IEEE PES General Meeting, July 2012

Modeling and Stability Analysis of Distributed

Generation
Ehsan Nasr Azadani, Student Member, Claudio Canizares, Fellow, IEEE, Kankar Bhattacharya, Senior
Member, IEEE

Abstract There are many technical aspects and challenges at

DG that are still not properly understood and addressed. Since
most of these studies have to be carried out based on simulations,
adequate static and dynamic models for DG units are required.
The objective of this paper is the dynamic and static modeling of
various DG technologies for stability analysis. These models
allow studying systems with DGs both in the long- and shortterm; thus, differential and algebraic equations of various DGs
are formulated and discussed in order to integrate the models
into a system model. The presented and discussed models are
generally based on well-known dynamic models of different DGs
for stability studies considering the dynamics of the primary
governor, generators and their interfaces and controls. The
results of applying these models for voltage and angle stability
studies of a realistic distribution system are presented and
compared, demonstrating the typical application of the presented
units.
Index Terms Modeling, distributed generation, voltage
stability, angle stability.

I. INTRODUCTION

he demand for energy is expected to increase due to a

variety of reasons. Such significant increase will lead to
local and regional environmental issues; therefore,
international movements are pushing for the utilization of
green energy sources instead of fossil fuels. One of the
consequences of competitive electricity markets, and of
international commitments to green energy (e.g., Kyoto
Protocol), is the fast development and increase in the amount
of decentralized or distributed generation (DG).
Currently, DG penetration can be considered to be relatively
low, and this has led to existing standards requiring that DGs
should not participate in voltage and frequency control, thus
tripping during voltage and frequency transients to reconnect
later when normal operating conditions are restored [1].
However, DG penetration is certainly increasing and is
expected to attain levels that would likely impact the system
operation and performance. Hence, studies are starting to
concentrate on analyzing the cumulative effect of more DGs
on the power network, at the local and global system levels. In
this context, there are many issues that are not yet well
The authors are with the Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering the University of Waterloo, Waterloo, N2L 3G1, Canada.
This work is supported by ABB Corporate Research USA and MITACS
Canada.

understood [2].
Although DG may have some benefits for the system such
as improvements in power quality and system efficiency, there
are many technical aspects and challenges that are still to be
properly understood and addressed. For example, there is a
lack of suitable control strategies for networks with significant
penetration of DG, while considering the interactions between
the transmission and distributions systems. Since most of these
studies have to be carried out based on simulations, adequate
static and dynamic models for DG units and related interfaces
and controls are required. These models should meet certain
requirements to allow investigating relevant system stability
and control issues, from both local and global system
perspectives.
DG has been studied from the local/micro-grid point of
view or the overall/global system point of view, since as the
level of penetration increases, the impact of DG is no longer
restricted to the local load or distribution network where these
units are connected, but may also have an impact on the
transmission system [3]. Thus, large DG penetration has been
studied with respect to system control and stability in, for
example, [4], [5] and [6]; however, these studies do not fully
consider the various kinds of DGs, and mainly concentrate on
studying stability and control issues from mainly the
transmission system point of view. Thus, in [4] and [6], the
impacts of DG penetration levels on power system transient
stability are studied for different scenarios, and in [5], the
impact of selected DG units, i.e. fuel cells (FCs) and micro
turbines (MTs), on power system stability for various
penetration levels are investigated. On the other hand, some
studies have concentrated on the effect of DG units on the
distribution network [7]-[10]. For example, in [10], the
stability analysis of a distribution network with selected DG
units, i.e. wind generators, and MTs, is presented.
The present paper concentrates on studying both static and
dynamic DG models for voltage, and angle stability studies.
Different types of DG technologies including small wind
turbines, photovoltaic arrays, FCs, MTs, and conventional
diesel generators are modeled. In these models, both transient
and slow dynamics are taken into account. Based on these
models, voltage, angle, and transient stability studies are
carried out. Voltage stability studies are performed based on
P-V curves; small perturbation stability studies are carried out
based on eigenvalue analyses of the linearized system models;
and transient stability studies are performed based on time

2
domain simulations to study contingencies.
The rest of the paper is structured as follows: Section II
presents and discusses the dynamic and static DG models in
detail. In Section III, numerical results for a realistic
distribution system are presented and discussed. Finally, the
main conclusions of the paper are highlighted in Section IV.

1
f s +1

Ka
ss + 1

1
ecr s + 1

Kf

II. MODELING OF DG
There are two approaches for modeling DG units in power
system studies: by connection type and by DG type. The first
consists on developing generic models based on how the
generator of the DG unit is connected to the network, i.e.
direct or indirect grid connection. The second consists on the
development of more complete models that represent in detail
the different parts of a DG unit, considering its primary energy
source, generation unit, grid connection and controls; this is
the approach used here.
In general, for direct grid connected DG units, the prime
mover driving an ac synchronous or induction generator is
assumed to operate at a constant speed. On the other hand, DG
units based on dc generation such as photovoltaic generators
and FCs, or high frequency and variable frequency ac
generators, require a converter for indirect connection to the
grid. Depending on the connection type, the DG system,
interface and controls are represented using various types of
lumped models [7], [8]. For example, in [8], the electromechanical dynamics of a synchronous generator are used to
model a direct grid connected DG, whereas the dynamics of
the voltagesourced converter (VSC) are used to represent an
indirect grid connected DG. In the present paper, the models
of DG have been also developed, based on the DGs primary
energy source, generator, and connection to the network.
In this section, the dynamic models of different DGs are
presented. Differential and algebraic equations of various DGs
are formulated and discussed in order to integrate the models
into a system model. These models generally are based on
well-known dynamic models of different DGs for stability
studies.
A. Micro Turbine Generator
The MT model presented in this paper is based on the gas
turbine model in [11], which has been successfully adopted for
MT modeling by several authors [12], [13], and validated by
tests [14]. The MT model contains three main components: the
compressor, the combustor, and the turbine, in addition to the
electrical generator. The dynamic model of the MTs is based
on the dynamics of these components.
In the case of diesel generator and MT, these units can be
modeled using standard ac generator machines. Thus, the
synchronous machine is modeled using a sixth order model. In
addition, the excitation system is modeled based on an AVR
IEEE Type II model [15]. The compressor turbine is at the
heart of the MT. When the input to the compressor changes,
the output cannot change instantaneously; since, the
compressor is a dynamic device with a time constant
associated with the compressor discharge volume. There is
also a small time constant
associated with the

fmt
e

1
cd s + 1

Fig. 1. Block diagram of the MT model.

K w ( x + 1)
ys + Z

ref

Pm

e
Fig. 2: Speed controller of MT.

combustion reaction. The fuel system consists of the fuel

valve positioner and fuel system actuator. The fuel flow
dynamics is dominated by the inertia of the fuel system
actuator and the valve positioned. The valve positioner and
fuel system actuator are modeled using first order transfer
functions.
Based on these models, Fig. 1 depicts the complete block
diagram of the MT model proposed here. The parameters ,
,
and
are associated with the time constants of the
valve positioner, the fuel system, the combustor, and the
compressor discharge value, respectively. Here,
represents the minimum fuel flow, and
and
are fuel
system feedback and valve positioner gain. The function of
yield the shaft torque, and is defined by:
= 1.3 (

0.23) + 0.5 (1

(1)

where
is the electrical rotor speed.
The speed control is incorporated into the MT model as
illustrated in Fig. 2. This controller can operate in droop mode
or isochronous mode; the constant Z in the speed controller
represents the governor mode (droop mode for Z = 1, or
isochronous mode for Z = 0). In the droop mode, the output of
the governor is proportional to the speed error which is
associated with a straight proportional speed controller. In the
isochronous mode, the rate of change of the output is
proportional to the speed error associated with a PI controller.
The speed of the generator remains constant regardless of the

3
and
represent
changing in load. The parameters
governor lead and lag time constants, respectively. The speed
governor gain is given by
. The data for MT used here is
provided in Appendix.
B. Diesel Generator
A diesel generator can be modeled using a standard ac
generator machine. Therefore, the generator of the diesel unit
is modeled using a sixth order synchronous machine, and the
excitation system is modeled based on an AVR IEEE Type II
model [15]. The governor model of diesel units consists of
three main parts: electric control box, actuator, and engine
[17].
Figure 3 depicts the block diagram of the diesel generator
{1, . .6} are the time constants of the
model. Here,
control box and actuator models;
is associated with the
time constant of the engine of the diesel unit;
is the gain of
the actuator;
is the electrical rotor speed; and
and
represent the lower and the upper torque limit,
respectively. The data for diesel generator used here is
provided in Appendix.
C. Wind Turbine Generator
Wind power generators available today can be categorized
into the following four main turbine types:
Type A: Fixed speed wind turbine with direct-gridconnected induction generator.
Type B: Variable speed wind turbine with variable rotor
resistance induction generator directly connected to the
grid.
Type C: Variable speed wind turbine with direct-gridconnected doubly-fed induction generator and dc/ac rotor
converter.
Type D: Variable speed wind turbine with synchronous
machine and full scale ac/dc/ac converter.
A review of wind turbine market penetration shows that Types
A, C and D currently dominate the market of installed wind
power generation [18]. Since Type A is cheaper than other
types, this type is commonly used in distribution systems as a
DG. On the other hand, Type C and D are generally used in
larger scale applications such as wind farms. Different
dynamic models have been proposed to model wind power
generators for stability studies. In [19], suitable models for
stability analysis of different types of wind power units are
presented. One of the most common fixed speed wind turbine
is a squirrel cage induction generator. This type of wind
turbines uses an induction machine with short-circuited rotor.
This model is implemented and used in this paper.
Figure 4 depicts the block diagram of the fixed-speed wind
turbine with direct-grid-connected induction generator. In this
and
are the d- and q-axes stator currents,
figure,
respectively;
is the rotor angular speed; , , and
are the generator parameters. All data for the induction
generator used here are provided in Appendix.

ref

1 + d 3s
1 + d 1s + d 2 s 2

K ds (1 + d 4 s)
s(1 + d 5 s)(1 + d 6 s)

1
Dd s + 1

e
Fig. 3. Block diagram of diesel DG model [17].

Fig. 4. Block diagram of fixed speed wind turbine with direct-grid-connected

induction generator.

D. Fuel Cell
Typically, the FC consists of three main parts: reformer,
stack, and power conditioner. The complexity and very
nonlinear behavior of electrical, chemical, and thermodynamic
processes result in complex models [20]. The parameters of
such models are difficult to estimate. However, for FC
connected using full controlled inverters with large capacitors
or some energy storage capabilities, the voltage or the reactive
power is assumed to be controlled through full controlled
inverters.
A third order nonlinear model of FC based on [21] is used
for stability studies in this paper. The first order delay action
represents the reformer and the stack. A nonlinear resistance is
used to represent the voltage drop of the system. This
resistance is based on the characteristics of FC at steady state,
and can be calculated from the Nernest and Butler-Volmer
equations.
Figure 5 illustrates the block diagram of the FC. Here, the
,
, and
are associated with the time
parameters
constants of the reformer, the stack, and the electrical response
is the dc voltage of
of FC;
is the internal resistance;
_
FC;
is associated with input fuel rate; and
and
are
the constant parameters to represent the nonlinear losses. The
dc power of the FC is considered to be the active power
injected to the network. The FC is connected to the system
through a transformer via a VSC. The data for FC used here is
provided in Appendix.

Reformer

Stack

ref s + 1

st s + 1

Vf

Iref

V
+

VS
SC Inverter

1
s +1

R
mMaxx

V ref

+
-

Ve

K m
s + 1

mMin

Figg. 5. Block diagram

m of FC model.

idref

Pref
Current Set
Point Controllerr

Qref

Fig. 8. Kuumamoto distributtion test system sim

mulated in PSAT.
1/ (1+ssT p)

id,
iq
Network

Iqref

1/ (1+ssTe)

Conveerter

V,

Figg. 6. Photovoltaic PQ
P model.
Voltage
Regulator

idref

Pref

1/ (1+sTp)
Current Set Point
Controller

Kp

Qref

id, iq
Network

Iqref

1/ (1+sTe)

Vref

F. Vo
Voltage Stabilityy Model
For sstatic studies, there are threee different moodels of DG
units thaat may be usedd in stability stuudies:
Connstant active ppower P and cconstant reactiive power Q
conntrol (PQ moddel), to repressent constant ppower factor
conntrol.
Connstant active ppower P and cconstant voltagge V control
(PV
V model), to reepresent voltagge control.
Connstant active ppower P and cconstant impeddance Z (PZ
moodel), to represeent lack of outpput control.
Eachh DG unit can w
work in one or two of the afoorementioned
static coontrol models. For example, MTs and dieseel generators
are mo deled using a PV model; ffixed-speed w
wind turbines
Z model; and FCs and
should be modeled using a PZ
photovooltaic DGs are modeled usingg both PQ and PV models.
III. NUMERICAL STUDIES

+
-

Ki /S

V,

Converter

P model.
Figg. 7. Photovoltaic PV

E
E. Photovoltaiic Generator
This model is based on a cu
urrent-sourced converter (CS
SC)
as presented in [2
22]. Two modeels are used forr the photovolttaic
b
on PQ and PV conttrol
souurce for stabiility studies based
moodels. Among various possib
bilities for thee inverter mod
del,
firsst order transfeer functions wiith steady statee gain and closedlooop control tran
nsfer functions are the most appropriate.
a
Sin
nce
botth models yieeld similar reesults, the firsst order transsfer
funnction is adopted here.
F
Figure 6 and Figure 7 pressent the block
k diagram of the
photovoltaic PQ
Q and PV models,
m
respecctively. In these
ned based on the
moodels, the currrent set points can be obtain
dessired active an
nd reactive pow
wers and curreent measuremeents
in the d-q refereence frame. Alll data for thee PV and the PQ
moodels used heree are provided in Appendix.

All nnumerical studdies presented here are carrieed out using

PSAT [[15], which iss a MATLAB
B-based toolbox for power
system studies. It inccludes power flow, continuuation power
CPF), optimal ppower flow, sm
mall signal stability analysis
flow (C
and tim
me domain simuulation tools.
A. Syystem Descripttion
The ssystem used too test and com
mpare the various models is
illustratted in Fig. 8 based on a ddistribution syystem in the
Kumam
moto area in Jaapan. This sysstem has been modified to
connectt a 3.125 MW DG unit at Buus 16. Since thhe load at the
neighbooring Bus 11 iss the largest inn the system (aabout 5 to 10
times laarger than the rest of the loaads). Thus, thee test system
consistss of a DG unnit (including prime moverr, generator,
interfacce, and associiated controlleers), with ac transformer,
feeders,, and loads, alll connected to aan infinite bus representing
the maain grid. The heavy load at Bus 11 is trippped in order
to studyy a contingenccy in the systeem, as this is a significant
disturbaance for this syystem. All loadds are modeledd as constant
active aand reactive ppower loads. T
The data for thhis system is
provideed in [23].

5
B
B. Voltage Sta
ability Analysiss
The CPF yields P-V curv
ves for static voltage stabillity
asssessment by in
ncreasing the system loadin
ng level up to
o a
maaximum loadab
bility point at which the system experiences
voltage collapse.. For the PV model
m
of the DG,
D Fig. 9 sho
ows
gnitude at Bus 4 (the bus with the low
west
thee voltage mag
voltage magnitu
ude in the sy
ystem) for thee test system in
ontingency con
nditions. Obserrve that the staatic
noormal and co
loaad margin or maximum load (ML) in thee case of norm
mal
operating condittion is 48.23 MW, while for
f Bus 11 lo
oad
o 83.58 MW; this
t
is due to the
outtage this ML is increased to
facct that the systtem is less streessed when thee loads or feed
ders
aree tripped, whicch are the typiccal contingenciies in distribution
sysstem.
F
Figure 10 show
ws the comparison of the P-V
V curves at Bu
us 4
forr PZ, PQ, and
d PV models of
o the DG at normal
n
operating
connditions. The PV
P model yield
ds a larger ML
L than the PQ and
a
PZ
Z models, as ex
xpected. With the PQ model, the
t DG unit

Fig 9. P-V
V curve for test syystem with PV moddel.

a
and reactive power to
o the system, and
a
injects constant active
ntrol. Note thaat the worst case
theere is no direcct voltage con
froom the point of view of ML
M is the PZ model, wh
hich
corrresponds to th
he fixed speed
d wind turbine model. Since for
thee wind-turbine DG, the inducction generatorr absorbs reacttive
pow
wer, a capacito
or bank at the terminal
t
is req
quired for reacttive
pow
wer compensaation; in this caase, the injecteed reactive pow
wer
is proportional to
o the square of
o the voltage, and thus the PZ
moodel yields the least ML of all static modelss.
C
C. Small Signa
al Stability Ana
alyses
Ann eigenvalue analysis
a
is em
mployed for sm
mall perturbation
staability studies. Figures 11 an
nd 12 show th
he eigenvaluess of
thee test system with MT and diesel geneerators; the most
m
rellevant modes of
o the synchro
onous generato
or, the excitation
sysstem, the MT, and the diesel generator are shown. Note that
t
thee governor mod
des are relativeely far away fro
om the imaginary
axiis, and thus the
t most criticcal modes aree associated with
w
synnchronous gen
nerator and AV
VR. In the casee of a load outaage
at Bus 11, the crritical eigenvallues of the sysstem move to the
ystem tends to be more stab
ble in the case of
lefft; thus, the sy
loaad and feeder outages,
o
as expected.
F
Figure 13 shows the eigenvalues of the teest system with
ha
3rdd order modeel of inductio
on generator. Note that so
ome
eiggenvalues of the induction
n generator are
a close to the
im
maginary axis. The
T load outag
ge does not chaange significan
ntly
thee critical eigeenvalues of sy
ystem; this is due to lack of
feeedback controlss in this case.
F
Figure 14 and
d 15 show the eigenvalues of
o the test systtem
witth FC and photovoltaic
p
DG
D in voltagee control mo
ode,
resspectively. Notte that because of the instan
ntaneous reacttive
pow
wer control thrrough the VSC
C, the load outaage has less efffect
on the system mo
odes when com
mpared with the rotating electtric
ovoltaic DG, th
he eigenvaluess of
maachines. In the case of photo
thee converter an
nd voltage con
ntroller are farr away from the
im
maginary axis, which
w
results in
n a more stablee system.

Fig. 10. P
P-V curves for diffferent static modells.

Most critical eigenvvalues of the test ssystem with an MT

T.
Fig. 11. M

Fig. 15. E
Eigenvalues of the test system with pphotovoltaic DG.
Figg. 12. Most criticall eigenvalues of th
he test system with
h a diesel generatorr.

Figg. 13. Eigenvaluess of the test systeem with induction

n generator (induction
macchine modes).

Figg. 14. Eigenvalues of the test system with FC.

D. Tr
Transient Stabillity Analysis
Transsient stability sstudies are perrformed using time domain
simulatiions of continngencies. Figurre 16 shows a comparison
of the vvoltage magnittude at Bus 111 for a load outage at this
bus witth a diesel geenerator, MT, fixed-speed w
wind turbine
with innduction generrator, FC, andd photovoltaic DG. In the
case off diesel generaator and MT D
DG, observe thhat after the
fter 8 s; since
trip, thee voltage of Buus 11 reaches ssteady state aft
the DG
G voltage contrroller tries to kkeep the voltagge at Bus 16
close too the set poiint (considerinng the AVR droop), the
injectedd reactive pow
wer should ddecrease. Notee the quick
responsse of the FC aand photovoltaaic DG in volltage control
mode aafter the conntingency, duee to the fast PI voltage
controlllers. Furtherm
more, as previiously shown in the P-V
curves, time domain simulations deemonstrate thatt the voltage
Gs with Q conntrol than for
deviatioons at Bus 11 are less for DG
the fixeed-speed windd turbine, and are more thaan DGs with
voltage control, as exppected.

Fig. 16. C
Comparison of thee time domain sim
mulations for a loaad outage at Bus
11 for thee test system with ddifferent DGs.

7
TABLE IV
PARAMETERS OF DIESEL GENERATOR

IV. CONCLUSION
In this paper, detailed dynamic models of different DGs are
presented. These models contain the dynamic models of the
primary governor, generators and their interfaces. Diesel
generators, MTs, FCs, fixed-speed wind turbines, and
photovoltaic DGs are modeled, tested and compared using
PSAT.
The DG models were tested and compared using a realistic
distribution system to study the static and dynamic behavior of
these models. The comparison of P-V curves for different
static DG models show that the PV control yields more
loading margin than PQ control and no control, as expected.
Thus, fixed-speed wind turbines with induction generators
present the worst case from the point of view of voltage
stability. Furthermore, it is observed that the best DG response
in the case of a typical load/feeder contingency is that of
photovoltaic generators and FC DGs, in general.

(sec)
(sec)
(sec)
(sec)
(sec)
(sec)
(sec)

TABLE V
PARAMETERS OF INDUCTION GENERATOR
(p.u.)
(p.u.)
(p.u.)
(p.u.)
(p.u.)
(sec)
(sec)
(p.u.)

APPENDIX
This Appendix provides the data of the DG models which
are used in this paper.
TABLE I
PARAMETERS OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
Power rating (MVA)
Voltage rating (KV)
(p.u.)

(p.u.)

(p.u.)
(p.u.)

(p.u.)
(p.u.)

(sec)

(sec)

(sec)
H (sec)

3.125
2.4
1.56
0.296
0.177
1.06
0.177
0.088
3.7
0.05
0.05
1.0716

(sec)
(sec)
(sec)
(ohm)
(sec)

(p.u.)

(
(

)
)

0.015
0.015
0.04
20

REFERENCES
[1]
[2]

1
1
16.7
0.05
0.6
1
0.4
0.01
0.2
1.5
-0.1
0.23

2
3.37
0.8
0.2778
100
10
1.2
0.8
0.05

TABLE VII
PARAMETERS OF PHOTOVOLTAIC GENERATOR

6
0
78
6
3
1

TABLE III
PARAMETERS OF MICRO TURBINE

(sec)
(sec)
(sec)
(sec)
(sec)
(sec)
(p.u.)
(p.u.)

0.0313
0.0306
1.0938
0.0044
0.0031
2.5
0.5
0.3

TABLE VI
PARAMETERS OF FUEL CELL

TABLE II
PARAMETERS OF AVR TYPE II
Maximum regulator voltage (p.u.)
Minimum regulator voltage (p.u.)
Regulator gain
Regulator pole (sec)
Regulator Zero (sec)
Time constant of the field circuit T (sec)

0.01
0.02
0.2
0.25
0.009
0.0384
0.024
18
0
1.1

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