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Popular Music
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Popular Music (2003) Volume 22/2 Copyright @ 2003 Cambridge University Press, pp 117-142
DOI 10 1017/S0261143003003088 Printed m the United Kingdom
Abstract
In the first forty years of his career, American pianist Keith Jarrett has established a reputation in
multiple stylistic directions. Jarrett has typically incorporated influences as varied as bebop, country,
rock, gospel, minimalism, baroque and classical styles into his often lengthy improvisations. Vital to
his musical persona, but less obvious, is the influence North Indian classical music has had in shaping
Jarrett's improvisatory strategies. Although he never formally studied Indian music, and although his
instrument - the piano - is far removed from the conceptual backdrop of North Indian raga performance, Indian music was a central component in the artistic climate out of which his improvised solo
recitals grew.
A cultural climate of global influences was the backdrop to the development of Jarrett's solo
concerts. Therein, perhaps, lies one key to understanding the spell that this music has cast on large
and international audiences. With this format, Jarrett tapped into the ambiance of a particular historic
moment, which combined a desire for change with the discovery of spiritual and musical traditions
outside the Western world.
In this paper I will demonstrate how explicit and implicit references to classical Indian principles of music making helped shape Jarrett's unique free solo concerts.
Introduction
In the first forty years of his career, American pianist Keith Jarrett has established a
baroque and classical styles into his often lengthy improvisations. Vital to Jarret
musical persona, although less obvious, is the influence North Indian classi
music has had in shaping his improvisatory strategies. Although he never formal
studied Indian music, and although his instrument - the piano - is far remo
from the conceptual backdrop of North Indian raga performance, Indian music w
a central component in the artistic climate out of which his solo improvisation
grew.
117
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of jazz standards and of his own jazz compositions, the predetermined mel
material began to disappear in the midst of growing improvisations elaborat
rhythmic riffs or melodic cells. This aesthetic resonated with German record p
ducer and founder of the label ECM, Manfred Eicher, whose vision to prod
Jarrett's solo recordings became a cornerstone of Jarrett's subsequent commerc
success. The free jazz movement was afoot, and from the Art Ensemble of Chic
to the multi-instrumental collages of Oregon and Codona, a global, inter-cultur
structure.5
With respect to textural and structural elements, Jarrett's first solo piano
album Facing You (ECM 1017) represents a set of miniature blueprints for the
extended solo concert format. The following observations on this recording provide
the foundation for an identification of Indian music influences in Jarrett's subsequent solo piano recordings.
The composed melodies on Facing You are loosely conceived ideas developed
and alluded to throughout each piece on the album. The improvisations, however,
are not confined to predetermined harmonic structures. By aligning the meaning of
the term jazz with the pervasive attributes of exploration rather than a codified
grammar of musical principles, Jarrett secures for himself the possibility of using
any stylistic option at his disposal. Even during the most contemporary, gospel,
folk-like, or classical moments of his improvisations, he is still playing jazz according to the definition he insists upon: 'jazz is about inclusion' (Jarrett 1996, p. 36).6
This approach to defining jazz is the basis for Jarrett's absorption of multicultural and specifically Indian - musical references. A vaguely inclusive model of jazz also
provides a framework that camouflages each reference and the cultural back-
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eation. He forges a style out of his melange of styles to communicate with his
audiences in an identifiable conceptual framework. His language appears original
by interweaving conventions that belong to a number of musical systems and traditions. The perpetual argument over whether or not this approach results in jazz
adds to a shimmering ambiguity that makes Jarrett's products attractive to audiences not readily identified with jazz.
Apart from the evocation of musical categories, Jarrett has developed a system
of codes that gives his freely improvised projects unmistakable shape, channelling
ideas from a broad sonic vocabulary into a particular energy curve.7 'A typical
Jarrett improvisation begins with a quiet, lyrical idea and expands ... into an opulent, surging climax. Out of the climax grows a new piece of material, which is
developed in its turn' (Aikin 1979, p. 39).
This scheme underlies many of Jarrett's improvisational journeys, and in itself
vaguely resembles the typical format of many raga performances. Indian sitar players, for example, develop a raga from the free-rhythmic alap to a pulsating but
non-metred section, jor, typically ending in a climactic peak, jhala, before the onset
of a composition that features a rhythmic cycle and the entrance of tabla drumming
accompaniment.8 Improvisations with alternating restatements of the refrain-like
composition lead to a final climax, jhala, characterised by fast, pulsating and repetitious melodic and rhythmic sequences. Jarrett repeats strikingly similar structural
processes on Facing You, and as greatly elongated shapes in his later solo concerts
as well.
'Lalene', from the Facing You recording, exemplifies a process of textural metamorphosis, which can be retraced in the later Kiln Concert, 'Part I' (ECM 1064/65).
In 'Lalene' Jarrett develops a quickly thickening soundscape. An initial thinly textured rhythmic and chordal idea eventually leads to dense, accented chordal voicings. Subsequently the music is characterised by a strongly contrasting texture: long,
fast paced, quasi-rubato lines in the right hand rise above a simple, strictly metrical,
chordal accompaniment.
It is common practice in classical North Indian music for the melodic instrumentalist to improvise in a free-metred, non-pulsed rubato style over the simultaneously occurring cyclical time structures of the accompanying tabla drummer.9
Jarrett, as is evident already in 'Lalene', at times develops a similar textural juxtaposition between his two hands on the piano. Fluid right hand melodies are a characteristic tool with which Jarrett builds long arches. There is no fixed rhythmic
relationship between these explosive runs and the even pulse maintained in the left
hand. This technique frees Jarrett from a strict rhythmic grid outlined by unchanging duple or triple subdivisions. Any number of swiftly changing beat subdivisions
can be heard superimposed over a steady quarter note. The resulting simultaneous
juxtaposition of a floating, seemingly a-rhythmic style in the right hand and a strong
underlying sense of rhythmic drive in the left hand creates a characteristic effect.
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Peter Elsdon has pointed out that the referencing of different styles i
Since Jarrett has repeatedly referred to North Indian music when dis
visation in interviews (see for instance Lange 1984, Strickland 1987,
and personal communication with the author), it seems appropriate t
the art of playing alap, the freely improvised introductory section t
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70
I j J J JJ dodo
7"c~~A
Excerpt
1.
92l--
Opening
(Jarrett
1991,
p.
----------\
Excerpt
2.
Florid
melodic
sty
--------71
r-'3-7
iii?ill
SL
,lw
,w
1
.,,,I i...I
Ii
I., I Ido
O-
---------------
Lt in tempo
:I' -mI
-II "1d
- -.-, -L
-
?~~~~~ --.LdoJ L - J
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a sensible musical shape as he performs. Specific motives may not be laid out
Jarrett's mind beforehand, but the understanding of the principles that enable him
to shape musical form in the moment are already rehearsed through years of exper
ence.
36-7). Ravi Shankar wrote 'alap ... has proportion and dis
p. 5).
The quotes exemplify a concern with proportion of musical time that is foundational to the conceptualisation of alap, which establishes a certain flow of time, a
specific if varying temporal structure that is essential in maintaining the rasa or
particular emotional expressiveness of a given raga. As will become apparent, Jarrett's solo improvisations reveal a similar concern with structural equilibrium.
phrases, labelled 'Phrase No. I' and 'Phrase No. II'. A similar 'Concluding Phrase'
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time
I I I I I l I
I I I I I12
in
seconds
cycle
(similarly
throughou
S-Phrase No. I a
flourish of resonating
..
13
--
24
en
SPhrase No. I c
25
36
I
48
37
49
60
61
72
Figur
by
R
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73
85
84
90
Notation Devices:
the staff.
scale degree.)
Figure 2. Continued.
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II c' precedes and prepares 'Phrase No. II d', also six seconds, which corresponds
more directly to 'Phrase No. I c'. 'Phrase No. II d' is also subdivided into three
parts and increases the sense of musical tension leading to a repeat of the 'Concluding Phrase' which is again fourteen seconds long. The graph of timing and intensity
for 'Phrases No. I and II' shown in Figure 3 reveals a remarkably formalised structure, spontaneously devised in a freely improvised performance without the use of
pulse or metre.
This entire process represents ninety seconds of music. The underlying structure seems too complex and multi-layered to be executed so precisely without the
aid of a metronomic beat. Yet, judging from my studies with one of Shankar's
disciples, I am convinced that at no point did Shankar plan for the phrasing to be
six seconds long, to repeat the time structure of 'Phrase No. I a, No. I b, No. I c',
and so forth. The sense of timing is one of the many aspects that a performer learns
through repetition and imitation of the guru or teacher.
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seconds
14
Intensity
Phrase
No.
II
No.
II
Timing
in seconds 6 6(+ 2 pause) 4 6 14
Intensity
or musical lineage, must have internalised such structural codes, on the level o
phrasing as well as the overall shaping of an alap performance.
My own studies of North Indian sitar with Shankar's disciple Amiya Dasgupta
at the California Institute of the Arts from 1988 to 1994 confirm the value placed on
an internalised sense of timing. Whenever we dealt with alap in our lessons, Amiya
would talk about issues of timing, proportion, flow and pacing as the dominan
paradigm by which the student's progress was judged. He would indicate that a
certain note or register deserved more elaboration, or that it was time to move on to
the next phrase or segment, implicitly in order to abide by the culturally anchored
normative codes that regulate temporal balance and the 'proper' structuring of an
improvisation.
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Phrase II 37 seconds focus on low komal Dha (Bb, 6th scale degree), repeat
of Concluding Phrase (Mohra) on tonic Sa
Phrase III 37 seconds targeting Ma (G, 4th scale degree) below middle
register tonic
Phrase VIII 65 seconds focus on Ma above middle register Sa, then targeting
middle register Sa
Phrase XII 45 seconds rapid note successions in highest octave, beyond one
octave above middle register Sa
Phrase I
Phrase II
Phrase III
Phrase IV
47
41
37
48
Tuning 12 seconds
Phrase V 41 seconds rise in register, return to middle register Sa
Phrase VI 51 seconds traversing wider range, increased note activity
Phrase VII 48 seconds exploring the higher register
Phrase VIII 35 seconds acceleration of pulse
Phrase IX 54 seconds next level of pulse acceleration
Phrase X 48 seconds increased note repetitiveness
Phrase XI 66 seconds Jhala section, characterized by fast repetitive striking
of high register chikkari drone strings
Figure 4. Timing and symmetry in the construction of Ravi Shankar's alap in Raga Malkauns.
Structural principles in Keith Jarrett's solo improvisations: The Kciln Concert and beyond
Keith Jarrett's sense of timing mirrors the phenomenon observed in Ravi Shankar's
performance of alap. Like the North Indian sitarist, the improvising jazz musician
faces the challenge of conveying a sense of form and coherent structure in the
moment. Analysing the length of phrases of Jarrett's Kdiln Concert, 'Part I' reveals
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2:53
3:02
seconds
calm
seconds
3:08
seconds
3:15
seconds
3:22
seconds
3:37
10
3:47
seconds
calm
seconds
4:02
4:07
seconds
calm
seconds
4:27
seconds
15
4:33
seconds
16
4:40
17
4:51
11
6
seconds
seconds
calm
5:04
15
seconds
calm
22
5:25
5:30
seconds
seconds
calm
5:59
seconds
29
6:10
6:16
seconds
seconds
calm
6:30
seconds
32
6:38
seconds
6:54
seconds
calm
7:07
Figure
(ECM
seconds
5.
Phrase
1064/65).
calm
length
in
the
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first
ext
5--5
'-
. . _ _l
"- -----------
time.
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pulsed segment, which slows down the rhythmic intensity level of the p
runs. Jarrett reuses motivic material from the segments shown in Figur
brings the section to a conclusion on G, the section's tonic.
Similarly to Shankar, Jarrett's overall construction of his piece also
an underlying emphasis given to principles of creating proportion in th
free-metred improvisation. Kiln Concert, 'Part I' can be divided into ten
subsections. The introductory section lasts two minutes and fourteen seco
It is pulsed, but melodies appear as floating lines over a sustaining bass.
The opening 'Intro', and 'Rubato 1' (sections one and three) have
proportional relationship as 'Groove 1' and 'Groove 2' (sections two and f
former section of each pair being roughly half as long as the latter. The n
sections form another symmetric time structure. The middle section, 'G
approximately the same length as 'Rubato 1', and is similarly framed by
segments. The framing sections, 'Rubato 2' and 'Rubato 3' are remarkably
together with section ten, more than four minutes long, frame the shorter sectio
nine, lasting only one minute. The 'Chordal Arpeggios' of section nine and 'Groo
4, Finale' of section ten, are almost equal to section eight in combined duration. Th
longest component of the piece, 'Slow Rubato' begins calmly, developing toward
peak of intensity with dense chordal structures in the highest register of the pian
This passage pushes the factors of volume, register, note density, and rhythmic
activity toward the performance's climactic peak of intensity.
Underscoring the skilled improviser's ability to measure musical time intuit
ively is the fact that Jarrett gives particular emphasis to the mid-way point of pe
formance, as did Shankar in his alap performance. The moment that is marked i
Shankar's alap by the beginning of jor is characterised in Jarrett's K'ln Concert, 'P
I' by the beginning of harmonic explorations deviating from the A minor/G majo
centredness of the first half. At exactly thirteen minutes of performance, Jarret
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Section
#:
Timing: I I _1I I I I I
Intensity -_ I L
_
Section
#:
Timing: I . I I I I
I L
Intensity _I I T" I_ __ _
Section
#:
10
Timing: 1 I 1...._._ I I
in
minutes:
5:02
1:00
4:03
1_
Intensity:
Figure
7.
Timing
_I
i_
and
symmetry
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in
Jarr
,__
.
.......
L-3--J---
Figure 8. Excerpt from Jarrett's K61ln Concert, 'Part I', at 4:42 minutes of performa
leaves the initial tonal and modal plateaus with the first statements of
inflected harmonies. The next seven minutes feature a range of key si
harmonic centres foreign to the preceding centre on A and G. The f
matic reaffirmation of A as a key centre, occurring at 20:07 minutes i
by repeated quickly paced arpeggios in A major. While falling short of
cal reference to a specific musical genre, the resulting texture could b
of North Indian classical music. The above-discussed first extended rubato section
of the Kdln Concert, 'Part I', which featured tambura-like drones and frequent mohra-
like cadential figures, also displays Jarrett's sense of manipulating small cells of
melodic material, as though he were transporting the characteristic pitch-bendi
embellishments possible on Indian instruments onto the piano. Figure 8 illustrat
a moment, at 4:42 minutes of performance time, when Jarrett oscillates betwee
three pitches, C, B and A, in a manner clearly paralleling the fluid embellishmen
that most Indian instruments can easily produce.
Comparable pitch successions are apparent in Shankar's Raga Malkauns al
excerpt (see transcription, for instance at 33 seconds of performance time). Jarre
focuses attention on the detail of micro-motivic development, rather than produc
a clearly singable, widely arched melodic curve. As Jarrett's touch de-emphasise
sharp rhythmic note attacks in such moments of performance, not much imagi
ation is required to hear this line as a distant correlate to Shankar's application
meends, the characteristic pitch-bending glissandos of the sitar.
Ostinato figures, vamps, and rhythmically intensified textures typical in Ja
rett's performances relate to the Indian concept of jhala. In Indian music, the jh
concludes the jor, the middle part of the alap in which an underlying metronom
pulse is introduced after the non-metred alap proper. The last four minutes of
Kdln Concert, 'Part I' suggest a parallel to the North Indian concept of jhala. Jarre
fast and repetitive chords texturally recall Shankar's characteristic rapid striking
drone strings, a patterned intensification of the alap's climactic finale. Figure 9 c
trasts a segment of the finale of Kiln Concert, 'Part I' with a typical phrase fro
the jhala in Shankar's performance. Both examples feature repetitious rhythms th
reiterate either a particular chord on the piano or a particular note on the sitar
Together with speed and volume, these reiterations bring about the sense of
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Figure 9. Comparison between excerpts from Jarrett's K61n Concert, 'Part I' and Shankar's perform-
rubatos and grooves, or that he planned to imitate tambura drones or the flourishes
of the sitar's resonating strings. Jarrett's references are internalised and perhaps
even unconscious. As is true for Shankar, form for Jarrett is the result of an
internalised sense of structure.
visations that suggests an India connection. Comparable to the alap, Jarrett's improvisations often begin with non-metred, rubato phrases signifying a sense of quietude
and meditation. Jarrett frequently uses quasi-baroque textures for this purpose, such
as in the opening of the Paris Concert (ECM 1401) or the La Scala concert (ECM 1640)
Opening phrases typically circle around a selection of pitch material before gradually
expanding in range and rhythmic intensity, also similar to typical alap development.
The construction of jor-like pulsed textures following non-metred improvisations finds a reflection in Jarrett's La Scala concert (ECM 1640). 'Part 1' of this
performance retains a free floating rubato feel throughout its entire forty-five
minutes, ending with a systematic reduction of musical activity into silence. 'Part
II' begins immediately with a rhythmically and melodically dense motive, just as
the conclusion of alap proper is followed by the beginning of the pulsating intensity
of the jor during a raga performance.
The opening of the 'Kyoto' concert (ECM 1100) underscores the fact that North
Indian paradigms of improvisation can find their correlates in Jarrett's improvis-
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timesti
55s
is
__
_
__
_
i
itp7
.
11.
IP
.L
4-
'
ft ___ Ir __________________
4I44
44
4J41
fAL
times.
termata
-----------------------,
ii
as
repeats.
44
19
Figure
10.
O
by
Jim
Aik
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11
24
9
8
.
i
..
8
6 times
AP
gm
!a0
---1--
textural change, however, the relatively narrow span of register that characterises
the section is maintained. This compares to Shankar's above-described alap improvisation, which dwells on limited pitch material for an extended period of time,
featuring cyclic repetitions of small melodic elements.
In the Jarrett excerpt, melodies govern harmonic progressions and flexible
metric grid, the emphasis on atmosphere is equally stylised both in Jarrett's impro
visations and in North Indian ragas. The ambiance of a single musician gradually
building musical intensity draws the listener into the music, conveying a sense o
Both North Indian alap and Jarrett's music employ extended solo improvis
ations of undetermined length using similar strategies of formal structuring.
comparison shows that improvisers in different musical systems are challenged
a similar necessity to produce order within the transitory moment of improvisat
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ence it, get into [the flow of time]. The idea [in Indian music] is
soundscapes.
most in his generation, Jarrett knew about Indian music first and fo
the charismatic performances of Ravi Shankar.
Asked to address the criticism that much of his philosophy cou
a perpetuation of flower-power ideas, Jarrett said: 'There were a lot
about that movement and that time' (personal communication). How
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1991, pp. 43-4). The Beatles, of course, were a crucial vehicle for the spreading
awareness of Indian music in the West, and Beatle George Harrison studied sitar
with Ravi Shankar. In conversation with Edward Strickland, Jarrett remembered: 'I
talked to Jimi Hendrix and Janis Joplin. I was going to write some ragtime pieces
for Janis and collaborate with Jimi. Then they both died' (Strickland 1987, p. 325).
Hendrix and Joplin were stars of equal allure to Shankar's, and central characters
Jarrett may not have consciously borrowed from Indian music the concept of
organising free improvisation through intuited timing principles, but in the context
of his exposure to raga performance, this approach minimally resonated with him,
because of its compatibility with his own aesthetic persuasions. His solo piano
improvisations and the spread of Indian music took place in a shared socio-cultural
climate, which reverberated throughout the Western world during Jarrett's formative years. In this climate, Indian music occupied a particularly prominent place.
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and the musical experience are steps to the realisation of the self. W
as a kind of spiritual discipline that raises one's inner being to divin
and bliss' (Shankar 1968, p. 17).
This metaphysical doctrine could as well have been articulated by
self, who emphasises music as a system for spiritual self-realisation
would call prayer' (Strickland 1987, p. 330). 'If I could call everything
it would be appropriate ... If it does not connect with a greater ... po
do not surrender to it, nothing happens. In that sense everything fee
(Lange 1984, p. 19). This attitude loosely echoes Shankar's notion of t
between music and the divine. As alap is the primary stage for the m
this consciousness within the system of Indian music, so Jarrett posi
free improvisation as the most personal, most immediate experience o
ible. 'Improvisation is really the deepest way of dealing with momen
reality in music. There is no deeper way, personally deeper' (Jarrett i
p. 17).
Jim Aikin has observed that 'Jarrett's style of free association, with nothing
pre-conceived, may have much to do with his informal study of Eastern philosophies' (Aikin 1979, p. 39). In Jarrett's fascination with the East, North Indian music
has been a specific point of reference. The observance of a sitar performance once
had been a revelatory experience for him (see Carr 1991, p. 157). At a time when
he was intensely practising Western classical repertoire, the memory of this 'juxtaposition of musical extremes' (ibid.) reinforced his criticism of the classical music
world and his commitment to improvised music.14
The description of Jarrett's relationship with North Indian music suggests that
his format of freely improvised solo concerts was developed in part through a conceptual borrowing from classical Indian traditions. However, Jarrett also claims that
he owes nothing to other cultures (see Strickland 1987), instead emphasising his
work as sui generis. If he brings out something Indian in his music it is because he
believes he has tapped into the source from which any music supposedly springs.
Jarrett's perspective implies that there is a realm that is musical, but beyond any
particular kind of music. His tendency to see spiritual universals manifested in
implies many musics but avoids naming any one music directly. Other analyses
could be made tracing components of Arabic, Middle Eastern, or African musics in
Jarrett's improvisatory vocabulary. Each time the allusions would be vague enough
to fall short of direct and unmistakable citations, yet strong enough to trigger the
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musical styles in listening to Spirits, he asked Jarrett whether there was 'any ef
to aim for this universal music'. Jarrett answered: 'None at all. There was if anyt
a profound unawareness of anything except what was coming out - as is also tr
of the prototype solo concert' (Strickland 1987, p. 26). Jarrett is not attempting
imitate a specific non-Western musical system. At the same time, however, Jarr
claims a common origin for all music he considers good. 'All music that is impor
and valuable comes from exactly the same source' (Klee 1972, p. 36). This axiom
Jarrett's thinking justifies a relationship between his solo concerts and Indian m
despite his insistence on their conceptual independence. If all 'good' music come
from one source, then structural features can also be seen as correlates. Des
Jarrett's proclaimed unawareness in the act of creation, his experiences with Ind
music strongly permeate his solo piano improvisations.
Personal epilogue
Unlike the Beatles, for instance, Jarrett and Shankar were figures I could con
sciously uphold as representatives of accomplished artistry and profound spiritu
Within the cultural context of my own formative years, the spiritual element I
sought in my musical influences immunised them against a flat dismissal of the
art as counter-cultural excess. Any criticism of their obvious 'otherness' had
wrestle with their priestly image as a provocative but implicitly positive trait. Sh
kar's and Jarrett's devotion to their art, their craftsmanship, their discipline, a
their spiritual references resonated with everything that Goethe, Schiller and Bac
signified within my own backyard.
Since musicians like Jarrett and Shankar were to be looked upon as serio
artists, criticism extended instead to aspects of form and musical content. One fr
quent criticism of Jarrett's solo concerts has been that the lack of formal construction
cliche follows another without apparent logic. Interestingly, the perception that t
music starts nowhere and ends nowhere is also a value judgement I have oft
heard Westerners express about raga upon initial confrontation with North Indi
music.
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Acknowledgements
stylistic diversity, however, is not only apparent within this particular setting Jarrett's over-
all output mirrors his concern with boundary- 4. The idea of 'world music' carried particular
prestige within the European view of stylistic
crossing, which so strongly informs the solo
developments in jazz. Germany's best known
improvisations. Jarrett has recorded classical
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exemplifies a brand of musician who emphasises this trait over any traditional definition
of form, swing, rhythmic feel, or harmonic
content.
8. Jarrett's familiarity with Indian music was cen- voix. C'est la seule chose qui m'interesse'
trally shaped by the rising popularity of the (Positf 1969, p. 18). Jarrett has made similar
the Woodstock generation and the frequent 'When I ask Indian musicians, North Indian
incorporation of the sitar in pop and rock raga players, what they are playing, they
music of the time.
want to make clear to me that they are not
9. This procedure can be heard, for instance, in even playing their music. They say, we are
Nikhil Banerjee's rendition of Raga Malkauns not playing our music. This is Indian music.
on The Sitar Genius of Nzkhil Banerjee (see We are not making this up. This is a traDiscography).
dition that we consider incredibly important'
10. The term alap has two uses. It refers to the first
(Ullman 1993, p.117).
of three sections (alap, jor, jhala) in the solo
introduction of a classical raga and as pars pro
toto, to the prelude as a whole.
References
Aikin, J. 1979. 'Keith Jarrett', in Contemporary Keyboard, September 1979, pp. 38-54
Berendt, J.E. 1982. Das Grooe Jazzbuch (Frankfurt am Main: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag)
Berliner, P.F. 1994. Thinking in Jazz (Chicago/London: University Press of Chicago)
Carr, I. 1991. Keith Jarrett, The Man and His Music (London: Grafton Books)
Dasgupta, A. 1988-1994. Lessons and Conversations wzth Gernot Blume (Valencia, CA: Cahfornia Institute
of the Arts), unpublished
Elsdon, P.S. 2001. Keith Jarrett's Solo Concerts and the Aesthetics of Free Improvisation 1960-1973. Ph.D
Dissertation, University of Southampton
Gilmore, M. 1979. 'Keith Jarrett's keys to the cosmos', in Rolling Stone, 283 (25 January), pp. 13, 20,
22, 24
This content downloaded from 117.131.219.47 on Sun, 06 Nov 2016 18:10:22 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
Jarrett, K. 1996. 'The virtual jazz age, a survival manual', in Musician, 208 (March), pp
1991. Keith Jarrett - The Koln Concert (Score) (Mainz/Tokyo: Schott Japan Company, L
Klee, J.H. 1972. 'Keith Jarrett: spontaneous composer', in Down Beat (Chicago), 39/1,
Lange, A. 1984. 'The Keith Jarrett interview', in Down Beat (Chicago), 51/6, pp. 16-19
Laverne, A. 1988. 'Inside Keith Jarrett's "In Front"', in Keyboard Magazine, March, pp
Meer, W. van der. 1977. Hindustani Music in the Twentieth Century (Utrecht: University
The Netherlands)
Palmer, R. 1974. 'The inner octaves of Keith Jarrett', in Down Beat (Chicago), 41/17, pp. 16-19, 63
Postif, F. 1969. 'Keith Jarrett', in Jazz Hot (Paris), 256 (December), pp. 18-20
Rosenthal, T. 1997. 'Keith Jarrett, focus and finesse', in Piano and Keyboard, 184 (January/February),
pp. 28-34
Shankar, R. 1968. My Music, My Life (Los Angeles: Vikas Publications, Kinnara School of Indian
Music)
Discography
Nikhil Banerjee, The Sitar Genius of Nikhil Banerjee. Capitol Records ST 10502. [n.d.]
Keith Jarrett / Lou Harrison, Works by Lou Harrison. New World Records NWR 366-1.
Yusef Lateef, Eastern Sounds. Prestige / OJC, 612. 1961
Oregon, The Essential Oregon. Vanguard VSD 109/10. 1981
Ravi Shankar, The Sound of the Sitar. World Pacific WP 21434. [n.d ]
Ravz Shankar at the Monterey International Pop Festival. World Pacific WP 1442. 1967
RavZ Shankar at the Woodstock Festival. World Pacific WP 21467. 1969
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