CarlFriedrichGauss

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JohannCarlFriedrichGauss(/as/German:Gau,
pronounced[as]Latin:CarolusFridericusGauss)(30
April1777Braunschweig23February1855Gttingen)
wasaGermanmathematicianwhocontributedsignificantly
tomanyfields,includingnumbertheory,algebra,statistics,
analysis,differentialgeometry,geodesy,geophysics,
mechanics,electrostatics,astronomy,matrixtheory,and
optics.

JohannCarlFriedrichGauss

SometimesreferredtoasthePrincepsmathematicorum[1]
(Latin,"theforemostofmathematicians")and"greatest
mathematiciansinceantiquity",Gausshadanexceptional
influenceinmanyfieldsofmathematicsandscienceandis
rankedasoneofhistory'smostinfluentialmathematicians.[2]

Contents
1 Earlyyears
2 Middleyears
2.1 Algebra
2.2 Astronomy
2.3 Geodeticsurvey
2.4 NonEuclideangeometries
2.5 TheoremaEgregium
3 AppraisalofGauss
4 Lateryearsanddeath
5 Religiousviews
6 Family
7 Personality
8 Anecdotes
9 Commemorations
10 Writings
11 Seealso
12 Notes
13 Furtherreading
14 Externallinks

Earlyyears
CarlFriedrichGausswasbornon30April1777in
Brunswick(Braunschweig),intheDuchyofBrunswick
Wolfenbttel(nowpartofLowerSaxony,Germany),asthe
sonofpoorworkingclassparents.[3]Hismotherwas
illiterateandneverrecordedthedateofhisbirth,
rememberingonlythathehadbeenbornonaWednesday,
eightdaysbeforetheFeastoftheAscension,whichitself
occurs39daysafterEaster.Gausslatersolvedthispuzzle

CarlFriedrichGau(17771855),paintedby
ChristianAlbrechtJensen
Born

JohannCarlFriedrichGauss
30April1777
Brunswick,DuchyofBrunswick
Wolfenbttel,HolyRoman
Empire

Died

23February1855(aged77)
Gttingen,KingdomofHanover

Residence

KingdomofHanover

Nationality

German

Fields

Mathematicsandphysics

Institutions

UniversityofGttingen

Almamater

UniversityofHelmstedt

Thesis

Demonstrationova...(http://ww
w.erara.ch/zut/content/titleinfo/1
336299) (1799)

Doctoral
advisor

JohannFriedrichPfaff

Otheracademic JohannChristianMartinBartels
advisors
Doctoral
students

JohannListing
ChristianLudwigGerling
RichardDedekind
BernhardRiemann

StatueofGaussathisbirthplace,
Brunswick

abouthisbirthdatein
thecontextoffinding
thedateofEaster,
derivingmethodsto
computethedatein
bothpastandfuture
years.[4]Hewas
christenedand
confirmedinachurch
neartheschoolhe
attendedasachild.[5]

Gausswasachild
prodigy.Acontestedstoryrelatesthat,whenhewaseight,he
figuredouthowtoaddupallthenumbersfrom1to100.[6][7]
Therearemanyotheranecdotesabouthisprecocitywhilea
toddler,andhemadehisfirstgroundbreakingmathematical
discoverieswhilestillateenager.Hecompleted
DisquisitionesArithmeticae,hismagnumopus,in1798at
theageof21,thoughitwasnotpublisheduntil1801.This
workwasfundamentalinconsolidatingnumbertheoryasa
disciplineandhasshapedthefieldtothepresentday.

ChristianPeters
MoritzCantor
Othernotable
students

JohannEncke
ChristophGudermann
PeterGustavLejeuneDirichlet
GottholdEisenstein
CarlWolfgangBenjamin
Goldschmidt
GustavKirchhoff
ErnstKummer
AugustFerdinandMbius
L.C.Schnrlein
JuliusWeisbach

Knownfor

Seefulllist

Influenced

FriedrichBessel
SophieGermain
FerdinandMinding

Notableawards LalandePrize(1810)
CopleyMedal(1838)
Signature

Gauss'sintellectualabilitiesattractedtheattentionofthe
DukeofBrunswick,[2]whosenthimtotheCollegium
Carolinum(nowBraunschweigUniversityofTechnology),
whichheattendedfrom1792to1795,andtotheUniversity
ofGttingenfrom1795to1798.Whileatuniversity,Gauss
independentlyrediscoveredseveralimportanttheorems.[8]
Hisbreakthroughoccurredin1796whenheshowedthata
regularpolygoncanbeconstructedbycompassandstraightedgeifandonlyifthenumberofsidesisthe
productofdistinctFermatprimesandapowerof2.Thiswasamajordiscoveryinanimportantfieldof
mathematicsconstructionproblemshadoccupiedmathematicianssincethedaysoftheAncientGreeks,and
thediscoveryultimatelyledGausstochoosemathematicsinsteadofphilologyasacareer.Gausswasso
pleasedbythisresultthatherequestedthataregularheptadecagonbeinscribedonhistombstone.The
stonemasondeclined,statingthatthedifficultconstructionwouldessentiallylooklikeacircle.[9]
Theyear1796wasmostproductiveforbothGaussandnumbertheory.Hediscoveredaconstructionofthe
heptadecagonon30March.[10]Hefurtheradvancedmodulararithmetic,greatlysimplifyingmanipulationsin
numbertheory.On8Aprilhebecamethefirsttoprovethequadraticreciprocitylaw.Thisremarkablygeneral
lawallowsmathematicianstodeterminethesolvabilityofanyquadraticequationinmodulararithmetic.The
primenumbertheorem,conjecturedon31May,givesagoodunderstandingofhowtheprimenumbersare
distributedamongtheintegers.
Gaussalsodiscoveredthateverypositiveintegerisrepresentableasasumofatmostthreetriangularnumbers
on10Julyandthenjotteddowninhisdiarythenote:"!num=+'+".OnOctober1he
publishedaresultonthenumberofsolutionsofpolynomialswithcoefficientsinfinitefields,which150years
laterledtotheWeilconjectures.

Middleyears
Algebra

Inhis1799doctorateinabsentia,Anewproofofthetheoremthatevery
integralrationalalgebraicfunctionofonevariablecanberesolvedinto
realfactorsofthefirstorseconddegree,Gaussprovedthefundamental
theoremofalgebrawhichstatesthateverynonconstantsinglevariable
polynomialwithcomplexcoefficientshasatleastonecomplexroot.
MathematiciansincludingJeanleRondd'Alemberthadproducedfalse
proofsbeforehim,andGauss'sdissertationcontainsacritiqueof
d'Alembert'swork.Ironically,bytoday'sstandard,Gauss'sownattempt
isnotacceptable,owingtoimplicituseoftheJordancurvetheorem.
However,hesubsequentlyproducedthreeotherproofs,thelastonein
1849beinggenerallyrigorous.Hisattemptsclarifiedtheconceptof
complexnumbersconsiderablyalongtheway.
Gaussalsomadeimportantcontributionstonumbertheorywithhis
1801bookDisquisitionesArithmeticae(Latin,Arithmetical
Investigations),which,amongotherthings,introducedthesymbolfor
congruenceanduseditinacleanpresentationofmodulararithmetic,
containedthefirsttwoproofsofthelawofquadraticreciprocity,
developedthetheoriesofbinaryandternaryquadraticforms,statedthe
classnumberproblemforthem,andshowedthataregularheptadecagon
(17sidedpolygon)canbeconstructedwithstraightedgeandcompass.

Astronomy

TitlepageofGauss'sDisquisitiones
Arithmeticae

Inthesameyear,ItalianastronomerGiuseppePiazzidiscoveredthe
dwarfplanetCeres.PiazzicouldonlytrackCeresforsomewhatmore
thanamonth,followingitforthreedegreesacrossthenightsky.Thenit
disappearedtemporarilybehindtheglareoftheSun.Severalmonths
later,whenCeresshouldhavereappeared,Piazzicouldnotlocateit:the
mathematicaltoolsofthetimewerenotabletoextrapolateaposition
fromsuchascantamountofdatathreedegreesrepresentlessthan1%
ofthetotalorbit.
Gauss,whowas24atthetime,heardabouttheproblemandtackledit.
Afterthreemonthsofintensework,hepredictedapositionforCeresin
December1801justaboutayearafteritsfirstsightingandthis
turnedouttobeaccuratewithinahalfdegreewhenitwasrediscovered
byFranzXavervonZachon31DecemberatGotha,andonedaylater
byHeinrichOlbersinBremen.

Gauss'sportraitpublishedin
AstronomischeNachrichten1828

Gauss'smethodinvolveddeterminingaconicsectioninspace,given
onefocus(theSun)andtheconic'sintersectionwiththreegivenlines
(linesofsightfromtheEarth,whichisitselfmovingonanellipse,totheplanet)andgiventhetimeittakesthe
planettotraversethearcsdeterminedbytheselines(fromwhichthelengthsofthearcscanbecalculatedby
Kepler'sSecondLaw).Thisproblemleadstoanequationoftheeighthdegree,ofwhichonesolution,the
Earth'sorbit,isknown.Thesolutionsoughtisthenseparatedfromtheremainingsixbasedonphysical
conditions.InthisworkGaussusedcomprehensiveapproximationmethodswhichhecreatedforthat
purpose.[11]
OnesuchmethodwasthefastFouriertransform.Whilethismethodistraditionallyattributedtoa1965paper
byJ.W.CooleyandJ.W.Tukey,Gaussdevelopeditasatrigonometricinterpolationmethod.Hispaper,
TheoriaInterpolationisMethodoNovaTractata,[12]wasonlypublishedposthumouslyinVolume3ofhis
collectedworks.ThispaperpredatesthefirstpresentationbyJosephFourieronthesubjectin1807.[13]

Zachnotedthat"withouttheintelligentworkandcalculationsofDoctorGausswemightnothavefoundCeres
again".ThoughGausshaduptothatpointbeenfinanciallysupportedbyhisstipendfromtheDuke,hedoubted
thesecurityofthisarrangement,andalsodidnotbelievepuremathematicstobeimportantenoughtodeserve
support.Thushesoughtapositioninastronomy,andin1807wasappointedProfessorofAstronomyand
DirectoroftheastronomicalobservatoryinGttingen,apostheheldfortheremainderofhislife.
ThediscoveryofCeresledGausstohisworkonatheoryofthemotion
ofplanetoidsdisturbedbylargeplanets,eventuallypublishedin1809as
Theoriamotuscorporumcoelestiuminsectionibusconicissolem
ambientum(Theoryofmotionofthecelestialbodiesmovinginconic
sectionsaroundtheSun).Intheprocess,hesostreamlinedthe
cumbersomemathematicsof18thcenturyorbitalpredictionthathis
workremainsacornerstoneofastronomicalcomputation.Itintroduced
theGaussiangravitationalconstant,andcontainedaninfluential
treatmentofthemethodofleastsquares,aprocedureusedinall
sciencestothisdaytominimizetheimpactofmeasurementerror.

FourGaussiandistributionsin
statistics

Gaussprovedthemethodundertheassumptionofnormallydistributed
errors(seeGaussMarkovtheoremseealsoGaussian).ThemethodhadbeendescribedearlierbyAdrien
MarieLegendrein1805,butGaussclaimedthathehadbeenusingitsince1794or1795.[14]Inthehistoryof
statistics,thisdisagreementiscalledthe"prioritydisputeoverthediscoveryofthemethodofleastsquares."[15]

Geodeticsurvey
In1818Gauss,puttinghiscalculationskillstopracticaluse,carriedout
ageodeticsurveyoftheKingdomofHanover,linkingupwithprevious
Danishsurveys.Toaidthesurvey,Gaussinventedtheheliotrope,an
instrumentthatusesamirrortoreflectsunlightovergreatdistances,to
measurepositions.

NonEuclideangeometries
GaussalsoclaimedtohavediscoveredthepossibilityofnonEuclidean
geometriesbutneverpublishedit.Thisdiscoverywasamajorparadigm
shiftinmathematics,asitfreedmathematiciansfromthemistaken
beliefthatEuclid'saxiomsweretheonlywaytomakegeometry
consistentandnoncontradictory.

GeodeticsurveystoneinGarlste(now
Garlstedt)

Researchonthesegeometriesledto,amongotherthings,Einstein's
theoryofgeneralrelativity,whichdescribestheuniverseasnon
Euclidean.HisfriendFarkasWolfgangBolyaiwithwhomGausshadsworn"brotherhoodandthebannerof
truth"asastudent,hadtriedinvainformanyyearstoprovetheparallelpostulatefromEuclid'sotheraxiomsof
geometry.
Bolyai'sson,JnosBolyai,discoverednonEuclideangeometryin1829hisworkwaspublishedin1832.After
seeingit,GausswrotetoFarkasBolyai:"Topraiseitwouldamounttopraisingmyself.Fortheentirecontentof
thework...coincidesalmostexactlywithmyownmeditationswhichhaveoccupiedmymindforthepastthirty
orthirtyfiveyears."
ThisunprovedstatementputastrainonhisrelationshipwithBolyaiwhothoughtthatGausswas"stealing"his
idea.[16]
LettersfromGaussyearsbefore1829revealhimobscurelydiscussingtheproblemofparallellines.Waldo
Dunnington,abiographerofGauss,arguesinGauss,TitanofSciencethatGausswasinfactinfullpossession
ofnonEuclideangeometrylongbeforeitwaspublishedbyBolyai,butthatherefusedtopublishanyofit

becauseofhisfearofcontroversy.[17][18]

TheoremaEgregium
ThegeodeticsurveyofHanover,whichrequiredGausstospendsummerstravelingonhorsebackfora
decade,[19]fueledGauss'sinterestindifferentialgeometryandtopology,fieldsofmathematicsdealingwith
curvesandsurfaces.AmongotherthingshecameupwiththenotionofGaussiancurvature.Thisledin1828to
animportanttheorem,theTheoremaEgregium(remarkabletheorem),establishinganimportantpropertyofthe
notionofcurvature.Informally,thetheoremsaysthatthecurvatureofasurfacecanbedeterminedentirelyby
measuringanglesanddistancesonthesurface.
Thatis,curvaturedoesnotdependonhowthesurfacemightbeembeddedin3dimensionalspaceor2
dimensionalspace.
In1821,hewasmadeaforeignmemberoftheRoyalSwedishAcademyofSciences.Gausswaselecteda
ForeignHonoraryMemberoftheAmericanAcademyofArtsandSciencesin1822.[20]

AppraisalofGauss
TheBritishmathematicianHenryJohnStephenSmith(18261883)gavethefollowingappraisalofGauss:If
weexceptthegreatnameofNewtonitisprobablethatnomathematiciansofanyageorcountryhaveever
surpassedGaussinthecombinationofanabundantfertilityofinventionwithanabsoluterigorousnessin
demonstration,whichtheancientGreeksthemselvesmighthaveenvied.Itmayseemparadoxical,butitis
probablyneverthelesstruethatitispreciselytheeffortsafterlogicalperfectionofformwhichhasrenderedthe
writingsofGaussopentothechargeofobscurityandunnecessarydifficulty.Gausssaysmorethanoncethat,
forbrevity,hegivesonlythesynthesis,andsuppressestheanalysisofhispropositions.If,ontheotherhand,
weturntoamemoirofEuler's,thereisasortoffreeandluxuriantgracefulnessaboutthewholeperformance,
whichtellsofthequietpleasurewhichEulermusthavetakenineachstepofhiswork.Itisnottheleastof
Gauss'claimstotheadmirationofmathematicians,that,whilefullypenetratedwithasenseofthevastnessof
thescience,heexactedtheutmostrigorousnessineverypartofit,neverpassedoveradifficulty,asifitdidnot
exist,andneveracceptedatheoremastruebeyondthelimitswithinwhichitcouldactuallybe
demonstrated.[21]

Lateryearsanddeath
In1831Gaussdevelopedafruitfulcollaborationwiththephysics
professorWilhelmWeber,leadingtonewknowledgeinmagnetism
(includingfindingarepresentationfortheunitofmagnetismintermsof
mass,charge,andtime)andthediscoveryofKirchhoff'scircuitlawsin
electricity.Itwasduringthistimethatheformulatedhisnamesakelaw.
Theyconstructedthefirstelectromechanicaltelegraphin1833,which
connectedtheobservatorywiththeinstituteforphysicsinGttingen.
Gaussorderedamagneticobservatorytobebuiltinthegardenofthe
observatory,andwithWeberfoundedthe"MagnetischerVerein"
(magneticclubinGerman),whichsupportedmeasurementsofEarth's
Gaussonhisdeathbed(1855)
magneticfieldinmanyregionsoftheworld.Hedevelopedamethodof
Daguerreotype
measuringthehorizontalintensityofthemagneticfieldwhichwasin
usewellintothesecondhalfofthe20thcentury,andworkedoutthe
mathematicaltheoryforseparatingtheinnerandouter(magnetospheric)sourcesofEarth'smagneticfield.
In1840,GausspublishedhisinfluentialDioptrischeUntersuchungen,[22]inwhichhegavethefirstsystematic
analysisontheformationofimagesunderaparaxialapproximation(Gaussianoptics).[23]Amonghisresults,
Gaussshowedthatunderaparaxialapproximationanopticalsystemcanbecharacterizedbyitscardinal

points[24]andhederivedtheGaussianlensformula.[25]
In1845,hebecameassociatedmemberoftheRoyalInstituteofthe
NetherlandswhenthatbecametheRoyalNetherlandsAcademyofArts
andSciencesin1851,hejoinedasaforeignmember.[26]
In1854,GaussselectedthetopicforBernhardRiemann's
Habilitationvortrag,berdieHypothesen,welchederGeometriezu
Grundeliegen.[27]OnthewayhomefromRiemann'slecture,Weber
reportedthatGausswasfullofpraiseandexcitement.[28]

GraveofGaussatAlbaniCemeteryin
Gttingen,Germany.

GaussdiedinGttingen,(thenKingdomofHanoverandnowLower
Saxony)on23February1855[3]andisinterredintheAlbaniCemetery
there.Twoindividualsgaveeulogiesathisfuneral:Gauss'ssoninlawHeinrichEwaldandWolfgangSartorius
vonWaltershausen,whowasGauss'sclosefriendandbiographer.Hisbrainwaspreservedandwasstudiedby
RudolfWagnerwhofounditsmasstobe1,492grams(slightlyaboveaverage)andthecerebralareaequalto
219,588squaremillimeters[29](340.362squareinches).Highlydevelopedconvolutionswerealsofound,which
intheearly20thcenturywassuggestedastheexplanationofhisgenius.[30]

Religiousviews
GausswasaLutheranProtestant,amemberoftheSt.AlbansEvangelicalLutheranchurchinGttingen.[31]
PotentialevidencethatGaussbelievedinGodcomesfromhisresponseaftersolvingaproblemthathad
previouslydefeatedhim:"Finally,twodaysago,Isucceedednotonaccountofmyhardefforts,butbythe
graceoftheLord."[32]OneofhisbiographersG.WaldoDunningtondescribesGauss'sreligiousviewsinthese
terms:
Forhimsciencewasthemeansofexposingtheimmortalnucleusofthehumansoul.Inthedaysof
hisfullstrengthitfurnishedhimrecreationand,bytheprospectswhichitopeneduptohim,gave
consolation.Towardtheendofhislifeitbroughthimconfidence.Gauss'Godwasnotacoldand
distantfigmentofmetaphysics,noradistortedcaricatureofembitteredtheology.Tomanisnot
vouchsafedthatfullnessofknowledgewhichwouldwarranthisarrogantlyholdingthathisblurred
visionisthefulllightandthattherecanbenoneotherwhichmightreporttruthasdoeshis.For
Gauss,nothewhomumbleshiscreed,buthewholivesit,isaccepted.Hebelievedthatalife
worthilyspenthereonearthisthebest,theonly,preparationforheaven.Religionisnotaquestion
ofliterature,butoflife.God'srevelationiscontinuous,notcontainedintabletsofstoneorsacred
parchment.Abookisinspiredwhenitinspires.Theunshakeableideaofpersonalcontinuanceafter
death,thefirmbeliefinalastregulatorofthings,inaneternal,just,omniscient,omnipotentGod,
formedthebasisofhisreligiouslife,whichharmonizedcompletelywithhisscientificresearch.[33]
Apartfromhiscorrespondence,therearenotmanyknowndetailsaboutGauss'personalcreed.Many
biographersofGaussdisagreewithhisreligiousstance,withBhlerandothersconsideringhimadeistwith
veryunorthodoxviews,[34][35][36]whileDunnington(thoughadmittingthatGaussdidnotbelieveliterallyinall
Christiandogmasandthatitisunknownwhathebelievedonmostdoctrinalandconfessionalquestions)points
outthathewas,atleast,anominalLutheran.[37]
Inconnectiontothis,there'sarecordofaconversationbetweenRudolfWagnerandGauss,inwhichthey
discussedWilliamWhewell'sbookOfthePluralityofWorlds.Inthiswork,Whewellhaddiscardedthe
possibilityofexistinglifeinotherplanets,onthebasisoftheologicalarguments,butthiswasapositionwith
whichbothWagnerandGaussdisagreed.LaterWagnerexplainedthathedidnotfullybelieveintheBible,
thoughheconfessedthathe"envied"thosewhowereabletoeasilybelieve.[34][38]Thislaterledthemtodiscuss

thetopicoffaith,andinsomeotherreligiousremarks,Gausssaidthathehadbeenmoreinfluencedby
theologianslikeLutheranministerPaulGerhardtthanbyMoses.[39]Otherreligiousinfluencesincluded
WilhelmBraubach,JohannPeterSssmilch,andtheNewTestament.[40]
DunningtonfurtherelaboratesonGauss'sreligiousviewsbywriting:
Gauss'religiousconsciousnesswasbasedonaninsatiablethirstfortruthandadeepfeelingof
justiceextendingtointellectualaswellasmaterialgoods.Heconceivedspirituallifeinthewhole
universeasagreatsystemoflawpenetratedbyeternaltruth,andfromthissourcehegainedthe
firmconfidencethatdeathdoesnotendall.[41]
Gaussdeclaredhefirmlybelievedintheafterlife,andsawspiritualityassomethingessentiallyimportantfor
humanbeings.[42]Hewasquotedstating:"Theworldwouldbenonsense,thewholecreationanabsurdity
withoutimmortality,"[43]andforthisstatementhewasseverelycriticizedbytheatheistEugenDhringwho
judgedhimasanarrowsuperstitiousman.[44]
Thoughhewasnotachurchgoer,[45]Gaussstronglyupheldreligioustolerance,believing"thatoneisnot
justifiedindisturbinganother'sreligiousbelief,inwhichtheyfindconsolationforearthlysorrowsintimeof
trouble."[2]WhenhissonEugeneannouncedthathewantedtobecomeaChristianmissionary,Gaussapproved
ofthis,sayingthatregardlessoftheproblemswithinreligiousorganizations,missionaryworkwas"ahighly
honorable"task.[46]

Family
Gauss'spersonallifewasovershadowedbytheearlydeathofhisfirst
wife,JohannaOsthoff,in1809,soonfollowedbythedeathofonechild,
Louis.Gaussplungedintoadepressionfromwhichheneverfully
recovered.Hemarriedagain,toJohanna'sbestfriend,Friederica
WilhelmineWaldeck,commonlyknownasMinna.Whenhissecond
wifediedin1831afteralongillness,[47]oneofhisdaughters,Therese,
tookoverthehouseholdandcaredforGaussfortherestofhislife.His
motherlivedinhishousefrom1817untilherdeathin1839.[2]
Gausshadsixchildren.WithJohanna(17801809),hischildrenwere
Joseph(18061873),Wilhelmina(18081846)andLouis(18091810).
WithMinnaWaldeckhealsohadthreechildren:Eugene(18111896),
Wilhelm(18131879)andTherese(18161864).Eugenesharedagood
measureofGauss'stalentinlanguagesandcomputation.[48]Therese
kepthouseforGaussuntilhisdeath,afterwhichshemarried.
Gauss'sdaughterTherese(1816

Gausseventuallyhadconflictswithhissons.Hedidnotwantanyofhis
1864)
sonstoentermathematicsorsciencefor"fearofloweringthefamily
name",ashebelievednoneofthemwouldsurpasshisown
achievements.[48]GausswantedEugenetobecomealawyer,butEugenewantedtostudylanguages.Theyhad
anargumentoverapartyEugeneheld,whichGaussrefusedtopayfor.Thesonleftinangerand,inabout
1832,emigratedtotheUnitedStates,wherehewasquitesuccessful.WhileworkingfortheAmericanFur
CompanyintheMidwest,helearnedtheSiouxlanguage.Later,hemovedtoMissouriandbecameasuccessful
businessman.WilhelmalsomovedtoAmericain1837andsettledinMissouri,startingasafarmerandlater
becomingwealthyintheshoebusinessinSt.Louis.IttookmanyyearsforEugene'ssuccesstocounteracthis
reputationamongGauss'sfriendsandcolleagues.SeealsotheletterfromRobertGausstoFelixKleinon3
September1912.

Personality
CarlGausswasanardentperfectionistandahardworker.Hewasneveraprolificwriter,refusingtopublish
workwhichhedidnotconsidercompleteandabovecriticism.Thiswasinkeepingwithhispersonalmotto
paucasedmatura("few,butripe").Hispersonaldiariesindicatethathehadmadeseveralimportant
mathematicaldiscoveriesyearsordecadesbeforehiscontemporariespublishedthem.Mathematicalhistorian
EricTempleBellsaidthatifGausshadpublishedallofhisdiscoveriesinatimelymanner,hewouldhave
advancedmathematicsbyfiftyyears.[49]
Thoughhedidtakeinafewstudents,Gausswasknowntodisliketeaching.Itissaidthatheattendedonlya
singlescientificconference,whichwasinBerlinin1828.However,severalofhisstudentsbecameinfluential
mathematicians,amongthemRichardDedekindandBernhardRiemann.
OnGauss'srecommendation,FriedrichBesselwasawardedanhonorarydoctordegreefromGttingenin
March1811.[50]Aroundthattime,thetwomenengagedinanepistolarycorrespondence.[51]However,when
theymetinpersonin1825,theyquarrelledthedetailsarenotknown.[52]
Beforeshedied,SophieGermainwasrecommendedbyGausstoreceiveherhonorarydegreeshenever
receivedit.[53]
Gaussusuallydeclinedtopresenttheintuitionbehindhisoftenveryelegantproofshepreferredthemto
appear"outofthinair"anderasedalltracesofhowhediscoveredthem.Thisisjustified,ifunsatisfactorily,by
GaussinhisDisquisitionesArithmeticae,wherehestatesthatallanalysis(i.e.,thepathsonetravelledtoreach
thesolutionofaproblem)mustbesuppressedforsakeofbrevity.
GausssupportedthemonarchyandopposedNapoleon,whomhesawasanoutgrowthofrevolution.

Anecdotes
Thereareseveralstoriesofhisearlygenius.Accordingtoone,hisgiftsbecameveryapparentattheageof
threewhenhecorrected,mentallyandwithoutfaultinhiscalculations,anerrorhisfatherhadmadeonpaper
whilecalculatingfinances.
AnotherstoryhasitthatinprimaryschoolaftertheyoungGaussmisbehaved,histeacher,J.G.Bttner,gave
himatask:addalistofintegersinarithmeticprogressionasthestoryismostoftentold,thesewerethe
numbersfrom1to100.TheyoungGaussreputedlyproducedthecorrectanswerwithinseconds,tothe
astonishmentofhisteacherandhisassistantMartinBartels.
Gauss'spresumedmethodwastorealizethatpairwiseadditionoftermsfromoppositeendsofthelistyielded
identicalintermediatesums:1+100=101,2+99=101,3+98=101,andsoon,foratotalsumof
50101=5050.However,thedetailsofthestoryareatbestuncertain(see[7]fordiscussionoftheoriginal
WolfgangSartoriusvonWaltershausensourceandthechangesinotherversions)someauthors,suchasJoseph
RotmaninhisbookAfirstcourseinAbstractAlgebra,questionwhetheriteverhappened.
AccordingtoIsaacAsimov,Gausswasonceinterruptedinthemiddleofaproblemandtoldthathiswifewas
dying.Heispurportedtohavesaid,"TellhertowaitamomenttillI'mdone."[54]Thisanecdoteisbriefly
discussedinG.WaldoDunnington'sGauss,TitanofSciencewhereitissuggestedthatitisanapocryphalstory.
Hereferredtomathematicsas"thequeenofsciences"[55]andsupposedlyonceespousedabeliefinthe
necessityofimmediatelyunderstandingEuler'sidentityasabenchmarkpursuanttobecomingafirstclass
mathematician.[56]

Commemorations

From1989through2001,Gauss'sportrait,anormaldistributioncurve
andsomeprominentGttingenbuildingswerefeaturedontheGerman
tenmarkbanknote.ThereversefeaturedtheapproachforHanover.
GermanyhasalsoissuedthreepostagestampshonoringGauss.One
(no.725)appearedin1955onthehundredthanniversaryofhisdeath
twoothers,nos.1246and1811,in1977,the200thanniversaryofhis
birth.
DanielKehlmann's2005novelDieVermessungderWelt,translatedinto
EnglishasMeasuringtheWorld(2006),exploresGauss'slifeandwork
throughalensofhistoricalfiction,contrastingthemwiththoseofthe
GermanexplorerAlexandervonHumboldt.Afilmversiondirectedby
DetlevBuckwasreleasedin2012.[57]

German10DeutscheMarkBanknote
(1993discontinued)featuringGauss

In2007abustofGausswasplacedintheWalhallatemple.[58]
ThingsnamedinhonorofGaussinclude:
TheNormalDistribution,Gaussianstatistics(thebellcurve)
Gauss'sTheorem,TheDivergenceTheorem
Gauss(agedabout26)onEast
TheGaussPrize,oneofthehighesthonorsinmathematics
Germanstampproducedin1977.
Gauss'sLawandGauss'slawformagnetism,twoofMaxwell's
Nexttohim:heptadecagon,compass
fourequations.
andstraightedge.
Degaussing,theprocessofeliminatingamagneticfield
TheCGSunitformagneticfieldwasnamedgaussinhishonour
ThecraterGaussontheMoon[59]
Asteroid1001Gaussia
TheshipGauss,usedintheGaussexpeditiontotheAntarctic
Gaussberg,anextinctvolcanodiscoveredbytheabovementionedexpedition
GaussTower,anobservationtowerinDransfeld,Germany
InCanadianjuniorhighschools,anannualnationalmathematicscompetition(GaussMathematics
Competition)administeredbytheCentreforEducationinMathematicsandComputingisnamedin
honourofGauss
InUniversityofCalifornia,SantaCruz,inCrownCollege,adormitorybuildingisnamedafterhim
TheGaussHaus,anNMRcenterattheUniversityofUtah
TheCarlFriedrichGauSchoolforMathematics,ComputerScience,BusinessAdministration,
Economics,andSocialSciencesofBraunschweigUniversityofTechnology
TheGaussBuildingattheUniversityofIdaho(CollegeofEngineering)
TheCarlFriedrichGaussGymnasium(aschoolforgrades513)inWorms,Germany
The'GaussHouse',acommonroomintheUniversityofSussexMathematicalandPhysicalSciences
department.
In1929thePolishmathematicianMarianRejewski,whohelpedtosolvetheGermanEnigmaciphermachinein
December1932,beganstudyingactuarialstatisticsatGttingen.AttherequestofhisPoznaUniversity
professor,ZdzisawKrygowski,onarrivingatGttingenRejewskilaidflowersonGauss'sgrave.[60]

Writings
1799:Doctoraldissertationonthefundamentaltheoremofalgebra,withthetitle:Demonstrationova
theorematisomnemfunctionemalgebraicamrationalemintegramuniusvariabilisinfactoresreales
primivelsecundigradusresolviposse("Newproofofthetheoremthateveryintegralalgebraicfunction
ofonevariablecanberesolvedintorealfactors(i.e.,polynomials)ofthefirstorseconddegree")
1801:DisquisitionesArithmeticae(Latin).AGermantranslation(http://resolver.sub.unigoettingen.de/pu
rl?PPN235993352)byH.Maser"UntersuchungenberhhereArithmetik(DisquisitionesArithmeticae
&otherpapersonnumbertheory)(Secondedition)".NewYork:Chelsea.1965.ISBN0828401918.,

pp.1453.EnglishtranslationbyArthurA.Clarke"DisquisitionesArithemeticae(Second,corrected
edition)".NewYork:Springer.1986.ISBN0387962549..
1808:"Theorematisarithmeticidemonstrationova".Gttingen:CommentationesSocietatisRegiae
ScientiarumGottingensis.16..GermantranslationbyH.Maser"UntersuchungenberhhereArithmetik
(DisquisitionesArithmeticae&otherpapersonnumbertheory)(Secondedition)".NewYork:Chelsea.
1965.ISBN0828401918.,pp.457462[IntroducesGauss'slemma,usesitinthethirdproofof
quadraticreciprocity]
1809:TheoriaMotusCorporumCoelestiuminsectionibusconicissolemambientium(https://archive.org/
details/theoriamotuscor00gausgoog)(TheoriederBewegungderHimmelskrper,diedieSonnein
Kegelschnittenumkreisen),TheoryoftheMotionofHeavenlyBodiesMovingabouttheSuninConic
Sections(https://archive.org/details/motionofheavenly00gausrich)(EnglishtranslationbyC.H.Davis),
reprinted1963,Dover,NewYork.
1811:"Summatioserierunquarundamsingularium".Gttingen:CommentationesSocietatisRegiae
ScientiarumGottingensis..GermantranslationbyH.Maser"UntersuchungenberhhereArithmetik
(DisquisitionesArithmeticae&otherpapersonnumbertheory)(Secondedition)".NewYork:Chelsea.
1965.ISBN0828401918.,pp.463495[DeterminationofthesignofthequadraticGausssum,uses
thistogivethefourthproofofquadraticreciprocity]
1812:DisquisitionesGeneralesCircaSeriemInfinitam
1818:"Theorematisfundamentallisindoctrinaderesiduisquadraticisdemonstrationesetamplicationes
novae".Gttingen:CommentationesSocietatisRegiaeScientiarumGottingensis..Germantranslationby
H.Maser"UntersuchungenberhhereArithmetik(DisquisitionesArithmeticae&otherpaperson
numbertheory)(Secondedition)".NewYork:Chelsea.1965.ISBN0828401918.,pp.496510[Fifth
andsixthproofsofquadraticreciprocity]
1821,1823and1826:Theoriacombinationisobservationumerroribusminimisobnoxiae.Drei
AbhandlungenbetreffenddieWahrscheinlichkeitsrechnungalsGrundlagedesGau'schen
Fehlerfortpflanzungsgesetzes.(Threeessaysconcerningthecalculationofprobabilitiesasthebasisofthe
Gaussianlawoferrorpropagation)EnglishtranslationbyG.W.Stewart,1987,SocietyforIndustrial
Mathematics.
1827:Disquisitionesgeneralescircasuperficiescurvas(http://wwwgdz.sub.unigoettingen.de/cgibin/di
gbib.cgi?PPN35283028X_0006_2NS),CommentationesSocietatisRegiaeScientiarumGottingesis
Recentiores.VolumeVI,pp.99146."GeneralInvestigationsofCurvedSurfaces(http://quod.lib.umich.e
du/cgi/t/text/textidx?c=umhistmathidno=ABR1255)"(published1965)RavenPress,NewYork,
translatedbyA.M.HiltebeitelandJ.C.Morehead.
1828:"Theoriaresiduorumbiquadraticorum,Commentatioprima".Gttingen:Commentationes
SocietatisRegiaeScientiarumGottingensis.6..GermantranslationbyH.Maser"Untersuchungenber
hhereArithmetik(DisquisitionesArithmeticae&otherpapersonnumbertheory)(Secondedition)".
NewYork:Chelsea.1965.ISBN0828401918.,pp.511533[Elementaryfactsaboutbiquadratic
residues,provesoneofthesupplementsofthelawofbiquadraticreciprocity(thebiquadraticcharacterof
2)]
1832:"Theoriaresiduorumbiquadraticorum,Commentatiosecunda".Gttingen:Commentationes
SocietatisRegiaeScientiarumGottingensis.7..GermantranslationbyH.Maser"Untersuchungenber
hhereArithmetik(DisquisitionesArithmeticae&otherpapersonnumbertheory)(Secondedition)".
NewYork:Chelsea.1965.ISBN0828401918.,pp.534586[IntroducestheGaussianintegers,states
(withoutproof)thelawofbiquadraticreciprocity,provesthesupplementarylawfor1+i]
1843/44:UntersuchungenberGegenstndederHherenGeodsie.ErsteAbhandlung(http://dzsrv1.su
b.unigoettingen.de/contentserver/contentserver?command=docconvert&docid=D39018),
AbhandlungenderKniglichenGesellschaftderWissenschafteninGttingen.ZweiterBand(http://www
gdz.sub.unigoettingen.de/cgibin/digbib.cgi?PPN250442582_0002),pp.346
1846/47:UntersuchungenberGegenstndederHherenGeodsie.ZweiteAbhandlung(http://dzsrv1.s
ub.unigoettingen.de/contentserver/contentserver?command=docconvert&docid=D39036),
AbhandlungenderKniglichenGesellschaftderWissenschafteninGttingen.DritterBand(http://www
gdz.sub.unigoettingen.de/cgibin/digbib.cgi?PPN250442582_0003),pp.344
MathematischesTagebuch17961814,OstwaldtsKlassiker,VerlagHarriDeutsch2005,mit
AnmerkungenvonNeumamn,ISBN9783817134021(EnglishtranslationwithannotationsbyJeremy
Gray:ExpositionesMath.1984)

Gauss'scollectiveworksareonlineatdzsrv1.sub.unigoettingen.deUnigoettingen.de(http://dzsrv1.sub.unig
oettingen.de/cache/toc/D38910.html)includesGermantranslationsofLatintextsandcommentariesbyvarious
authorities.

Seealso
CarlFriedrichGaussPrize
Gaussianelimination
Germaninventorsanddiscoverers
ListoftopicsnamedafterCarlFriedrichGauss
Romanticisminscience

Notes
1.Zeidler,Eberhard(2004).OxfordUsers'GuidetoMathematics.Oxford,UK:OxfordUniversityPress.p.1188.
ISBN0198507631.
2.Dunnington,G.Waldo.(May1927).TheSesquicentennialoftheBirthofGauss(https://web.archive.org/web/200802
26020629/http://www.mathsong.com/cfgauss/Dunnington/1927/)attheWaybackMachine(archivedFebruary26,
2008)ScientificMonthlyXXIV:402414.Retrievedon29June2005.Nowavailableat"TheSesquicentennialofthe
BirthofGauss".Retrieved23February2014.Comprehensivebiographicalarticle.
3."CarlFriedrichGauss".WichitaStateUniversity.
4."GaussBirthdayProblem".
5.SusanChamberless(20000311)."Letter:WORTHINGTON,HelentoCarlF.Gauss19110726".SusanD.
Chambless.Retrieved20110914.
6."Gauss,CarlFriedrich(17771855)."(2014).InTheHutchinsonDictionaryofscientificbiography.Abington,United
Kingdom:Helicon.
7.BrianHayes(14November2009)."Gauss'sDayofReckoning".AmericanScientist.doi:10.1511/2006.3.200.
Retrieved30October2012.
8.O'Connor,JohnJ.Robertson,EdmundF.,"CarlFriedrichGauss",MacTutorHistoryofMathematicsarchive,
UniversityofStAndrews.
9.Pappas,Theoni,MathematicalSnippets,2008,p.42.
10.CarlFriedrichGauss365366inDisquisitionesArithmeticae.Leipzig,Germany,1801.NewHaven,CT:Yale
UniversityPress,1965.
11.Klein,FelixHermann,Robert(1979).Developmentofmathematicsinthe19thcentury.MathSciPress.ISBN9780
915692286.
12.http://lseet.univtln.fr/~iaroslav/Gauss_Theoria_interpolationis_methodo_nova_tractata.php
13.Heideman,M.Johnson,D.Burrus,C.(1984)."Gaussandthehistoryofthefastfouriertransform".IEEEASSP
Magazine.1(4):1421.doi:10.1109/MASSP.1984.1162257.
14.OscarSheynin,HistoryofStatistics(http://sheynin.de/download/hist_stat.pdf),Berlin:NGVerlagBerlin,2012,p.
81.
15.StephenM.Stigler,"GaussandtheInventionofLeastSquares,"Ann.Statist.,9(3),1981,pp.465474.
16.StevenG.Krantz(1April2010).AnEpisodicHistoryofMathematics:MathematicalCulturethroughProblem
Solving.MAA.pp.171.ISBN9780883857663.Retrieved9February2013.
17.Halsted,G.B.(1912)."DuncanM.Y.Sommerville".AmericanMathematicalMonthly.19:14.
doi:10.2307/2973871.jstor.org(http://www.jstor.org/stable/2973871)
18.Sondow,J.(2014)."FromtheMonthlyOver100YearsAgo".AmericanMathematicalMonthly.121:963.
doi:10.4169/amer.math.monthly.121.10.963.jstor.org(http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.4169/amer.math.monthly.121.10.
963)arXiv(http://arxiv.org/abs/1405.4198)"GaussandtheeccentricHalsted".
19.ThePrinceofMathematics(http://www.keplersdiscovery.com/Gauss.html).TheDoortoScienceby
keplersdiscovery.com.
20."BookofMembers,17802010:ChapterG"(PDF).AmericanAcademyofArtsandSciences.Retrieved8September
2016.
21.H.J.SSmith,PresidentialAddress,ProceedingsoftheLondonMath.Soc.VIII,18.
22.Bhler,WalterKaufmann(1987).Gauss:abiographicalstudy.SpringerVerlag.pp.144145.ISBN0387106626.
23.Hecht,Eugene(1987).Optics.AddisonWesley.p.134.ISBN020111609X.
24.Bass,MichaelDeCusatis,CasimerEnoch,JayLakshminarayanan,Vasudevan(2009).HandbookofOptics.
McGrawHillProfessional.p.17.7.ISBN0071498893.
25.Ostdiek,VernJ.Bord,DonaldJ.(2007).InquiryIntoPhysics.CengageLearning.p.381.ISBN0495119431.
26."C.F.Gauss(17971855)".RoyalNetherlandsAcademyofArtsandSciences.Retrieved19July2015.

27.Monastyrsky,Michael(1987).Riemann,Topology,andPhysics.Birkhuser.pp.2122.ISBN081763262X.
28.Bhler,WalterKaufmann(1987).Gauss:abiographicalstudy.SpringerVerlag.p.154.ISBN0387106626.
29.Thisreferencefrom1891(Donaldson,HenryH.(1891)."AnatomicalObservationsontheBrainandSeveralSense
OrgansoftheBlindDeafMute,LauraDeweyBridgman".TheAmericanJournalofPsychology.E.C.Sanford.4
(2):248294.doi:10.2307/1411270.JSTOR1411270.)says:"Gauss,1492grm.957grm.219588.sq.mm."i.e.the
unitissquaremm.Inthelaterreference:Dunnington(1927),theunitiserroneouslyreportedassquarecm,which
givesanunreasonablylargeareathe1891referenceismorereliable.
30.Bardi,Jason(2008).TheFifthPostulate:HowUnravelingATwoThousandYearOldMysteryUnraveledthe
Universe.JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.p.189.ISBN9780470467367.
31.GuyWaldoDunnington(1955).CarlFriedrichGauss,TitanofScience:AStudyofHisLifeandWork.Exposition
Press,pp.300
32."WikiQuotes".WikiQuotes.
33.GuyWaldoDunnington(1955).CarlFriedrichGauss,TitanofScience:AStudyofHisLifeandWork.Exposition
Press,pp.298301
34.Bhler,WalterKaufmann(1987).Gauss:abiographicalstudy.SpringerVerlag.p.153.ISBN0387106626.
35.GerhardFalk(1995).AmericanJudaisminTransition:TheSecularizationofaReligiousCommunity.University
PressofAmerica.p.121.ISBN9780761800163."GausstoldhisfriendRudolfWagner,aprofessorofbiologyat
GottingenUniversity,thathedidnotfullybelieveintheBiblebutthathehadmeditatedagreatdealonthefutureof
thehumansoulandspeculatedonthepossibilityofthesoulbeingreincarnatedonanotherplanet.Evidently,Gauss
wasaDeistwithagooddealofskepticismconcerningreligionbutincorporatingagreatdealofphilosophical
interestsintheBigQuestions,thatis.theimmortalityofthesoul,theafterlifeandthemeaningofman'sexistence."
36.Bhler,WalterKaufmann(1987).Gauss:abiographicalstudy.SpringerVerlag.p.152.ISBN0387106626.
"CloselyrelatedtoGauss'spoliticalandsocialviewswerehisreligiousbeliefs.Despitehisreligiousbeliefs.Despite
hisstrongrootsintheEnlightenment,Gausswasnotanatheist,ratheradeistwithveryunorthodoxconvictions,
unorthodoxevenifmeasuredagainsttheveryliberalpersuasionsofthecontemporaryProtestantchurch."
37.GuyWaldoDunnington(2004).CarlFriedrichGauss:TitanofScience.MAA.p.305.ISBN9780883855478."Itis
notknownjustwhatGaussbelievedonmostdoctrinalandconfessionalquestions.Hedidnotbelieveliterallyinall
Christiandogmas.OfficiallyhewasamemberofSt.AlbansChurch(EvangelicalLutheran)inGottingen.All
baptisms,burials,andweddingsinhisfamilyoccurredthere.Itisalsonotknownwhetherheattendedchurch
regularlyorcontributedfinancially.AfacultycolleaguecalledGaussadeist,butthereisgoodreasontobelievethat
thislabeldidnotfitwell.Gausspossessedstrongreligioustolerancewhichhecarriedovertoeverybelieforiginating
inthedepthsofthehumanheart.Thistoleranceisnottobeconfusedwithreligiousindifference.Hetookspecial
interestinthereligiousdevelopmentofthehumanrace,especiallyinhisowncentury.Withreferencetothemanifold
denominations,whichfrequentlydidnotagreewithhisviews,healwaysemphasizedthatoneisnotjustifiedin
disturbingthefaithofothersinwhichtheyfindconsolationforearthlysufferingsandasaferefugeindaysof
misfortune"
38.GuyWaldoDunnington(2004).CarlFriedrichGauss:TitanofScience.MAA.p.305.ISBN9780883855478.
"league,IbelieveyouaremorebelievingintheBiblethanI.Iamnot,and,headded,withtheexpressionofgreat
inneremotion,youaremuchhappierthanI.ImustsaythatsoofteninearliertimeswhenIsawpeopleofthelower
classes,simplemanuallaborerswhocouldbelievesorightlywiththeirhearts,Ialwaysenviedthem,andnow,he
continued,withsoftvoiceandthatnaivechildlikemannerpeculiartohim,whileatearcameintohiseye,tellmehow
doesonebeginthis?..."
39.GuyWaldoDunnington(2004).CarlFriedrichGauss:TitanofScience.MAA.p.356.ISBN9780883855478."I
mustconfessthatsucholdtheologiansandsongwritersasPaulGerhardhavealwaysmadeagreatimpressiononme
asongbyPaulGerhardalwaysexertedawonderfulpoweronme,muchmorethan,forexample,Moses,against
whomasamanofGodIhaveallsortsofqualms."
40.GuyWaldoDunnington(2004).CarlFriedrichGauss:TitanofScience.MAA.p.305.ISBN9780883855478.""
TworeligiousworkswhichGaussreadfrequentlywereBraubach'sSeelenlehre(Giessen,1843)andSiissmilch's
Gottliche(OrdnunggerettetA756)healsodevotedconsiderabletimetotheNewTestamentintheoriginalGreek."
41.GuyWaldoDunningtonJeremyGrayFritzEgbertDohse(2004).CarlFriedrichGauss:TitanofScience.MAA.
p.300.ISBN9780883855478."Gauss'religiousconsciousnesswasbasedonaninsatiablethirstfortruthanda
deepfeelingofjusticeextendingtointellectualaswellasmaterialgoods.Heconceivedspirituallifeinthewhole
universeasagreatsystemoflawpenetratedbyeternaltruth,andfromthissourcehegainedthefirmconfidencethat
deathdoesnotendall."
42.MorrisKline(1982).Mathematics:TheLossofCertainty.OxfordUniversityPress.p.73.ISBN9780195030853.
43.Dunnington.2004:357
44.Dunnington.2004:359

45."Gauss,CarlFriedrich".CompleteDictionaryofScientificBiography.2008.Retrieved29July2012."Inseeming
contradiction,hisreligiousandphilosophicalviewsleanedtowardthoseofhispoliticalopponents.Hewasan
uncompromisingbelieverinthepriorityofempiricisminscience.HedidnotadheretotheviewsofKant,Hegeland
otheridealistphilosophersoftheday.Hewasnotachurchmanandkepthisreligiousviewstohimself.Moral
rectitudeandtheadvancementofscientificknowledgewerehisavowedprinciples."
46.GuyWaldoDunnington(1955).CarlFriedrichGauss,TitanofScience:AStudyofHisLifeandWork.Exposition
Press,pp.311
47."Gaussbiography".Groups.dcs.stand.ac.uk.Retrieved20080901.
48."Letter:GAUSS,CharlesHenrytoFlorianCajori18981221".SusanD.Chambless.20000311.Retrieved
20110914.
49.Bell,E.T.(2009)."Ch.14:ThePrinceofMathematicians:Gauss".MenofMathematics:TheLivesand
AchievementsoftheGreatMathematiciansfromZenotoPoincar.NewYork:SimonandSchuster.pp.218269.
ISBN0671464000.
50.Besselneverhadauniversityeducation.
51.HelmutKoch,IntroductiontoClassicalMathematicsI:FromtheQuadraticReciprocityLawtotheUniformization
Theorem,Springer,p.90.
52.OscarSheynin,HistoryofStatistics(http://sheynin.de/download/hist_stat.pdf),Berlin:NGVerlagBerlin,2012,p.
88.
53.Mackinnon,Nick(1990)."SophieGermain,or,WasGaussafeminist?".TheMathematicalGazette74(470):346
351,esp.p.347.
54.Asimov,I.(1972).BiographicalEncyclopediaofScienceandTechnologytheLivesandAchievementsof1195Great
ScientistsfromAncientTimestothePresent,ChronologicallyArranged.NewYork:Doubleday.
55.QuotedinWaltershausen,WolfgangSartoriusvon(1856,repr.1965).GausszumGedchtniss.SndigReprintVerlag
H.R.Wohlwend.ISBN3253017028.ISSNB0000BN5SQASIN:B0000BN5SQ.
56.Derbyshire,John(2003).PrimeObsession:BernhardRiemannandtheGreatestUnsolvedProbleminMathematics.
500FifthStreet,NW,WashingtonD.C.20001:JosephHenryPress.p.202.ISBN0309085497.
57.baharuka(25October2012)."DieVermessungderWelt(2012)IMDb".IMDb.
58."BayerischesStaatsministeriumfrWissenschaft,ForschungundKunst:Startseite"(PDF).Stmwfk.bayern.de.
Retrieved20090719.
59.Andersson,L.E.Whitaker,E.A.,(1982).NASACatalogueofLunarNomenclature.NASARP1097.
60.WadysawKozaczuk,Enigma:HowtheGermanMachineCipherWasBroken,andHowItWasReadbytheAlliesin
WorldWarTwo,Frederick,Maryland,UniversityPublicationsofAmerica,1984,p.7,note6.

Furtherreading
Bhler,WalterKaufmann(1987).Gauss:ABiographicalStudy.SpringerVerlag.ISBN0387106626.
Dunnington,G.Waldo.(2003).CarlFriedrichGauss:TitanofScience.TheMathematicalAssociationof
America.ISBN088385547X.OCLC53933110.
Gauss,CarlFriedrich(1965).DisquisitionesArithmeticae.tr.ArthurA.Clarke.YaleUniversityPress.
ISBN0300094736.
Hall,Tord(1970).CarlFriedrichGauss:ABiography.Cambridge,MA:MITPress.ISBN026208040
0.OCLC185662235.
Kehlmann,Daniel(2005).DieVermessungderWelt.Rowohlt.ISBN3498035282.OCLC144590801.
SartoriusvonWaltershausen,Wolfgang(1966).Gauss:AMemorial.Externallinkin|title=(help)
Simmons,J.(1996).TheGiantBookofScientists:The100GreatestMindsofAllTime.Sydney:The
BookCompany.
Tent,Margaret(2006).ThePrinceofMathematics:CarlFriedrichGauss.AKPeters.ISBN156881
4550.

Externallinks
WorksbyKarlFriedrichGauss(http://www.gutenberg.org/author/
Gauss,+Karl+Friedrich)atProjectGutenberg
WorksbyoraboutCarlFriedrichGauss(https://archive.org/searc
h.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Gauss%2C%20Carl%20F

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0OR%20subject%3A%22Carl%20F%2E%20Gauss%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22C%2E%20F%2E%
20Gauss%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Gauss%2C%20Carl%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Carl%20
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iedrich%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Gauss%2C%20Carl%20F%2E%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22
Gauss%2C%20C%2E%20F%2E%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Gauss%2C%20C%2E%20Friedrich%
22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Carl%20Gauss%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Gauss%2C%20Carl%2
2%20OR%20title%3A%22Carl%20Friedrich%20Gauss%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Carl%20F%2E%2
0Gauss%22%20OR%20title%3A%22C%2E%20F%2E%20Gauss%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Carl%2
0Gauss%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Carl%20Friedrich%20Gauss%22%20OR%20description%
3A%22Carl%20F%2E%20Gauss%22%20OR%20description%3A%22C%2E%20F%2E%20Gauss%2
2%20OR%20description%3A%22Gauss%2C%20Carl%20Friedrich%22%20OR%20description%3A%2
2Gauss%2C%20Carl%20F%2E%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Carl%20Gauss%22%20OR%20des
cription%3A%22Gauss%2C%20Carl%22%29%20OR%20%28%2217771855%22%20AND%20Gaus
s%29%29%20AND%20%28mediatype:software%29)atInternetArchive
"CarlFriedrichGauss".PlanetMath.
Completeworks(http://wwwgdz.sub.unigoettingen.de/cgibin/digbib.cgi?PPN235957348)
Gaussandhischildren(http://www.gausschildren.org)
Gaussbiography(http://www.corrosiondoctors.org/Biographies/GaussBio.htm)
CarlFriedrichGauss(https://www.genealogy.math.ndsu.nodak.edu/id.php?id=18231)attheMathematics
GenealogyProject
CarlFriedrichGauss(http://fermatslasttheorem.blogspot.com/2005/06/carlfriedrichgauss.html)
BiographyatFermat'sLastTheoremBlog
Gauss:mathematicianofthemillennium(http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/gauss.html),byJrgen
Schmidhuber
EnglishtranslationofWaltershausen's1862biography(https://archive.org/details/gauss00waltgoog)
Gauss(http://www.gauss.info)generalwebsiteonGauss
MNRAS16(1856)80(http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/MNRAS/0016//0000080.000.html)Obituary
CarlFriedrichGaussonthe10DeutscheMarkbanknote(http://wwwpersonal.umich.edu/~jbourj/money
1.htm)
O'Connor,JohnJ.Robertson,EdmundF.,"CarlFriedrichGauss",MacTutorHistoryofMathematics
archive,UniversityofStAndrews.
"CarlFriedrichGauss"(http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00ss0lf)intheseriesABriefHistoryof
MathematicsonBBC4
Grimes,James."5050AndaGaussTrick".Numberphile.BradyHaran.
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&oldid=748563058"
Categories: CarlFriedrichGauss 1777births 1855deaths 18thcenturyGermanmathematicians
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MembersoftheRoyalSwedishAcademyofSciences Mentalcalculators Numbertheorists
Opticalphysicists PeoplefromBraunschweig PeoplefromtheDuchyofBrunswick

RecipientsoftheCopleyMedal RecipientsofthePourleMrite(civilclass)
UniversityofGttingenalumni UniversityofGttingenfaculty UniversityofHelmstedtalumni
Ceres(dwarfplanet)
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