Drodten 2008

134
Potassium Hydroxide
Materials with special properties

D 1 Coatings and films
Metallic coatings and films

The surface of reinforcement steels is normally adequately passive, because a pHvalue of about 12.5 is produced there by the alkaline components of the concrete.
When the pH-value becomes lower due to carbonization of the concrete mantle, corrosion damage of the reinforcement steel is possible, particularly in the case of penetration of water containing chloride. Although zinc dissolves in strongly alkaline solution as hydroxide complex (Eq. 3), utilization of zinc coatings for corrosion protection of reinforcement steels is considered. In a test program the behavior of
galvanized steel specimens in potassium hydroxide and NaOH solutions in the pH
range from 11 to 14 was investigated [438]. It was found that the pH-value of the
solution irrespective of the utilized alkaline solution determines the corrosion
behavior of the zinc coating. In the range from pH 12 to 13.4 the zinc coating is
quite stable and the corrosion rates lie within an acceptable range. With pH-values
lower than 12 local corrosion takes place on the coating, whereas at pH-values above
13.4 the zinc coating is rapidly dissolved. Electrochemical investigations of zinc and
zinc coatings in 0.05, 0.1 and 1 M potassium hydroxide solutions confirm the existence of a passive range for zinc in weakly alkaline solutions [439].
Electroless deposited nickel layers can be utilized as protection for unalloyed steel
for utilization in alkaline media. Exposure tests of steel samples with this type of
nickel coating to 10 % NaOH solutions at room temperature exhibited no corrosive
attack [192] (see A 26).
For investigations of the behavior of electroless deposited Ni-P layers in alkaline
media (usually NaOH), see the investigations in the chapter Sodium hydroxide [5]
and [440, 441]. According to these results, the electrolessly deposited Ni-P coatings
were superior to the other materials. Generally, the corrosion rates increase with
increasing P content of the coatings.
Nanocrystalline materials often have improved properties, compared with their
conventional polycrystalline counterparts. Nickel, too, can be deposited electrolessly
as nanocrystalline coating. In [442] the corrosion behavior of such nanocrystalline
nickel coatings in various acidic, alkaline and neutral aqueous media is reported.
The electrochemical behavior of nanocrystalline nickel with grain sizes of 16 and
Corrosion Handbook Online
Copyright 2008 DECHEMA e.V.
DOI: 10.1002/9783527610433
32 nm was investigated with reference to potentiodynamic polarization curves in

deaerated 30 % potassium hydroxide solution, in comparison with that of polycrystalline nickel with a grain size of 50 lm. Thereby only slight differences of the polarization curves of the investigated materials were found. The good corrosion behavior
of the polycrystalline nickel in alkalis is also given for nanocrystalline nickel.
Electrolytically deposited nickel cobalt composite layers containing fractions of
hard nonmetallic phases, showed good corrosion protection properties as well as
improved wear behavior. In [441] the corrosion behavior of Ni-Co-B coatings that
were deposited electrolytically on unalloyed steel is described. The alloy contents of
the coatings are specified as 71.28 % Ni, 26.66 % Co and 1.96 % B. A corrosion rate
of 0.5 mm/a (19.7 mpy) was found when the specimens were exposed to 28 % potassium hydroxide solution at room temperature.
Organic coatings and linings

Steel and concrete components in process engineering plants, e.g. in chemical
industrial plants, in pickling and galvanotechnology, in ore and metal processing, in
power plant engineering or in sewage processing plants, are often subjected to arduous chemical, thermal and mechanical stress, and thus require special protection
against corrosion to achieve long service lives of the components. Since decades
organic materials are utilized on a large scale as coatings and linings for this purpose.
The coatings chiefly consist of reaction resins or of thermoplastics, whereby the
latter are predominantly applied in the form of powder coatings. Coatings capable of
withstanding particularly high stress are the combined coatings of plates or bricks
and reaction resin cements with a sealing layer underneath. The linings comprise
on the one hand rubber linings, i.e. rubber webs surface-bonded or vulcanized onto
the components. On the other hand the linings can consist of thermoplastic webs
that are either suspended loose in the plant component and fixed at the flanges
(loose jacket lining for steel components), surface-bonded with adhesives or fixed
with anchoring elements (for concrete components).
Organic coatings
Coatings on the basis of reaction resins have attained outstanding importance as
materials for corrosion protection in process engineering plants. This can be attributed to their easy and economic application: after mixing the resin and the hardener
component, and possibly a third component as filler, the mixture can be brought
onto the components by simple technical means such as spraying, rolling or spreading. The mixture then hardens at ambient temperature and after a relatively short
time attains the specified operational properties.
Thermoplastic coatings, particularly those on the basis of fluorothermoplastics,
can also provide effective protection against corrosion. In order to obtain sealed surfaces, relatively high application temperatures are necessary (> 423 K (> 150 C)) so
that coating with these materials has to be carried out in the factory.
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Potassium Hydroxide
The corrosion protection of concrete components in process engineering plants is

specified in the standard DIN 28052 [443] consisting of 6 parts, and in the work
instruction documents of the Arbeitsgemeinschaft Industriebau e.V. (AGI) [444]
whereas the standard specifications DIN 28051 [445], DIN 28053 [446] and DIN
28054 [447] apply to steel components.
The following descriptions of coatings are sectioned into:
.
.
.
.
Thin coatings with a layer thickness of about 0.20.4 mm

Coatings for highly corrosive operating conditions
Combination coverings, i.e. plates or brick linings with a sealing layer
Coatings for water protection, i.e. in areas for storing, filling and transferring
water polluting substances
Industrial floor coatings.
Thin coatings
Thin coating provide adequate protection against corrosion in many practical applications, particularly if no severe stress by abrasion, mechanical force or permeation
from prolonged action of media at high temperatures is involved. They can be produced from powders or from the liquid phase.
Powder coatings
Powder coatings are brought onto metallic components by whirl-sintering or powder
spraying. Depending on the particular process, layer thicknesses in the range from
about 0.1 mm to 0.6 mm per coating step can be achieved.
The coating structure is shown schematically in Figure 41. In most cases a primer is
applied to ensure adhesion of the coating on the substrate. The covering layer or
service layer can be built in one or more passes. Where Figure 41 and subsequent
figures specify layer thicknesses these are to be understood only as rough guidelines
and not as binding stipulations.
Figure 41:
Coating structure (schematic) of thin coatings
Powder coatings on the basis of PE-LD (modified), PE-HD as well as EVAC and
with a thickness of approx. 0.30.6 mm are resistant to potassium hydroxide solution at 294 K (21 C) and at 333 K (60 C) [448]. The EVAC coatings are soft and
pleasant to touch, the PE coatings are harder and relatively wear proof.

DOI: 10.1002/9783527610433
PA 11 and PA 12 coatings are also widely utilized, because these polyamides are
subject to relatively little swelling of medium take up in aqueous media. PA 11 coatings with a thickness of about 0.30.6 mm exposed to alkaline aqueous media (chlorine bleaching liquor, saturated soda solution and concentrated ammonia solution)
showed no change after 18 months at room temperature. The compact PA 11 was
also resistant to 50 % potassium hydroxide solution and 550 % NaOH solution at
293 K (20 C) for 18 months [388]. From the results it is deduced that PA 11 coatings
are resistant to potassium hydroxide solution at room temperature. This is also true
for PA 12 coatings.
Anti-adhesion coatings with thin layer thickness (< 0.1 mm) on the basis of fluoropolymers, e.g. PTFE, are microporous and thus less suitable as corrosion protection.
Apart from the powder coatings based on thermoplastics, ones based on solid
reaction resins, that react to produce thermosetting plastics when heated in the presence of suitable hardeners, are also utilized. Such a powder coating with fatty acid
modified EP resin based on bisphenol A (Araldite G 1999), with o-tolyl biguanide
as hardener and 30 % titanium dioxide as pigment (thickness 0.06 mm) was found
to be resistant to strong alkalis such as 5 % and 30 % NaOH solution at 293 K
(20 C) after 24 months test duration [449]. Similar resistance is to be expected for
potassium hydroxide solution under comparable test conditions.
Liquid thin coatings
Thin coatings applied from the liquid phase (see Figure 41 for the coating build up)
are utilized to a much greater extent than powder coatings. In process engineering
plants, two-component epoxy resin systems consisting of epoxy resin, hardeners
based on polyamines, polyamine adducts or polyamidoamines, fillers, and pigments
as well as additives dominate and in most cases contain approx. 10 % of organic
solvent as thinner. The EP coatings for steel components shown in Table 58 are a
selection of the numerous products offered on the market. The EP coatings are
resistant to potassium hydroxide solution up to approx. 313333 K (4060 C),
whereby the resistance to dilute potassium hydroxide solution is reported to be
lower in some cases than specified for 50 % potassium hydroxide solution. The hot
cured EP coatings listed under b) in Table 58 are resistant to potassium hydroxide
solution up to approx. 353 K (80 C).
Thin layer EP coatings of similar composition are also utilized for protecting concrete surfaces, whereby the corrosion protection is chiefly confined to occasional
wetting and splashing stress. In the case of permanent wetting stress the concrete
substrate must be sealed before coating it, e.g. by applying a sealing layer based on
epoxy resin. Thin layer EP coatings are also frequently utilized as topcoat of floor
coatings (see under Industrial floor coatings).

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138
Potassium Hydroxide
Layer
thickness,
mm
Concentration
potassium
hydroxide
%
Test
temperature
K (C)
Test
duration
Resistance
Reference
EP/plastic, polyamine
(Icosit-Poxicolor)
approx. 0.2
210 %
NaOH
50 % NaOH
296 (23)
296 (23)
90 days
90 days
+
+
[450]
EP resin/polyamine
(CeRam-Kote 54)
approx. 0.25
20
20
50
311 (38)
327 (54)
344 (71)
90 days
30 days
90 days
[451]
EP resin/polyaminoamide
(Plasguard 7133)
approx. 0.25
10
45
45
311 (38)
311 (38)
339 (66)
6 months
1 year
4 months
+
+
[452]
EP resin/polyamine
adduct
(Plasguard 9060)
0.30.4
550
50
339 (66)
355 (82)
1 year
4 months
[452]
EP resin/polyamine
adduct
(Ceilcote 600 Flakeline)
approx. 0.4
10 and 50
322 (49)
2)
[289]
EP resin/tar/polyamine
adduct
(Ceilcote 661 Flaketar)
approx. 0.4
10 and 50
322 (49)
2)
[289]
Modified EP resin/
polyamine
(Plasguard 9570)
0.30.4
550
50
339 (66)
355 (82)
1 year
1 year
+
+
[452]
EP resin/phenol resin/
polyamine
(Plasguard 9571)
0.30.4
10
10
50
311 (38)
339 (66)
355 (82)
1 year
1 year
1 year
[452]
Phenol resin/EP resin

(Proco-LF)
0.25
50
293 (20)
2)
[453]
Epoxy resin/hardener
(trade name1))
a) Cold hardening coatings
b) Hot hardening coatings
+ = resistant; = not resistant

1) Trade names not binding
2) Resistant to continuous stress for years
Table 58: Resistance of thin layer EP coatings for steel components to potassium hydroxide solution
In the NACE publication [454] concerning coatings and linings subjected to permanent stress (immersion service) by exposure to chemicals, solvent-containing
coatings of epoxy resin, coal tar and polyamine hardeners with fillers and a solid

DOI: 10.1002/9783527610433
material content of 70 % are considered to be suitable corrosion protection

against potassium hydroxide solution 40 %.
In [454] hot hardened unmodified phenol resin coatings, applied as thin layer
(0.150.2 mm) as internal coating of steel containers and steel tanks, are not recommended for contact with potassium hydroxide solution at room temperature,
because the phenol resin is destroyed. Such a phenol resin coating (trade name:
Plasguard 3070) gave the following test results: In contact with 5 % NaOH solution
at 311 K (38 C) failure after 3 weeks, in contact with 50 % NaOH solution at 311 K
(38 C) failure after 1 year and in contact with 50 % potassium hydroxide solution at
355 K (82 C) failure after 1 day [452].
Coatings for highly corrosive operating conditions
Under conditions of continuous of predominantly wet stress by aggressive media at
higher temperature, coatings with increased thickness are utilized, that in addition
to the chemical durability afforded by their greater thickness also provide protection
against permeation, abrasion and mechanical injury.
Fluorothermoplastic powder coatings
Powder coatings based on the fluorothermoplastc ECTFE, ETFE, PFA or PFA/FEP
constitute very high performance corrosion protection systems and are utilized primarily as coating for components in chemical plant construction, e.g. for columns,
reactors, chemical pumps, valves, fittings, pipe sections, stirring mechanisms, temperature sensors, centrifuges, galvanic baths and suspensions, fan housings and
heat exchangers. The layer thickness is about 11.8 mm, using a multilayer structure, for example as shown schematically in Figure 42.
Figure 42:
Example of the layer structure (schematic) of fluorothermoplastic powder coatings
Fluorothermoplastic coatings feature extremely broad chemical durability, high

temperature resistance, low permeation rates and other advantageous properties.
From the resistance specifications shown in Table 59 for several fluorothermoplastic
coatings it is evident that the highest resistance to potassium hydroxide solution is
obtained with the completely fluorinated thermoplastics PFA/FEP.

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140
Potassium Hydroxide
Fluorothermoplastics/
(trade name1))
Layer
thickness,
mm
Concentration Temperature Continuous Reference

K (C)
operation
potassium
resistance
hydroxide
%
ECTFE
(Proco-E-CTFE (Halar)
max. 1
saturated
15 % NaOH
50 % NaOH
338 (65)
423 (150)
393 (120)
+
+
+
[455]
ECTFE
(ECTFE Halar)
max. 1
50 % NaOH
394 (121)
[456]
ECTFE
max. 1.5
any
338 (65)
[457]
ETFE
intermediate layer = highmelt-ETFE 0.7 mm, cover
layer =low-melt-ETFE
0.8 mm
(Rhenoguard Jumbo I)
max. 1.5
25
25
48 % NaOH
373 (100)
383 (110)
373 (100)
+
+
+
[458]
PFA/FEP
intermediate layer = PFA
0.7 mm, cover layer = FEP
0.8 mm
(Rhenoguard Jumbo II)
max. 1.5
saturated
413 (140)
[459]
PFA/FEP
intermediate layer = PFA
filled 0.6 mm, cover layer
= FEP filled 0.6 mm,
topcoat = FEP 0.2 mm
(Rhenoguard Jumbo III)
max. 1.8
saturated
433 (160)
[459]
max. 1
saturated
403 (130)
[460]
PFA
(Edlon PFA)
+ = resistant; + = conditionally resistant

1) trade names (not binding)
Table 59: Resistance of fluorothermoplastic powder coatings to potassium hydroxide solution
Reaction resin coatings

For highly corrosive operating conditions reaction resin coatings are utilized in large
amounts with layer thicknesses of approx. 14 mm applied by spraying, spreading
or as laminate coatings [461]. Among the standards and regulations, such coatings
are considered, for example, in the publications DIN 28052-3 [443] and DIN 28054-2
to 28054-4 [447 ] as well as in the AGI work sheets S 20 (Parts 13) [444].
Spray-applied coatings consist of a primer layer and 23 sprayed layers with a
thickness of 0.30.5 mm each, so that a total thickness of about 0.91.8 mm is
obtained. The structure of the layers is shown schematically in Figure 43.

DOI: 10.1002/9783527610433
Figure 43:
Layer structure (schematic) of spray coatings
For the trowel-applied coatings usually two spread layers are applied. The total
coating thickness is about 23 mm. The structure of the layers is shown schematically in Figure 44.
Figure 44:
Layer structure (schematic) of trowel coatings
Spray and trowel-applied coating materials often contain barrier fillers to reduce
their permeability. These are flake fillers having a large area to thickness ratio
(= aspect ratio) e.g. flake glass or mica.
Laminate coatings contain glass fiber mats or glass fiber fabric as reinforcement
material and are able to withstand greater mechanical stress. The layer structure is
shown in Figure 45: On the primer layer follows a laminate layer that is obtained by
saturating one or several glass mats or fabrics with the reaction resin. The final layer
is a fleece layer consisting of 1 or 2 fleeces of C-glass fibers or synthetic fibers. The
total coating thickness is about 23 mm.
Figure 45:
Layer structure (schematic) of laminate coatings

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142
Potassium Hydroxide
VE coatings
VE coatings are distinguished by a very broad chemical durability, also with respect
to organic solvents and oxidizing substances, high permeation resistance and high
strength. VE coatings have been utilized since several decades as corrosion protection on steel and concrete components, e.g. in chemical industrial plants, in flue gas
desulphurization plants of coal power plants (raw gas and clean gas ducts, in storage
containers, absorber parts) or in sewage water processing plants.
The resistance of the VE resins to potassium hydroxide solution is good, but it
must be taken into consideration that fillers and fibers that are attacked by potassium hydroxide solution impair the resistance of the coatings. Therefore in the
cover layer of laminate coatings synthetic fiber fleeces are often utilized instead of
glass fiber fleeces, or mica or graphite flakes instead of flake glass in sprayed coatings. Subject to these prerequisites, VE coatings can be utilized in contact with
strong alkalis such as potassium hydroxide solution or NaOH solution up to approx.
323333 K (5060 C) [462].
From the resistance specifications of typical VE coatings contained in Table 60 it
is evident that the resistance to potassium hydroxide solution 50 % can be adequate for laminate coatings up to approx. 333 K (60 C) and for sprayed coatings up
to approx. 328 K (55 C). Trowel-applied coatings with flake glass are resistant at
higher temperature only to very dilute potassium hydroxide solution, and otherwise
utilizable only at room temperature.
VE resin/fillers
(trade name1))
Layer
thickness
mm

K (C)
operation
potassium
resistance
hydroxide
%
a) Spray-applied coatings
VE resin/flake glass
(Plasguard 4007)
10
311 (38)
[452]
VE resin/inert flakes
(Plasguard 4100)
0.91.1
550
5
1050
311 (38)
339 (66)
339 (66)
+
+
[452]
VE resin NOV/flake glass

0.91.2
10 and 50
311 (38)
[289]
VE resin NOV/mica
11.5
10
50
322 (49)
327 (54)
+
+
[289]
VE resin BPA/mica
0.91.2
10
50
322 (49)
327 (54)
+
+
[289]
+ = resistant; + = conditionally resistant; = not resistant

BPA = Bisphenol A type; NOV = Novolak type
Table 60: Resistance of vinyl ester resin coatings to potassium hydroxide solution
DOI: 10.1002/9783527610433

Table 60: Continued
VE resin/fillers
(trade name1))
Layer
thickness
mm

K (C)
operation
potassium
resistance
hydroxide
%
b) Trowel-applied coatings
VE resin NOV/flake glass
(Keraflake 6 H)
5
1040
1040
343 (70)
293 (20)
303333
(3060)
+
+
+
[463]
VE resin BPA/flake glass

(Keraflake 6 R)
5
1040
1040
343 (70)
293 (20)
303333
(3060)
+
+
+
[463]
VE resin/flake glass
(Oxydur Flake)
10
293 (20)
[464]
VE resin/glass mats/
C-glass fleece
(Oxydur VE-L)
approx. 3
10
50 % NaOH
293 (20)
293 (20)
+
+
[464]
VE resin NOV/glass mats/

synthetic fleece
(Ceilcote 74 Lining)
approx. 3
10
50
322 (49)
333 (60)
+
+
[289]
VE resin BPA/glass mats/

synthetic fleece
approx. 3
10
50
322 (49)
333 (60)
+
+
[289]
VE resin BPA/glass
fleece/cover layer with
carbon fillers
(Ceilcote 6640 Ceilcrete)
approx. 4
10
50
322 (49)
333 (60)
+
+
[289]
c) Laminate coatings

BPA = Bisphenol A type; NOV = Novolak type
Table 60: Resistance of vinyl ester resin coatings to potassium hydroxide solution
When coatings come into contact with potassium hydroxide solution at higher
temperature, apart from the chemical durability consideration the permeability of
the coating with respect to water vapor is of increasing importance. To reduce their
permeability, VE coatings often contain flake glass or mica as barrier fillers. The
magnitude of the barrier effect of these fillers is shown in Table 61, in which the
permeation coefficient for water vapor is specified for several VE coatings at 343 K
DOI: 10.1002/9783527610433
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144
Potassium Hydroxide
(70 C) [17]. The permeation coefficient of the trowel-applied coating is lower by a
factor of about 8 and that of spray coatings is lower by a factor of 2.3, compared with
the permeation coefficient of the VE coating without barrier fillers.
Permeation coefficient for water vapor*)
VE coating
1013x cm3(STP)/cm s Pa
ng/cm h Torr
Perm inch
VE spray-applied coating
with 15 % flake glass (max. 0.4 mm)
166
6.2
0.00092
with 15 % mica (max. 0.4 mm)
171
6.4
0.00095
with 17 % flake glass (max. 3.2 mm)
49
1.9
0.00027
VE coating without barrier fillers
389
15
0.0022
STP = Standard Temperature and Pressure

*)
11
3
3
Conversion: 3.857 10 P in (cm (STP)/cm s Pa) = P in (ng/cm h Torr) = 6.960 10 P in (Perm
inch)
Table 61: Permeation coefficient for water vapor in vinyl ester resin coatings at 343 K (70 C) [17]
UP coatings
The resistance of the UP coatings to strong alkalis is good only when UP resins on
bisphenol A basis are taken into consideration [405, 462]. The coatings with other
UP resins are not resistant to strong alkalis, or at best they are resistant at room
temperature. From the durability specifications in Table 62 it is evident that UP
laminate coatings can be utilized up to approx. 333 K (60 C) and UP spray coatings
can be utilized up to approx. 323 K (50 C) in contact with potassium hydroxide solution, if they contain UP resin based on alkoxylated bisphenol A.
UP resin/fillers
(trade name1))
Layer
thickness
mm
Concentration Temperature
K (C)
potassium
hydroxide
%
Continuous
operation
resistance
Reference
UP resin BPA/mica
approx.
0.9
10
50
322 (49)
327 (54)
+
+
[289]
UP resin HET/mica
approx.
0.9
10 and 50
311 (38)
[289]

1) Trade name not binding
BPA = Bisphenol A type; HET = HET acid type; ISO-NPG = Isophthalic acid/neopentyl glycol type
Table 62: Resistance of UP coatings to potassium hydroxide solution

DOI: 10.1002/9783527610433

Table 62: Continued
UP resin/fillers
(trade name1))
UP resin ISO-NPG/mica
Layer
thickness
mm
approx.
0.9
K (C)
potassium
hydroxide
%
Continuous
operation
resistance
Reference
10 and 50
311 (38)
[289]
UP resin BPA/glass mats approx. 3

/synthetic fleece
10
50
322 (49)
311 (38)
+
+
[289]
UP resin BPA/glass
fabric/cover layer with
carbon fillers
(Ceilcote 2500 Ceilcrete)
approx. 4
10
50
322 (49)
333 (60)
+
+
[289]
UP resin ISO-NPG/glass
mats/C-glass fleece
(Oxydur UP 410)
approx. 3
10
50 % NaOH
293 (20)
293 (20)
+
+
[464]
b) Laminate coatings

BPA = Bisphenol A type; HET = HET acid type; ISO-NPG = Isophthalic acid/neopentyl glycol type
Table 62: Resistance of UP coatings to potassium hydroxide solution
EP coatings
EP coatings are distinguished by curing with almost no shrinking, and good mechanical properties. The chemical durability of the systems that cure at room temperature is above all good when aliphatic amines are utilized as hardener. EP coatings have only limited resistance to oxidizing substances.
The resistance of the EP coatings to potassium hydroxide solution depends
strongly on their composition and recipe. Here too the rule applies that the cover
layer should as far as possible contain fillers or fibers that are resistant to alkalis.
The specifications in Table 63 show that EP spray coatings can be resistant to potassium hydroxide solution 50 % up to approx. 333 K (60 C) and laminate coatings
up to approx. 343 K (70 C).

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Potassium Hydroxide
EP coatings
(trade name1))
Layer
thickness
mm
Test
Concentration
temperature
potassium
K (C)
hydroxide
%
Test
duration
Continuous
operation
resistance
Reference
EP resin/polyamine, low
solvent content
(Icosit 277)
max. 1
1 % NaOH
20 % NaOH
318 (45)
296 (23)
270 d
1 year
+
+
[450]
EP resin/polyamine/
flake filler
(Plasguard 4500), for
steel only
0.81.3
10
20 and 50
322 (49)
327 (54)
1 year
1 year
+
+
[452]
EP novolak resin/
polyamine/flake filler
(Plasguard 4550), only for
steel
0.81.3
10, 20 and 50
327 (54)
1 year
[452]
12.5
2 and 10
10
30 and 50
50
293 (20)
333 (60)
293 (20)
323 (50)
5 years
5 years
5 years
4 years
+
+
+
+
[465]
EP-EP resin/polyamine
adduct/glass mats/synthetic fleece
approx. 3
10 and 50
333 (60)
2)
[289]
EP resin/polyamine/glass
fabric/cover layer with
carbon fillers
(Ceilcote 505 Coroline)
approx. 4
10 and 50
344 (71)
2)
[289]
EP resin/polyamine/glass
mats/fleece
(Asplit 846 laminate)
approx. 3
50
293 (20)
333 (60)
333 (60)
2)
[466]
EP resin/polyamine
hot spray-applied coating
(Permacor 2807/HS-A)
b) Laminate coatings
up to 20
up to 50
+ = resistant; += conditionally resistant; = not resistant

2) Continuously resistant for years
Table 63: Resistance of EP coatings to potassium hydroxide solution

DOI: 10.1002/9783527610433
PUR coatings
PUR coatings have relatively good resistance to strong and weak alkalis, but they are
utilized only to a limited extent in permanent contact with such media and at temperatures above room temperature. The permeation coefficient for water vapor is
even for highly crosslinked PUR coatings several times as great as that for VE coatings [17], so that at higher temperatures rapid penetration of water into the coating
must be reckoned with.
PUR spray-applied coatings that have very short hardening times and permit
building of layers several millimeters thick in one pass, are also offered on the market. For such a PUR coating (trade name: Disbon 705 Polibrid), that is suitable for
steel and concrete components, resistance to continuous contact with NaOH solution < 30 % at 293 K (20 C) is reported. The coating is conditionally resistant to
NaOH solution of higher concentration (< 70 %) at 293 K (20 C) [467]. These data
are also applicable to potassium hydroxide solutions.
For another quick curing PUR coating (trade name: Icosit TS 687), that is utilized on steel components with a thickness of approx. 0.51 mm, the following data
were determined: Resistant to 1 % NaOH solution at 318 K (45 C) after 270 days
test duration, resistant to 20 % NaOH solution at 318 K (45 C) after 1 year [450].
Similar behavior is to be expected for exposure to potassium hydroxide solution.
FU coatings
FU coatings, that are mostly utilized in the form of glass fiber reinforced laminate
coatings, are distinguished by very good chemical durability, above all with respect
to many organic solvents (chlorinated hydrocarbons, among others), and high
thermal stability. However, the hard brittle character of the furan resins and the relatively large curing shrinkage restrict the possible applications to some extent. The
resistance of the furan resins to potassium hydroxide solution is good, but it is
impaired for the laminate coatings by the utilized glass reinforcement materials.
For an FU coating with two glass mats and one C-glass fleece (trade name:
Korroplast FU 511) resistance to 5 % potassium hydroxide solution up to 313 K
(40 C) and to 1020 % potassium hydroxide solution up to 293 K (20 C) is reported
[463].
Combination linings
The purpose of the combination linings is to withstand the hardest chemical, thermal and mechanical stress situations in chemical and other industrial plants. This
is achieved by combining a layer of plates or bricks embedded and joined in reaction
resin cements with an underlying sealing layer. The sealing layer is provided to prevent penetration of the medium into the component, to compensate mechanical
stress between the plate coating and the substrate, and to bridge over cracks in the
substrate. The lining of plates or bricks shields the sealing layer against the medium, reduces the temperature to which the component and the sealing layer are
DOI: 10.1002/9783527610433
147
148
Potassium Hydroxide
exposed and is able to take up very high mechanical loads. The layers structure of
combination linings is shown schematically in Figure 46. Combination linings have
also been standardized and are considered, for example, in the Standard DIN
28052-5 [443] and in the AGI work sheets S 10 parts 14 [444].
Figure 46:
Layers structure (schematic) of combination linings
Plates and bricks

Depending on the type of stressing medium, acid resistant ceramic plates and bricks
or plates/bricks made of carbon are utilized. The thickness of the plates is about
1540 mm, and the thickness of the bricks is about 6080 mm.
The resistance of the ceramic plates and bricks to potassium hydroxide solution
and other strong alkalis is limited, because they are attacked by the potassium hydroxide solution when in continuous contact therewith. This is made clear, for
example, by the determination of the solubility in strong alkalis according to DIN
51103 [468], whereby the granular plate or brick material is treated for 6 hours with
boiling 1 % NaOH solution and thereafter the dissolved fraction is determined. The
fraction soluble in strong alkalis determined for commercial acid resistant ceramic
materials (e.g. SF-grades from the company Steuler Industriewerke) determined by
this test method is approx. 1.73.5 % [469].
In [470] the following data are reported for ceramic plates and bricks: Resistant to
potassium hydroxide solution 10 % at 293 K (20 C) and conditionally resistant up
to 333 K (60 C); conditionally resistant to 2050 % potassium hydroxide solution up
to 303 K (30 C). For floor surfaces in process engineering plants ceramic plates or
bricks are often utilized also with exposure to potassium hydroxide solution, because
the exposure to potassium hydroxide solution is usually only for short times.
For continuous contact with strong alkalis carbon plates or carbon bricks made of
hard burned carbon or graphite, that are not impregnated with phenol resin, are
utilized. Materials impregnated with phenol resin have a lower porosity, but they are
only conditionally resistant or not resistant to strong alkalis because of the phenol
resin. The non-impregnated carbon plates and bricks are resistant to permanent
contact with potassium hydroxide solution 50 % up to approx. 423 K (150 C)
[470].

DOI: 10.1002/9783527610433
Putties
Among the reaction resin putties, the furan resin putties (FU putties) play a leading role
by virtue of their good chemical durability and high temperature resistance. In oxidizing
media vinyl ester resin putties (VE putties) or polyester resin putties (UP putties) are
preferred. Phenol resin putties (PF putties) are also widely utilized, whereas epoxy resin
putties (EP putties) are utilized under moderate chemical stress conditions. To a limited
extent plates and bricks are laid in bitumen. Waterglass putties are utilized when the
components have to be protected against concentrated acids.
The resistance of the putties to potassium hydroxide solution also depends on the
fillers, because these are present in large amounts. Fillers that are resistant to potassium hydroxide solution, such as graphite, petroleum coke or barium sulfate,
increase the durability, whereas for example quartz fillers decrease the durability.
From the data collected in Table 64 it is evident that FU putties with fillers based
on carbon have the highest resistance to potassium hydroxide solution (up to
approx. 403 K (130 C)). Broad resistance to alkalis is reported for the FU putties
also in the NACE publication on corrosion protection materials [454]. The good
resistance of several FU putties to alkalis (FU resins with and without furfural) was
also revealed by immersion tests in which cylindrical test bodies (diameter 20 mm,
height 20 mm) were stored for 42 days in 50 % NaOH solution at 353 K (80 C).
After this stress no loss of compressive strength and a mass change of 0.2 to 2 %
were found [471].
PF putties have slight resistance to potassium hydroxide solution [454] with the
exception PF putties containing furfural as modifier. The latter have good resistance
to alkalis when they have been further hardened with application of heat.
The resistance of the VE, UP and EP putties to potassium hydroxide solution
depends strongly on the recipe; continuous utilization temperatures of 333353 K
(6080 C) can be achieved. Bitumen putties are only conditionally resistant to potassium hydroxide solution of higher concentration, whereas waterglass putties are
strongly attacked already by dilute potassium hydroxide solution.
Putty ingredients
(trade name1))
K (C)
potassium
hydroxide
%
Continuous
operation
resistance
Reference
[466]
a) FU putties
FU resin/carbon fillers
(Asplit FN)
50
Kp

2) Test duration only 500 h
Kp: Boiling temperature of the potassium hydroxide solution
Table 64: Resistance of reaction resin cements to potassium hydroxide solution

DOI: 10.1002/9783527610433
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150
Potassium Hydroxide
Table 64: Continued
Putty ingredients
(trade name1))
K (C)
potassium
hydroxide
%
Continuous
operation
resistance
Reference
(Sauereisen Resin Mortar No. 21C)
50
Kp
[472]
(Keranol FU 320)
10
20
40
50
393 (120)
373 (100)
353 (80)
333 (60)
+
+
+
+
[470]
FU resin/mineral fillers
(Keranol FU 310)
10
2050
313 (40)
293 (20)
+
+
[470]
60
10 % NaOH
293 (20)
293 (20)
+
+
[473]
PF resin/fillers
(Asplit CV)
50
293 (20)
[466]
PF resin modified/carbon filler, after

hardening with heat application
(Asplit CN)
50
Kp
[466]
VE resin/mineral fillers
(Keranol VE 311)
5
10
2050
4050
353 (80)
313 (40)
293 (20)
313 (40)
+
+
+
+
[470]
VE resin/mineral fillers
(Asplit VEQ, VEC)
50
293 (20)
[466]
VE resin/quartz fillers
(Sauereisen Vinyl Ester Mortar
No. 400)
55
339 (66)
[472]
VE resin/carbon fillers
(Sauereisen Vinyl Ester Mortar
No. 400C)
55
355 (82)
[472]
FU resin without furfural/carbon

fillers
(Furadur F-Kitt)
b) PF putties
c) VE putties


DOI: 10.1002/9783527610433

Table 64: Continued
Putty ingredients
(trade name1))
K (C)
potassium
hydroxide
%
Continuous
operation
resistance
Reference
d) UP putties
UP resin/mineral fillers
(Keranol UP 311)
5
10
2050
4050
353 (80)
313 (40)
293 (20)
313 (40)
+
+
+
+
[470]
UP resin/carbon fillers
(Keranol UP 320)
10
20
40
50
353 (80)
333 (60)
323 (50)
313 (40)
+
+
+
+
[470]
UP resin/mineral fillers
(Furadur A, TM)
10 and 60
293 (20)
[474]
EP resin/polyamine/mineral fillers
(Keranol EP 310)
5
10
2050
4050
333 (60)
313 (40)
293 (20)
313 (40)
+
+
+
+
[470]
(Asplit ET)
up to 50
up to 20
up to 50
293 (20)
333 (60)
333 (60)
[466]
EP-novolak resin/polyamine/fillers
(Sauereisen Epoxy Novolak Mortar
No. 25, 25LT)
55
355 (82)
[472]
(Alkadur K 75)
10, 20 and 50
293 (20)
[475]
up to 50
293 (20)
+2)
[476, 477]
5
10
20
4050
333 (60)
313 (40)
303 (30)
303 (30)
+
+
+
+
[470]
e) EP putties
EP resin/mineral fillers
(PCI-Rigamuls Color, S 30)
f) Bitumen
Bitumen/mineral fillers
(Kerasolith V 80)


DOI: 10.1002/9783527610433
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152
Potassium Hydroxide
Table 64: Continued
Putty ingredients
(trade name1))
K (C)
potassium
hydroxide
%
Continuous
operation
resistance
Reference
[466]
g) Waterglass putties
Waterglass/mineral fillers
(Asplit HB, HES)
50
293 (20)

Sealing layers
Sealing layers consist of either coatings on the basis of the reaction resins described
above, or webs of thermoplastics or elastomers. The thickness of the sealing layers
is approx. 1.53 mm.
In the AGI work sheet S 10 Part 2 the following statements for orientation are
made with regard to the resistance of sealing layers to alkalis such as potassium
hydroxide solution: Coatings on the basis of VE, FU, EP and EP/special tar are resistant, whereas those based on UP, PF, PUR and PUR/special tar are conditionally
resistant. Elastomer webs consisting of IIR, CR, NBR and CSM as well as thermoplastic webs made of PIB and PVC-P are also resistant to alkalis [444].
From the durability specifications contained in the Table 65 it is evident that the
rubber and thermoplastic webs have greater resistance to potassium hydroxide solution than the flexible EP and PUR coatings and can be utilized up to approx. 353 K
(80 C). The hard glass fiber reinforced VE, UP and EP laminate coatings, shown in
the Tables 6063 can be utilized in contact with potassium hydroxide solution up to
approx. 333 K (60 C).
Coatings for water protection against pollution
Coatings for catch troughs, retention rooms and concrete surfaces in plants for storing, filling and transferring water polluting liquids require a general construction
supervisory approval in Germany from the Deutsches Institut fr Bautechnik
(DIBt), certifying permanent bridging of cracks as from a width of 0.1 mm and adequate durability with respect to the encountered water polluting liquids as well as
further required technical characteristics [69].
While for good chemical durability above all a high degree of crosslinking of the
reaction resin is necessary, requiring coatings having greater strength and smaller
rupture elongation, crack bridging is achieved with flexible layers that have a large
DOI: 10.1002/9783527610433
Sealing layer
(trade name1))
Layer
thickness
mm
K (C)
potassium
hydroxide
%
Continuous
operation
resistance
Reference
a) Coatings2)
23
5
1020
1020
313 (40)
293 (20)
313 (40)
+
+
+
[463]
EP resin/polyamine/
fillers
(PCI-Apoflex TF)
at least 2
20
boiling
[478]
PUR/mineral fillers
(Keracid PU 112)
5
1020
333 (60)
313 (40)
+
+
[463]
PUR, without filler

(Oxydur HT)
1020
50
323 (50)
323 (50)
+
+
[479]
1.5
55
366 (93)
[480]
CIIR/fillers
(Kerabutyl S)
23
550
353 (80)
[463]
CR/fillers
(Kerapren VB)
23
5
1050
353 (80)
333 (60)
+
+
[481]
CSM
(Kerapalon HE)
550
333 (60)
[481]
PIB/carbon fillers
(Rhepanol O.R.G)
approx. 2
10 and 50
353 (80)
[482]
PIB/mineral fillers
(Rhepanol O.R.E)
approx. 2
10 and 50
353 (80)
[482]
1.5
55
Kp
[480]
EP resin/special tar/
polyamine/mineral fillers
(Keracid ES 110)
PUR/asphalt
(Sauereisen Urethane
Membrane No. 87)
b) Rubber webs
c) Thermoplastic webs
PVF cover layer/

rubber-bitumen underlayer, glass fiber reinforced
(Sauereisen Sheet
Membrane No. 90)

2) For the durability of the laminate coatings, see Tables 6063
Table 65: Resistance of cover layers under plate linings against potassium hydroxide solution
DOI: 10.1002/9783527610433
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154
Potassium Hydroxide
rupture elongation. These contradictory requirements were initially fulfilled only by

coating systems consisting of a flexible crack bridging intermediate layer and a hard
highly crosslinked cover layer. The layers structure of such systems is shown schematically in Figure 47.
Figure 47:
Layers structure (schematic) of water protecting coatings with flexible intermediate
layer
Recently EP coatings with a thickness of approx. 2 mm have been developed that

in the simplest case consist of an EP primer and an EP cover layer with a tough
hard EP system that provides crack bridging as well as resistance to many water
polluting liquids (trade name: e.g. Keracid EP 122) [483].
Table 66 contains a selection of commercial water protecting coatings with general construction supervisory approval of the DIBt and data of their resistance to
potassium hydroxide solution as well as some other media considered to be relatively aggressive. The durability specifications still apply for a test duration of 42 days at
296 K (23 C) that have been reduced to 14 days in the recently revised approval conditions [69].
All coatings shown in Table 66 are resistant to potassium hydroxide solution 50 %,
but only some coatings are resistant to media of the particularly critical groups 6a (all
halogenated hydrocarbons), 9a (organic acids) or 15 (cyclic and acyclic ethers). The electrically conducting (anti-static) EP coatings Keracid EP 122, MC protection system
1900 and Sikafloor 390 AS, that in spite of their relatively thin layer thickness of
approx. 2 mm withstand many media groups, are remarkable [483485].
Water protection coating
(trade name1))
Resistance to media group2)

Potassium
hydroxide
solution
4a
Self-leveling coating, thickness 2 mm

(Keracid EP 122)

(Sikafloor 390 AS)
6a
9a
Reference
15
a) Epoxy resin systems

[483]
[484]
Table 66: Chemical durability (42 days/296 K (23 C)) of water protection coatings with general
construction supervisory approval of the DIBt
DOI: 10.1002/9783527610433

Table 66: Continued
Water protection coating
(trade name1))
Resistance to media group2)

6a
4a

(MC protection system 1900 charge
draining)
[485]
Self-leveling coating consisting of primer and top coat, thickness 3 mm

(Disboxid water protection system
antistatic new)
[486]
Laminate coating with cover layer,

thickness 4 mm
(Alkadur Laminate, electrically conducting)
[487]
Self-leveling coating with flexible

intermediate layer and sealing, thickness 5 mm
(Berosafe III)
[488]
9a
Reference
Potassium
hydroxide
solution
15
b) Polyurethane systems
(Oxydur UP 82 E-CLF)
[487]
c) Vinyl ester resin systems

Laminate coating with flexible intermediate layer, thickness 2.8 mm
(Keracid VE 520)
Laminate coating with cover layer,

thickness 3 mm
(Asplit VEL)
Laminate coating with compensating

and cover layer, thickness 3.7 mm
(Oxydur VE-Laminat A 93)
[483]
[489]
[487]
d) Furan resin systems

Laminate coating with flexible intermediate layer, thickness 3 mm
(Furadur Laminat A 93)
[487]

2) Media group: 4 = all hydrocarbons; 6a = all halogenated hydrocarbons; 7 = all organic esters and
ketones; 9a = organic acids; 15 = cyclic and acyclic ethers
Table 66: Chemical durability (42 days/296 K (23 C)) of water protection coatings with general
construction supervisory approval of the DIBt
DOI: 10.1002/9783527610433
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156
Potassium Hydroxide
Industrial floor coatings

Special requirements regarding mechanical load carrying capacity and wear resistance are often imposed on floor coatings for process engineering plants, whereas
their chemical resistance is of secondary importance.
For slight mechanical stress sealings or thin coating s with a thickness of < 1 mm
can be utilized; for moderate mechanical stress coatings with a thickness of approx.
15 mm are customary that consist, for example, of a primer and a cover layer (selfleveling or trowel-applied coating). For high mechanical stress combinations of reaction resin stone floor (thickness approx. 520 mm) and cover layers (thickness
approx. 36 mm) are utilized.
Combination floors with ceramic or stone tiles that have already been coated as
described above are also very durable and can withstand heavy mechanical loads.
The reaction resins utilized for industrial floor coatings are specified in the AGI
work sheet A 80 [490]. Apart from the dominating EP coatings, PUR coatings are
utilized too. Special PUR coatings are distinguished by particularly great hardness
as well as extended chemical and thermal durability (trade name: e.g. Ucrete).
PMMA coatings feature in particular processing capability at low temperatures, in
some cases down to 263 K (10 C). VE coatings are utilized when increased chemical durability, in particular against oxidizing media, is required.
Chiefly quartz fillers are utilized as fillers.
It must be taken into consideration that the durability specifications in Table 67
are for chemical exposure from time to time. EP coatings and hard PUR coatings
can be exposed to potassium hydroxide solution at temperatures up to 333353 K
(6080 C), whereas flexible PUR coatings can be utilized only up to approx. 313 K
(40 C). PMMA coatings are not recommended for contact with potassium hydroxide
solution at temperatures above room temperature. An upper limit utilization temperature of 313323 K (4050 C) is specified for VE coatings.
Industrial floor coating
(trade name1))
Concentration Temperature Resistance

K (C)
potassium
hydroxide
%
Reference
a) Sealings, thin coatings (thickness up to 1 mm)

EP sealing, emulsifiable with water
(Mastertop 1110)
EP sealing, can be emulsified with water
(MC-DUR 111 D)
20
293 (20)
[491]
550
boiling
[492]
+ = resistant; += conditionally resistant

RT = Room temperature
Table 67: Resistance of industrial floor coatings to potassium hydroxide solution

(for these durability specifications it must be taken into consideration that they are valid only for
exposure from time to time, usually for a few weeks)

DOI: 10.1002/9783527610433

Table 67: Continued
(trade name1))
EP rolling coating
(Disboxid 430)

K (C)
potassium
hydroxide
%
Reference
50
293 (20)
[493]
EP self-leveling coating
(Keraplan EP 113)
5
1020
4050
333 (60)
303 (30)
293 (20)
+
+
+
[470]
PUR sealing, single component, on EP

scratch trowel layer
(MC-DUR 2103 M)
5 20
50
RT
RT
+
+
[492]
5
20
50
RT
RT
RT
+
+
[492]
5
10
4050
333 (60)
313 (40)
293 (20)
+
+
+
[470]
10 and 50
356 (83)
[289]
50
293 (20)
[493]
(MC-DUR 1200, 1200 AS)
550
boiling
[492]
EP self-leveling or trowel-applied
coating
(Alkadur DFG, K 47, D, DF)
1050
293 (20)
[494]
10 and 45
293 (20)
[495]
10
296 (23)
[496]
PUR coating, two components,

elastified
(MC-DUR 2052, 2052 UV-B)
b) Thick coatings (thickness 28 mm)
(Keraplan EP 110)
EP self-leveling coating with 1 glass mat

(Ceilcote 682 Flooring)
EP self-leveling or scatter coating
(Disboxid 444)
(Rinol Standard)
PUR self-leveling coating
(PCI Pursol 2K)


DOI: 10.1002/9783527610433
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158
Potassium Hydroxide
Table 67: Continued
(trade name1))

K (C)
potassium
hydroxide
%
Reference
PUR self-leveling coating

(Keraplan PU 111)
5
10
4050
333 (60)
313 (40)
293 (20)
+
+
+
[470]
PUR mortar coating

(Rinol Crete heavy duty)
10
45
353 (80)
293 (20)
+
+
[495]
50
20 % NaOH
50 % NaOH
293 (20)
363 (90)
333 (60)
+
+
+
[497]
PMMA self-leveling coating with top

coat
(PCI Repaten 5)
10
296 (23)
[498]
PMMA self-leveling coating with top

coat
(Degadur 151, 152, 162)
10 % NaOH
20 % NaOH
293 (20)
293 (20)
+
+
[499]
VE trowel-applied coating
(Ceilcote 167 Corocrete)
10
50
322 (49)
327 (54)
+
+
[289]
VE broad-cast coating
(Ceilcote 163 Corocrete)
10
50
322 (49)
327 (54)
+
+
[289]
10 and 45
293 (20)
[495]
EP stone floor with sealing

(Kerakret EP 231)
5
10
4050
333 (60)
313 (40)
293 (20)
+
+
+
[470]
EP stone floor with sealing

(Ceilcote T Corocrete)
10 and 50
333 (60)
[289]
10
296 (23)
[500]
PUR mortar coating

(Ucrete MF, 100 HF, DU 200, HPQ)
VE coating
(Rinol Vinylester)
c) Stone floor coatings (thickness > 6 mm)
PMMA stone floor

(PCI Repaplan)


DOI: 10.1002/9783527610433
Expansion gaps cannot be avoided completely in the floor coatings and combination floor coverings with plates or tiles for compensating structural movements of
the building. Details for the technical design of expansion gaps are described in the
AGI Work Sheets of the S-series [444]. Expansion gap compounds or sealants that
are characterized by high deformability are utilized for filling expansion gaps.
However, the chemical durability of the expansion gap compounds is limited. The
AGI Work Sheet S 10 Part 4 contains the results of a ring test of the durability of
expansion gap compounds on the basis of polysulfide, silicone and polyurethane/
tar. As test media 25 % and 50 % NaOH solution were utilized as representative for
strong alkalis such as potassium hydroxide solution. The specified expansion gap
compounds were found to be resistant at 296 K (23 C) with 72 hours exposure time
[444]. However, attack must be reckoned with for longer exposure times.
Organic linings
Rubber linings
Rubber linings are linings with rubber webs or elastomer webs that are bonded to
the steel or concrete parts over their entire surface area with adhesives. The layer
thickness of the rubber webs is approx. 35 mm. For special stress situations, e.g.
exposure to abrasive media, several rubber webs are bonded on top of each other to
give a total thickness that can be greater than 8 mm.
An important application field is constituted by absorbers, pipelines and storage
containers made of steel in flue gas desulphurization plants in which the rubber
linings must withstand aqueous suspensions of limestone and gypsum containing
SO2, HCl and NOx at temperatures of up to 343 K (70 C) [501, 502]. Further applications are concerned with the corrosion protection of containers, pipes, reactors,
basins or channels made of steel or concrete in chemical plants or in sewage water
processing plants, as well as rubber linings in boiler vehicles, tank vehicles or tank
ships, in which chemicals are transported [503].
Corrosion protection with rubber linings in process engineering plants is described
for concrete components in the standard DIN 28052 (Parts 1, 2, 4 and 6) [443] and
for steel components in the standards DIN 28051 [445], DIN 28053 [446] and DIN
28055 (Parts 1 and 2) [504]. For rubber linings in steel containers for storing water
polluting noncombustible liquids, a general construction supervisory approval from
the DIBt is required in Germany [50].
The layers structure of rubber linings is shown schematically in Figure 48. On
top of the primer follow several layers of adhesive, whereby the adhesive is usually
applied to the rubber web as well as to the substrate.
The rubber webs can consist of a single layer or of several different layers, for
example two layer webs consisting of a chemically resistant main layer and an easily
bonded lower layer are often utilized in practice.
Factory rubber linings are applied to steel components that are transportable and
do not exceed a certain maximum size. It is of advantage to utilize non-vulcanized
easily processed rubber webs for this purpose.
DOI: 10.1002/9783527610433
159
160
Potassium Hydroxide
Figure 48:
Layers structure (schematic) of rubber linings
Construction site rubber linings are applied to very large steel components and
concrete parts on the construction site [505].
Hard rubber linings
Hard rubber linings are highly crosslinked polymer materials with thermosetting
plastic character and no rubber elastic properties at all. The chief rubber for hard
rubber linings is NR, that is often utilized in combination with IR or SBR. The great
hardness and strength are achieved with a relatively large dosage of sulfur (2050
parts/100 parts rubber). Hard rubber linings feature broad chemical durability, e.g.
with respect to acids, alkalis, salt solutions and organic solvents, but their resistance
to oxidizing substances is limited.
The resistance of hard rubber linings to potassium hydroxide solution is generally
considered to be good. From the durability specifications in Table 68 it is evident
that factory rubber linings are resistant to potassium hydroxide solution 50 % up
to about 373 K (100 C), whereas hard rubber linings applied to components on the
construction site by vulcanization with hot water or superheated steam are resistant
to potassium hydroxide solution up to about 333353 K (6080 C). Semi-hard NR
rubber linings that have a hardness of about 50 Shore D are resistant to potassium
hydroxide solution up to about 338 K (65 C).
Chemical basis and hardness of the
hard rubber lining
(trade name1))
K (C)
potassium
hydroxide
%
Continuous
operation
resistance
Reference
+
+
[506]
a) Plant rubber linings

NR, 75 Shore D
(Vulkodurit D3)
550
550
353 (80)
373 (100)
+ = resistant ; + = conditionally resistant

Table 68: Resistance of hard rubber linings to potassium hydroxide solution

DOI: 10.1002/9783527610433

Table 68: Continued
Chemical basis and hardness of the
hard rubber lining
(trade name1))
NR, 75 Shore D
(Vulkodurit D3LF)
K (C)
potassium
hydroxide
%
Continuous
operation
resistance
Reference
550
373 (100)
[506]
NR, 80 Shore D
(Chemonit 3B, 30 and 31)
20, 40 and 80
353 (80)
[507]
NR, 80 and 78 Shore D

(Vulcoferran 2103)
2, 20 and 40
353 (80)
[508]
550
363 (90)
[506]
NR, semi-hard, approx. 50 Shore D
saturated
solution
338 (65)
[454]
NR, hard and semi-hard
25
saturated
solution
366 (93)
338 (65)
+
+
[405]
NR/SBR, 75 Shore D
(Kerabonit HW)
550
333 (60)
[481]
NR, 80 Shore D
(Chemonit 31 HW)
20, 40 and 80
353 (80)
[507]
NR/SBR, 78 Shore D
(Vulcoferran 2194)
2, 20 and 40
353 (80)
[508]
NR/SBR, 75 Shore D
(Vulkodurit 1250)
b) Construction site rubber linings
+ = resistant; + = conditionally resistant

Table 68: Resistance of hard rubber linings to potassium hydroxide solution
Soft rubber linings

For the soft rubber linings the preferred rubber is IIR including the halogenated
variants CIIR and BIIR, because these rubbers feature low permeability for water
vapor, oxygen, sulfur dioxide and other low molecular weight compounds, and
broad chemical durability, e.g. with respect to acids, alkalis and salt solutions as well
as very good weathering and aging resistance. In combination with PVC special
resistance to oxidizing acids such as chromic acid is achieved.
Apart from factory rubber linings, soft rubber linings are also carried out on a large
scale on construction sites, whereby rubber webs pre-vulcanized in the factory as
well as cold vulcanizing rubber webs are utilized. The cold or self-vulcanizing rubber
DOI: 10.1002/9783527610433
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162
Potassium Hydroxide
webs, that can be manufactured only with certain rubbers (e.g. with BIIR or CR),
are vulcanized on the construction site with hot air, hot water or steam within a few
days to weeks.
The resistance of the soft rubber linings to potassium hydroxide solution depends
on the type of rubber. The durability data contained in Table 69 show that soft rubber linings on the basis of the butyl rubbers IIR, CIIR and BIIR achieve the highest
continuous utilization temperaturesof 353373 K (80100 C) in contact with potassium hydroxide solutions 50 %. Then follow the soft rubber linings on the basis of
CSM and CR with a maximum application temperature of about 333353 K
(6080 C). The soft rubber linings on the basis of NR can be utilized in contact with
potassium hydroxide solution up to about 313333 K (4060 C).
Chemical basis/hardness of the soft
rubber lining
(trade name1))
K (C)
potassium
hydroxide
%
Continuous
operation
resistance
Reference
a) Factory rubber linings

IIR, 60 Shore A
(Vulkodurit W 50)
550
373 (100)
[506]
IIR, 55 Shore A
(Vulkodurit 1755)
5- 20
4050
383 (110)
373 (100)
+
+
[506]
25
358 (85)
[405]
IIR/PVC, 55 Shore A
(Vulkodurit WB3)
550
343 (70)
[506]
BIIR, 65 Shore A
(Vulcoferran 2201)
2, 20 and 40
353 (80)
[508]
10 and 25
50
363 (90)
363 (90)
+
+
[507]
BIIR, 57 Shore A
(Vulkodurit 1560)
550
550
353 (80)
373 (100)
+
+
[506]
CSM, 85 Shore A
(Vulkodurit 1691-75)
550
333 (60)
[506]
2, 20 and 40
353 (80)
[508]
10 and 25
50
363 (90)
363 (90)
[507]
IIR
BIIR, 50 Shore A
(Chemoline 4A)
CSM, 85 Shore A
(Vulcoferran 2512)
CR, 55 Shore A
(Chemoline 3 A)
+ = resistant ; + = conditionally resistant; = not resistant

1) trade names not binding
Table 69: Resistance of soft rubber linings to potassium hydroxide solution

DOI: 10.1002/9783527610433

Table 69: Continued
Chemical basis/hardness of the soft
rubber lining
(trade name1))
CR, 70 Shore A
(Vulkodurit 1869)
CR (Basis Neoprene)
NR, 55 Shore A
(Vulkodurit W2)
K (C)
potassium
hydroxide
%
Continuous
operation
resistance
Reference
550
333 (60)
[506]
25
saturated
solution
377 (104)
377 (104)
+
+
[405]
550
313 (40)
[506]
b) Construction site rubber linings with pre-vulcanized webs

CIIR, 60 Shore A, two-layer web
(Kerabutyl V)
550
373 (100)
[481]
CIIR, 58 Shore A
(Kerabutyl BS)
550
353 (80)
[481]
CIIR/PVC, 55 Shore A
(Kerabutyl VC)
550
333 (60)
[481]
CSM, 60 Shore A
(Kerapalon HE)
550
333 (60)
[481]
c) Construction site rubber linings with cold vulcanizing webs

2, 20 and 40
353 (80)
[508]
BIIR, 50 Shore A
(Chemoline 4B)
10 and 25
50
363 (90)
363 (90)
+
+
[507]
BIIR/CR, 50 Shore A
(Chemoline 5B)
10 and 25
50
363 (90)
363 (90)
[507]
CR, 55 Shore A
(Chemoline 3B)
10 and 25
50
363 (90)
363 (90)
[507]
2, 20 and 40
353 (80)
[508]
5
1050
353 (80)
333 (60)
+
+
[481]
BIIR, 60 Shore A
(Vulcoferran 2206)
CR, 65 Shore A
(Vulcoferran 2503)
CR, 60 Shore A
(Kerapren VB)

1) trade names not binding
Table 69: Resistance of soft rubber linings to potassium hydroxide solution

DOI: 10.1002/9783527610433
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164
Potassium Hydroxide
For exposure to dilute potassium hydroxide solution at higher temperature the

permeability of the rubber linings for water vapor becomes increasingly significant.
From the permeation coefficient of several rubber webs having various compositions, shown in Table 70, it is seen that the soft rubber webs No. 1 to No. 4 on the
basis of butyl rubbers have permeation coefficients smaller by a factor of 7 to 9 than
the permeation coefficient of the CR soft rubber web No. 5. Soft rubber webs based
on NR have similarly high permeabilities like the CR webs. In contrast thereto the
NR hard rubber web No. 6 features comparatively low permeability like the butyl
rubber webs, by virtue of the high cross linking density [17]. Many years of practical
experience, for example in flue gas desulphurization plants, have shown that rubber
linings based on IIR, CIIR and BIIR achieve considerably longer service lives by
virtue of their low permeability than CR or NR soft rubber linings [501].
No.
Rubber basis
Filler
fraction
%
Hardness
Permeation coefficient1)
1013x cm3(STP)/cm s Pa ng/cm h Torr Perm inch
IIR
38
50 Shore A
137
5.3
0.00076
IIR
44
55 Shore A
119
4.6
0.00066
BIIR
44
60 Shore A
111
4.3
0.00062
BIIR
50
65 Shore A
143
5.5
0.00079
CR
53
70 Shore A
975
37.6
0.0054
NR
(hard rubber)
21
75 Shore D
135
5.2
0.00075
STP = Standard Temperature and Pressure

11
3
3
1) Conversion: 3.857 10 P in (cm (STP)/cm s Pa) = P in (ng/cm h Torr) = 6.960 10 P in (Perm
inch)
Table 70: Permeation coefficient of vulcanized rubber webs for water vapor at 343 K (70 C) [17]
Rubber linings in steel containers for stationary plants for storing, filling and
transferring water polluting substances require a general construction supervisory
approval of the Deutsches Institut fr Bautechnik (DIBt) in Germany, in which the
permanent suitability of the rubber lining is certified [50]. According to the approval
principles for such rubber linings, resistance to alkalis must be verified by a test
with 50 % NaOH solution as test liquid at 313 K (40 C), that then covers the resistance to potassium hydroxide solution 50 % and to other alkalis. If the operating
temperature is higher than 313 K (40 C) the test must be carried out at this higher
temperature. From the durability specifications in the Tables 68 and 69 it is evident
that a durability test at 313 K (40 C) is passed by hard rubber linings as well as by
numerous soft rubber linings without any problems. This is also confirmed by the
relatively large number of rubber linings offered on the market that have a general
construction supervisory approval from the DIBt.

DOI: 10.1002/9783527610433
Linings with thermoplastic webs

Concrete components
In the standard DIN 28052-4 [443] and in the approval principles of the DIBt for
plastic webs in plants utilized for storing, filling and transferring water polluting
substances [49], a distinction is made between thermoplastics that are full area
bonded to the concrete substrate, mechanically anchored in the concrete substrate
or loose on the concrete substrate.
The full area bonded thermoplastic webs include primarily 1.53 mm thick webs
on the basis of PIB and PVC-P. For PIB linings (trade name: For example
Rhepanol) resistance to potassium hydroxide solution 50 % up to 353 K (80 C)
is reported [482], whereas PVC-P linings (trade name: For example Chemoplast
CN or Koroseal) is resistant to 10 % potassium hydroxide solution up to 323338 K
(5065 C) and can be utilized in contact with 35 % potassium hydroxide solution up
to 293303 K (2030 C) [509, 510].
As thermoplastics PE-HD, PVC-U, PP-H and PVDF are utilized with a thickness
of at least 3 mm, whereby PE-HD is utilized particularly widely. The durability of
the mechanically anchored linings (trade name: For example Bekaplast) essentially
corresponds to the specifications made in Section C under Thermoplastics:
PE-HD, PP and PVC-U are resistant to potassium hydroxide solution 50 % up to
about 333 K (60 C), whereas utilization of PVDF is not recommendable because of
the risk of stress corrosion cracking. Typical applications are, for example, storage
containers in the chemical industry and communal sewage plants, sewage channels
and pipes, shaft constructions and electrolysis cells for producing zinc, copper and
cobalt. The same durability specifications are valid in principle for loose thermoplastic linings that are utilized, for example, for sealing concrete surfaces of storage
facilities for water polluting substances.
Steel components
For linings of steel components, a distinction is made according to DIN 28055-1
[504] between full surface area bonded thermoplastic webs and loose jacket linings.
Thereby a thickness of at least 3 mm should be planned.
The full surface area bonding thermoplastic webs have on their rear side a fabric
of glass or synthetic fibers, a fabric/elastomer layer or an etched layer to ensure
good bonding capability. After bonding the thermoplastic webs are welded together
at the seams.
In the case of high chemical stress, primarily the fluorothermoplastics PTFE (modified), PFA, MFA, FEP, ECTFE, ETFE, and PVDF are utilized. Their resistance to
potassium hydroxide solutions has already been described in section C under
Fluorothermoplastics. However, the limited thermal stress capability of the bonding joint limits the utilizability of these linings. Thus, for example for ECTFE linings exposed to potassium hydroxide solution 50 %, resistance up to 343 K (70 C)

DOI: 10.1002/9783527610433
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166
Potassium Hydroxide
maximum is reported [511]. PVDF linings are not recommended for exposure to
potassium hydroxide solution because of the risk of stress corrosion cracking.
Table 71 contains a price survey of some fluorothermoplastics as inner lining
materials. The specifications are valid for plate material without fabric lining on the
rear side. The relationships for plates with fabric lining that establishes the connection to the glass fiber reinforced plastic laminate are similar [512].
Fluorothermoplastic inner lining Price for plate material
relative price unit/kg
PVDF
ECTFE
1.25
FEP
2.5
MFA
PFA
3.5
Table 71: Price survey for fluorothermoplastic plate material [512]
The PVC-P linings already mentioned for concrete components are also utilized
for steel components and are resistant to 10 % potassium hydroxide solution up to
323338 K (5065 C) as well as to 35 % potassium hydroxide solution up to
293303 K (2030 C) [509, 510].
Apart from the full surface area bonded fluorothermoplastic webs, that have maximum operating temperatures of 393 K (120 C) because of the limited thermal
stress tolerance of the bonded joint or the adhesive, since a long time loose jacket
linings with fluorothermoplastics are utilized too. The flanges of the containers and
pipe parts usually serve as fixing points for the loose jacket lining. An important
aspect is the back aeration of the lining. By appropriate constructional measures it is
ensured that the small amounts of gases and vapors permeating through the fluorothermoplastic lining do not condense between the steel sheath and the lining and
cause corrosion, but are discharged to the exterior [513, 514].
PTFE and modified PTFE have by virtue of their outstanding properties attained
special importance for loose jacket linings. Examples of applications are for columns, absorbers and reactors that are operated at temperatures up to approx. 473 K
(200 C) [515]. For 4 mm thick linings (trade name: Licuflon) resistance to potassium hydroxide solution of any concentration is reported for a temperature range
from room temperature to approx. 473 K (200 C) [516].
With paste extruded PTFE, linings are carried out with a thickness of up to 8 mm
(trade name: Polyfluron-PTFE) that can also be operated at temperatures of up to
about 473 K (200 C) [517]. With such thick linings measures for rear venting are in
most cases unnecessary.
For exposure to dilute potassium hydroxide solution at high temperatures, apart
from the chemical durability it is also necessary to take the permeation of water
vapor into consideration. As has already been pointed out, a high water vapor perCorrosion Handbook Online
DOI: 10.1002/9783527610433
D 2 Seals and packings
meability is disadvantageous because of the risk of corrosion of the steel surface.

Figure 49 shows the relative permeation rates of several fluorothermoplastics for
water vapor at 373 K (100 C) [517]. The lowest permeability by far and thus the
most favorable behavior is shown by paste extruded PTFE, whereas PFA, FEP and
in particular PVDF are permeable for water vapor.
Figure 49:
Relative permeation rates of fluorothermoplastics for water vapor at 373 K (100 C)
[517]
D 2 Seals and packings
Metallic materials
A very wide range of different materials is utilized for seals and packings. Information regarding their behavior on exposure to potassium hydroxide solution is contained in the corresponding chapters.

DOI: 10.1002/9783527610433
167

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134

Materials with special properties

Metallic coatings and films

D 1 Coatings and films

32 nm was investigated with reference to potentiodynamic polarization curves in

Organic coatings and linings

The corrosion protection of concrete components in process engineering plants is

Thin coatings with a layer thickness of about 0.20.4 mm

Coating structure (schematic) of thin coatings

Corrosion Handbook Online

D 1 Coatings and films

Corrosion Handbook Online

Phenol resin/EP resin

b) Hot hardening coatings

+ = resistant; = not resistant

Corrosion Handbook Online

D 1 Coatings and films

material content of 70 % are considered to be suitable corrosion protection

Example of the layer structure (schematic) of fluorothermoplastic powder coatings

Fluorothermoplastic coatings feature extremely broad chemical durability, high

Corrosion Handbook Online

Concentration Temperature Continuous Reference

+ = resistant; + = conditionally resistant

Table 59: Resistance of fluorothermoplastic powder coatings to potassium hydroxide solution

Reaction resin coatings

Corrosion Handbook Online

D 1 Coatings and films

Layer structure (schematic) of spray coatings

Layer structure (schematic) of trowel coatings

Layer structure (schematic) of laminate coatings

Corrosion Handbook Online

Concentration Temperature Continuous Reference

VE resin NOV/flake glass

+ = resistant; + = conditionally resistant; = not resistant

D 1 Coatings and films

Concentration Temperature Continuous Reference

VE resin BPA/flake glass

VE resin NOV/glass mats/

VE resin BPA/glass mats/

+ = resistant; + = conditionally resistant; = not resistant

VE coating without barrier fillers

STP = Standard Temperature and Pressure

+ = resistant; = not resistant

Table 62: Resistance of UP coatings to potassium hydroxide solution

D 1 Coatings and films

UP resin BPA/glass mats approx. 3

+ = resistant; = not resistant

Table 62: Resistance of UP coatings to potassium hydroxide solution

Corrosion Handbook Online

+ = resistant; += conditionally resistant; = not resistant

Table 63: Resistance of EP coatings to potassium hydroxide solution

Corrosion Handbook Online

D 1 Coatings and films

Layers structure (schematic) of combination linings

Plates and bricks

Corrosion Handbook Online

D 1 Coatings and films

+ = resistant; + = conditionally resistant; = not resistant

Table 64: Resistance of reaction resin cements to potassium hydroxide solution

Corrosion Handbook Online

PF resin modified/carbon filler, after

FU resin without furfural/carbon

+ = resistant; + = conditionally resistant; = not resistant