UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF SIGNALS

1.1 What is a Signal?

A signal is a quantitative description of a physical phenomenon, event or process.
Some common examples include:
1. Electrical current or voltage in a circuit.
2. Daily closing value of a share of stock last week.
3. Audio signal: continuous-time in its original form, or discrete-time when stored on
a CD.
More precisely, a signal is a function, usually of one variable in time. However, in
general, signals can be functions of more than one variable, e.g., image signals.
In this class we are interested in two types of signals:
1. Continuous-time signal x(t), where t is a real-valued variable denoting time,
i.e., t R. We use parenthesis (.) to denote a continuous-time signal.
2. Discrete-time signal x[n], where n is an integer-valued variable denoting the
discrete samples of time, i.e., n Z. We use square brackets [.] to denote a
discrete-time signal. Under the definition of a discrete-time signal, x[1.5] is not
defined, for example.
1.2 Review on Complex Numbers
We are interested in the general complex signals: x(t) C and x[n] C; where the
set of complex numbers is defined as
C = { z z = x + jy, x, y R, j =1}
A complex number z can be represented in Cartesian form as z = x + jy;
j
or in polar form as
z=r e
Theorem 1: Euler's Formula
e j = cos
(1.1)

+ j sin

Using Euler's formula, the relation between x, y, r, and

x = r cos

y = r sin

and

is given by

2
2
r = x +y

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UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF SIGNALS

tan

y
x

Figure 1.1: A complex number z can be expressed in its Cartesian form z = x+jy, or
j
in its polar form z = r e
A complex number can be drawn on the complex plane as shown in Fig. 1.1. The yaxis of the complex plane is known as the imaginary axis, and the x-axis of the
complex plane is known as the real axis. A complex number is uniquely defined by
j
z = x + jy in the Cartesian form, or z = r e in the polar form.
Example. Convert the following complex numbers from Cartesian form to polar
form: (a) 1 + 2j ; (b) 1 - j.
For (a), we apply Euler's formula and find that
2
2
r = 1 +2 = 5 and

2
tan 1 ( )
1

=63.64

j 63.64
1 + 2j = 5 e

Therefore,

For (b), we apply Euler's formula again and find that

2
2
r = 1 +(1) = 2

Therefore, 1 - j =

and

2e

1
1

tan 1

= -45

j
4

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UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF SIGNALS

Recall that:

in radian = 180

Example. Calculate the value of

jj

(e 2 ) j

in degree.
j

=0.2078.

1.3. BASIC OPERATIONS OF SIGNALS

1.3.1 Time Shift
For any

t0

n0

R and

x(t) x(t -

t0

x(n) x(n -

Z, time shift is an operation defined as

)
n0

(1.2)
If t0 > 0,the time shift is known as delay". If t0 < 0, the time shift is known as
advance".
Example. In Fig. 1.2, the left image shows a continuous-time signal x(t). A time
shifted
version x(t - 2) is shown in the right image.

Figure 1.2: An example of time shift.

1.3.2 Time Reversal

Time reversal is defined as
x(t) x(-t)
x(n) X(-n);
which can be interpreted as the flip over the y-axis".
Example.
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(1.3)

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UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF SIGNALS

Figure 1.3: An example of time reversal.

1.3.3 Time Scaling:

Time scaling is the operation where the time variable t is multiplied by a constant a:
x(t) x(at),
a>0
(1.4)
If a > 1, the time scale of the resultant signal is decimated" (speed up). If 0 < a <
1,
the time scale of the resultant signal is expanded" (slowed down).

1.3.4 Combination of Operations

In general, linear operation (in time) on a signal x(t) can be expressed as y(t) = x(atb); a, b R: There are two methods to describe the output signal y(t) = x(at - b).

Figure 1.4: An example of time scaling.

Method A: Shift, then Scale" (Recommended)
1. Define v(t) = x(t - b),
2. Define y(t) = v(at) = x(at - b).
Method B: Scale, then Shift"
1. Define v(t) = x(at),
2. Define y(t) = v(t b/a) = x(at - b).
Example.
For the signal x(t) shown in Fig. 1.5, sketch x(3t - 5).

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UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF SIGNALS

Figure 1.5: Example 1. x(3t - 5).

Example.
For the signal x(t) shown in Fig. 1.6, sketch x(1 - t).

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UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF SIGNALS

Figure 1.6: Example 2. x(- t + 1).

1.3.5 Decimation and Expansion:

Decimation and expansion are standard discrete-time signal processing operations.
Decimation.
Decimation is defined as
yD[n] = x[Mn] ;
for some integers M. M is called the decimation factor.
Expansion.
Expansion is defined as
n
x
, n=integer multiple of L
L
yE[n] =
0, otherwise

{( )

(1.5)

(1.6)

L is called the expansion factor.

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UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF SIGNALS

Figure 1.8: Examples of decimation and expansion for M = 2 and L = 2.

1.3.6 General signal characteristics:

(a) Multichannel & multidimensional signals:
A signal is described by a function of one or more independent variables.
The value of the function (dependent variable) can be real valued scalar quantity, a
complex valued quantity or perhaps a vector.
Real valued signal x1 (A) = A sin3t
j 3 t
Complex valued signal x2(A) = A e
= A cos3t + jAsin3t
In some applications, signals are generated by multiple sources or multiple sensors.
Such signals can be represented in vector form and we refer such a vector of signal
as a multichannel signal.
E.g.; In electrocardiography, 3-lead & 12-lead electrocardiograms (ECG) are often used,
which result in 3-channel & 12-channel signals.
One dimensional: If the signal is a function of a single independent variable, the signal is
called 1-D signal. e.g.; Speech signal
Multidimensional signal: Signals can be functions of more than one variable, e.g., image
signals (2D), Colour image (3D), etc.
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UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF SIGNALS

1.3.7 Classification of signals
Broadly we classify signals as:
1. Continuous-time signal: A signal x(t), is said to be continuous-time signal if it is
defined for all time t, where t is a real-valued variable denoting time.
3t
Example: x(t) = e
u(t)

2. Discrete-time signal: A signal x(n), is said to be discrete-time signal; if it is defined only

at discrete instant of time, where n is an integer-valued variable denoting the discrete
samples of time. We use square brackets [] to denote a discrete-time signal.
3 n
Example: x[n] = e
u[n]

n
3. Even and Odd Signals:
A continuous-time signal x(t) is even if
x(-t) = x(t)
(1.9)
and it is odd if
x(-t) = -x(t):
(1.10)
A discrete-time signal x[n] is even if
x[-n] = x[n]
(1.11)
and odd if
x[-n] = -x[n]:
(1.12)
Remark: The all-zero signal is both even and odd. Any other signal cannot be both
even and odd, but may be neither. The following simple example illustrate these
properties.

Example 1: x(t) =

- 40 is even.

Example 2: x(t) = 0.1 t

is odd.

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UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF SIGNALS

Example 3: x(t) =

(a)

x(t) =

e 0.4t is neither even nor odd.

t 2 - 40

(b)

3
x(t) = 0.1 t

(c)

x(t) =

e 0.4t
Figure 1.10: Illustrations of odd and even functions. (a) Even (b) Odd (c) Neither.

4. Periodic & non-periodic signals:

A continuous time signal x(t) is periodic if there is a constant T > 0, such that
x(t) = x(t + T ), for all t
A discrete time signal x[n] is periodic if there is an integer constant N > 0, such that
x[n] = x[n + N ], for all n
Signals do not satisfy the periodicity conditions are called non-periodic signals.
Note: The smallest value of T (N) that satisfies the above equations is called fundamental
period
Example: Determine the fundamental period of the following signals:
j 3 t /5
(a) e
j 3 n/ 5

(b) e
Solution:
j 3 t /5
(a) Let x(t) = e
. If x(t) is a periodic signal, then there exists T > 0
such that x(t) = x(t + T ). Therefore,
x(t) = x(t + T )
j 3 (t +T )/ 5
j 3 t /5
e
= e
j 3 T / 5
1= e
jk 2
j 3 T / 5
e
= e

T=

10
3

(k = 1)

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UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF SIGNALS

j 3 n /5

(b) Let x[n] = e

. If x[n] is a periodic signal, then there exists an integer N > 0
such that x[n] = x[n + N ]. So,
x[n] = x[n + N ]
j 3 n /5
j 3 (n+ N )/ 5
e
= e
j 3 N /5
1= e
jk 2

j 3 N /5

e
= e
T = 10 (k = 3)

5. Energy signals and power signals:

+

The signal energy in the signal x(t) is E=

|x 2 (t)|

lim 1

and the signal power in the signal x(t) is P=

2T

T/2

|x (t )|
T /2

If 0 < E < , then the signal x(t) is called an energy signal. However, there are signals
where this condition is not satisfied. For such signals we consider the power. If 0 < P < ,
then the signal is called a power signal. Note that the power for an energy signal is zero
(P=0) and that the energy for a power signal is infinite (E = ). Some signals are neither
energy nor power signals.
The definition of signal energy and power for discrete signals parallel similar definitions
for continuous signals.
+

The signal energy in the signal x(t) is E=

|x [n]|

+N

2
1
|x [n]|

and the signal power in the signal x(t) is P= Nlim

2 N +1 n=N

Example1:

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UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF SIGNALS

Example 2:

Example 3:

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6. Deterministic signals and random signals:

The deterministic signal is a signal about which there is no uncertainty with respect to its
value at any time. The deterministic signals may be modeled as completely specified
function of time.
2
Example: x(t) = cos (2t)
A random signal is a signal about which there is uncertainty before it occurs. Example: The
electrical noise generated in the amplifier of a radio or television receiver.

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