Nervous System

Sensing and relaying information

receives stimuli from receptros (sense organs), transmits information to effectors
(muscles, glands)
storing information
central nervous system (CNS) consists of brain and spinal cord
peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes all nervous tissues outside CNS
construction
basic unit is neuron (nerve cell)
nerve cell body (perikaryon)
cell nucleus + cytoplasm
groups of cell bodies are called:
ganglion if outside CNS
dendrites = receptive part
one or many per cell for receiving signals
axon = conductive part
usually one per cell to send signal
groups of nerve fibers together
protected by sheets of myelin
arises from neuroglial cells that wrap axons in fatty sheaths
neuroglia are non-signaling cells that support, nourish, and insulate neurons
myelin insulates axons from being triggered by nearby neurons, also increases
speed of signal transmission
space between neurological cells of myelin sheath = nodes of ranvier
nerve signal jumps along axon from node to node to increase speed of
transmission
synapse = space between axon of one neuron and dendrite of another
neurons are not actually in physical contact
neurotransmitters are used to perpetuate signal
signaling
nerve impulse is transmitted as wave of depolarization
resting nerve = polarized
high levels of sodium ions (Na+) outside neuron, result of active pumping
low levels inside, resulting in electric potential ~60mV across cell
membrane
stimulated nerve = depolarized
na+ rushes into cell, spreads along axon as wave
chemical neurotransmitters released into synapse from axon
bind to receptor on membrane of dendrite or muscle (effector)
generates an impulse in postynaptic cell to continue signal
neurotransmitters create alternating pattern of electrical and chemical signaling,
promotes summation of information

common transmitters include: acetylcholine, noradrenalin, dopamine (brain only),

serotonin (brain only)
development
neural tube forms from ectoderm tissue induced by developing notochord
enlargement of tube at anterior end, which becomes brain
PNS mostly develops from neural crest cells
if nerve cell body lies away from CNS = neural crest origin
includes all sensory neurons, postganglionic fibers of autonomic nervous
system
amphioxus
very little enlargement of nervous tissues
pigment spot at anterior end
collection of photoreceptors in floor of CNS that respond to light entering through
integument
tunicate larvae
enlarged region where ocellus and otolith are brain
craniates
three part brain (initially) often developing into five part brain
all have neural crest cell contributions
hagfish and lamprey
three part brain only
fish
complex brain
forebrain = olfaction + cerebrum
large optic lobes
receive and integrated complicated visual stimuli
reptiles
cerebrum much larger than in amphibians
part of roof of cerebrum (dorsal pallium) gives rise to neopallium
neopallium gives rise to cerebral cortex in mammals
brain evolution
cerebral hemispheres are very large due to expansion of neopallium
region
neocortex=cerebral cortex, composed of gray matter (non-myelated
tissue)
surface is smooth in some (primitive) but convoluted in many with ridges
and grooves
cerebral cortex became dominant integrating center for stimuli and coordination
plus learning
nervous system
how it works
reflex arcs
involve as few as two or three neurons

sensory neuron
(interneuron or accessory neuron)
motor neuron

reflex arc
nerve impulse is carried from sensory neuron to the spinal cord (one looong cell)
sensory nerve cell body lies in dorsal root of ganglion (group of cell bodies
outside CNS)
synapse with interneuron and then with motor neuron in spinal cord (or just motor
neuron)
impulse is carried by axon leaving ventral root to effector
usually other neurons also involved (signal sent to brain)
autonomic nervous system (ANS)
visceral sensory and motor neurons
motor neurons to the glands, smooth muscles, and cardiac muscles
differences from somatic motor system:
always another synapse outside nerve chord
axon of ANS cell from within CNS
synapse with motor neuron outside CNS which innervates effector
synapses occur in the ganglia
one axon leaves the CNS and terminates in the ganglion or wall of
visceral organ = pre-synaptic fiber (pre-ganglionic)
second axon leaves the ganglion of necessary and terminates at the
effector = post-synaptic fiber (post ganglionic)
hs dual innervations: two antagonistic systems (most organs innervated by both)
one system stiumaltes effector (sympathetic)
other inhibits effector (parasympathetic)
sympathetic system
fight or flight
raises heart rate + respiratory rate
vasoconstriction of some peripheral blood vessels
arrector pilli muscles contract
gut peristalsis stops
andregenic = neurotransmitters released are noradrenaline
preganglionic fibers are short, postganglionic are long
parasympathetic
rest and repair
slows heart rate
stimulates digestion
reduces blood pressure
cholinergic = neurotransmitter released is acetylcholine
preganglionic fibers are long, post are short