters
Down Pipes
Timber below FFL

High Humidity Areas

Splash Zones
Jointing Steelwork
Roof Overhangs
Condensation
Ventilation
Decoration
Maintenance

In more hazardous locations, Glulam made from

European redwood is better than whitewood. It is
more receptive to preservatives, but should still be
finished with applied coatings, as recommended
for joinery inn similar locations. Most methods of
preservation provide a protective envelope of
varying depth. Detailing should provide shelter
from moisture and allow good ventilation and
drainage. Columns should not continue below
DPC level and in damp zones, shoes should not
enclose the timber, but have open sides or be
centrally slotted in the member. End grain is
relatively absorbent and extra care should be
taken in end sealing or capping with a similar
species.

11

Care & Maintenance

General
Routine inspection is recommended.
Routine maintenance will normally consist of a
systematic inspection at say six or twelve month
intervals. Only when exceptional conditions
prevail will further action be required.

Dry Environment
Vigorous air conditioning can have side effects
For most internally heated conditions timber
should stabilize at about 12% moisture content.
(Normal Glulam supply level). Timber shrinks
when dried. Rapid drying below 12% can lead to
some surface splits, and in exceptionally warm dry
conditions splits can be expected to occur. They
can sometimes look severe but are hardly ever of
structural significance. (Grading rules can permit
fissures half the width of the member or more).

Decoration
Structural timberwork needs no special attention.
The decoration of structural timberwork can be
undertaken to the same programme as other
internal refreshing coats. At low levels a wipe
clean (stain or gloss) surface may be advisable to
extend redecoration intervals.

Remedial
Do not rush
Any cosmetic action should not be undertaken
until say 9- 12 months after commissioning central
heating. If stopping is judged necessary hard setting varieties should be avoided to allow future
movement to occur with generation of secondary
stresses.

Fire Protection
Be aware of special coatings.
Special coatings (intumescent) are sometimes
specified. It is critical that these are neither
removed nor degraded by the application of noncompatible materials. A record should be kept of
the exact specification employed and redecoration
should comply with the manufactures recommendations.

Bolted Joints
May need tightening
Nuts should be checked for tightness about twelve
months after construction. This check should
receive particular attention where signs of exceptionally dry conditions have been noted.

Excess Moisture
Look out for roof or plumbing leaks.
Care should be taken to ensure that ntreated softwood is not maintained at over 18% moisture content. If a source of moisture such as plumbing or
weathering fault had been undetected for some
time, the source should be corrected promptly,
and the timber allowed to dry out. Checks should
then be made for possible start of rot or similar
degrade. If in doubt, consult the supplier for
appropriate remedial action (repair and/or the
application of preservative.

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Site Care
Storage

Handling

Timber structures and components for visually

exposed applications should be stored:

When handling and erecting structural timber

components for visually exposed use, care should
be taken to ensure that they are:

On level bearers well clear of the ground

Use clean dry timber free from girt and of grease,
supported high enough to clear rain and mud
splashes.

Evenly supported
Use webbing slings to avoid local bruising. Locate
with care to ensure balance support. Control with
guy lines.

With Supports evenly spread

Locate bearers at ends and near joints. Ensure
self weight is uniformly supported to avoid distortion.

Evenly exposed
Mud, plaster, banding, temporary bracing, partial
wrapping etc, can all leave light patches when
removed or made good. Other materials should
be removed promptly.

Using Strips or blocks between components

Spacers help to prevent the trapping of dirt or
water between timber faces, but must be in line
vertically.

Fixed with rustproof fittings

Particularly nails in temporary bracings or nearby
timber. Rain can create dark stains from any
unprotected ordinary steel.

Covered with dark sheets

Secured against wind. Rain normally does not
harm in the short term, but prolonged exposure
can lead to swelling and staining. Sun darkens
exposed wood quickly. Partial exposure or partial
masking can be very difficult to blend in later.

Securely braced
Preferably with permanent bracing. Wire guy lines
with turnbuckles or timber members may be needed to resist sudden high winds etc. (When delays
in permanent framing are unavoidable)

With attention to wrapping

Transit wrapping products during delivery, handling and erection only. Ideally, if should be
removed promptly to avoid moisture traps and
ensure even weathering. However, site management will often prefer to retain for protection
against wet trades. In this case small holes should
be cut in the underside of retained wrapping to
drain any water pockets. It is also particularly
important to make an keep good any disturbance
around joints.

Covered if necessary
When prolonged exposure is expected close
wrapping may be desirable but difficult to secure
without water traps. Black polythene can be
draped over with a continuous top
batten and open soffit.

13

Site Advice
Storage
Store on level bearers well clear of the ground.
Use spacers to help ventilation, avoid moisture traps and provide support (keep in line).
Cover with dark sheets to protect from direct sunlight and rain.
Handling
Lift with webbing slings to avoid bruising.
Locate support carefully to ensure safe balanced lift.
Remove mud, plaster, partial wrapping etc. quickly will leave light patches if delayed.
Use rust proof nails, bolts etc rain off mid steel stains quickly.
Brace as you go, preferably with permanent structure or with guy lines/stout timbers triangulated.
Transit Wrapping
Protects during delivery, handling and erection only.
Remove ASAP to avoid moisture traps moisture traps and ensure even weathering.
Retain if you have to for protection against wet trades.
Cut small holes in underside of retained wrapping to drain any water pockets.
Make and keep good any disturbance around joints etc.
Sunlight darkens exposed wood quickly partial exposure or partial masking can be very difficult to
blend in later.
If in doubt - ASK

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