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Runoff generation, sediment movement

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(limestone) slopes of some Mediterranean
environments in southeast Spain
ARTICLE in GEOMORPHOLOGY FEBRUARY 2003
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Geomorphology 50 (2003) 269 291

www.elsevier.com/locate/geomorph

Runoff generation, sediment movement and soil water behaviour

on calcareous (limestone) slopes of some Mediterranean
environments in southeast Spain
A. Calvo-Cases a,*, C. Boix-Fayos a, A.C. Imeson b
b

a
Department of Geography, University of Valencia, Avda. Blasco Ibanez 28, 46010 Valencia, Spain
Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Nieuwe Achtergracht 166, 1018 Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Received 1 September 2000; received in revised form 1 March 2001; accepted 15 July 2002

Abstract
An interpretation of soil hydrology and erosion data obtained from limestone areas in southeast Spain is presented in the
framework of recent hypotheses on runoff generation mechanisms in Mediterranean environments. The main objective is to
synthesise and harmonise the data in theoretical concepts or behavioural models of hydrological functioning of Mediterranean
limestone slopes. For this purpose, data were collected in a typical limestone area, with climatic characteristics ranging from
subhumid to semiarid. Several sites were chosen with comparable slopes, vegetation and soils along a transect of 20 km to carry
out several research projects. The data discussed in this paper consist of information on water redistribution within the soil
profiles obtained from long duration (up to 5 h) rainfall simulation experiments with continuous monitoring of soil moisture at
different depths. Runoff and sediment concentration data were obtained (i) from rainfall simulation experiments with different
antecedent soil moisture conditions and (ii) as natural results from open Gerlach plots on runoff and sediment movement over 4
years.
Three conceptual models of water redistribution during the infiltration process could be observed, two of them imply
nonuniform water redistribution within the soil profile due mainly to macropore flow caused by specific soil surface
characteristics. At the plot scale, runoff generated in bare patches is mainly Hortonian. In plots with previously wetted soils or
soils with high infiltration capacities, the generated runoff implies the saturation of the upper soil. Both types of runoff are
discontinuous through time and space. The runoff generation mechanisms at the slope scale have been synthesised into two
conceptual models: a Hortonian discontinuous runoff model that takes place in the most degraded slopes or during high
intensity rain events and, a mixed runoff generation model in less degraded slopes or in previously wet soils, where infiltration
excess runoff as well as saturation excess runoff can happen on the same slope. In both cases, slopes behave as a patchwork of
runoff and runon areas, the size of the runoff or runon patches is dependent on the climatological conditions. These control the
hydrological disconnection between different parts of the slopes. Hortonian and saturation runoff can both be generated and
infiltrated downslope.
D 2002 Published by Elsevier Science B.V.
Keywords: Mediterranean; Spain; Runoff; Infiltration; Erosion

Corresponding author.

0169-555X/02/$ - see front matter D 2002 Published by Elsevier Science B.V.

PII: S 0 1 6 9 - 5 5 5 X ( 0 2 ) 0 0 2 1 8 - 0

270

A. Calvo-Cases et al. / Geomorphology 50 (2003) 269291

1. Introduction
1.1. Runoff generation mechanisms in Mediterranean
ecosystems
The hydrological behaviour of the soils in the
Mediterranean concerning infiltration, soil water redistribution and runoff generation mechanisms does
not fit the traditionally accepted models for humid
ecosystems. Very often, the infiltration process and
the runoff generation mechanisms in Mediterranean
environments occur in a nonuniform way in space and
time. Since the beginning of the 70s and more
recently, research has demonstrated that Mediterranean slopes behave as a mosaic of runoff generation
and infiltration patches (Yair and Klein, 1973; Yair,
1983; Yair and Lavee, 1985; Yair and Enzel, 1987;
Lavee et al., 1998) depending enormously on the
morphometrica characteristics of the slopes, the lithology, the different development of the soils and the
past land uses.
On one hand, a nonuniform pattern of runoff
generation in the catchments characterised by a flux
discontinuity due to a hydrological disconnection
between the elements of the slopes takes place. The
slopes behave like a mosaic of runoff and runon areas
(sources and sinks) described by many authors in
different parts of the Mediterranean Basin (Cerda` i
Bolinches, 1995; Nicolau et al., 1996; Puigdefabregas
and Sanchez, 1996; Bergkamp, 1998, Lavee et al.,
1998). Yair (1996) points out the existence of a
systematic nonuniform pattern of contribution area
to runoff after analysing runoff generation mechanisms in Mediterranean arid areas of different lithologies. This nonuniform pattern is caused by the local
differences in soil infiltration capacity.
On the other hand, very frequently water under
clusters of vegetation moves through preferential
paths within the soil profile causing a nonuniform
model of infiltration and water redistribution (Bergkamp et al., 1996). The Bodman and Colman (1943)
model of soil water redistribution where the soil water
content decreases progressively at deeper soil horizons during the infiltration process is not widely
applicable in this type of environment. Furthermore,
the research carried out on the spatial distribution of
soil moisture at catchment scale (Coronato and Bertiller, 1997; Western et al., 1998; Fitzjohn et al., 1998)

has resulted in interesting information on mosaic-like

soil moisture distribution, reflecting the different
hydrological characteristics of the soils and the potential runoff and runon soil patches. Isolated degraded
areas with low water retention capacities appear as
potential sources for runoff whereas other isolated or
well connected areas with deeper soils are able to
retain more soil water and are able to behave as
potential sink areas for runoff.
This patchwork of runoff and runon areas is very
much related to the vegetation pattern on the slopes.
However, the vegetation distribution on the slopes is
not only conditioning the hydrological behaviour, but
also the sediment movement across and along slopes.
In this sense when there is an equilibrium, vegetation
mosaics are organised in a way that maximise runoff
harvest and the resistance to sediment movement.
When the equilibrium does not exist because fluxes
of water and sediment exceed the capacity of the
vegetation, redistribution lengths increase and the
plant pattern becomes relict and it is locally affected
by differential erosion (Puigdefabregas et al., 1999).
The development, for instance, of Stipa tenacissima tussocks is highly dynamic and they show a
growing pattern strongly influenced by gradient, sediment flux and water allocation (Sanchez and Puigdefabregas, 1994). Even small plants like Plantago
albicans interact with water and sediment redistribution at low slope positions as observed by Cammeraat and Imeson (1999). At the slope, break sediments
are deposited forming a silty crust, the small bands of
plants act as sediment traps during periods of overland
flow. The silty sediments transported by the overland
flow form a dense crust where germination is difficult
and infiltration is reduced. Just downslope, the silt
deposit and crust are less dense and infiltration and
germination are favoured. Upslope, the sedimentation
lobe acts as a runoff producing area, whereas the
lower rim of the sedimentation lobe acts as a water
absorbing area (runon area). Lobes of sedimentation
tend to grow laterally together, and plants can establish along their rim. This could result in an alternating
banding of crusted and narrow vegetated areas. In the
last 15 years, a remarkable effort has been carried out
to obtain data on runoff rates and sediment yield and
concentrations on Mediterranean slopes of different
lithologies. Because of their less spectacular erosion
rates and active geomorphological processes than a

A. Calvo-Cases et al. / Geomorphology 50 (2003) 269291

solten rocks, less attention has been paid to soils

developed on limestones although some interesting
results have been achieved (Table 1). The main results
point out that soil infiltration capacities on limestones
are high and erosion rates low, however, past and
present land uses and climatic conditions have a great
influence on soil degradation and as a consequence on
hydrological behaviour. Great attention has been paid
to the data but less to the runoff generation mechanisms, although some clarification of these has taken
place over the last few years. Runoff generation in
semiarid and arid environments has been commonly
attributed to an infiltration excess mechanism (Yair,
1996), but in Mediterranean climates where conditions vary from arid to humid, both saturation and
Hortonian mechanisms can be responsible for runoff
generation. As Lavee et al. (1998) explain, the difference is marked by the factors controlling runoff
generation. In humid conditions, biotic factors are
responsible for runoff generation while in arid and
semiarid conditions, abiotic factors exert the main
control. The other big difference is related to the size
or the scale of the elements in the mosaic of sink and
sources of runoff. While in arid conditions, the contribution area of the sources of runoff is large, this
may decrease when conditions become more humid.
Sometimes both mechanisms of runoff generation
appear combined within the same catchment, slope or
rainfall event (Llorens et al., 1992; Gallart et al., 1994,
1997; Martnez-Mena et al., 1998; Boix Fayos, 1999).
In subhumid Mediterranean environments of the
Pyrenees mountain range, Llorens et al. (1992) and
Gallart et al. (1994, 1997) have identified both Hortonian and saturation mechanisms of runoff generation depending on the stage of degradation of the
soils, the lithology and the combination of the topography and land use.
Within the same catchment, Martnez-Mena et al.
(1998) identify two mechanisms of runoff generation.
Infiltration excess runoff appears in soils with low
organic carbon content ( < 0.5%) and low infiltration
capacity ( < 5 mm h 1), while runoff by a saturation
excess appears in soils with high organic carbon
content (>2%), high infiltration capacity (>8 mm
h 1) and dense vegetation cover (>50%). Under
low intensity storms, most of the runoff is generated
as a consequence of the saturation of the upper part of
the soil.

271

Some authors explain the runoff generation process

as being a consequence only of the saturation of
different soil layers even in arid conditions. For
example, Puigdefabregas et al. (1998, 1999), under
Mediterranean arid conditions and in soils developed
on mica-schist bedrock, found two main mechanisms
of runoff generation related to the saturation of different soil layers. The first mechanism implies the
saturation of the uppermost soil layer just after rainfall
initiation. It disappears as soon as the progress of the
wetting front develops a transmission zone that allows
for the drainage of the upper soil layer. The second
mechanism requires the persistence of nearly saturated
conditions in a shallow subsurface soil layer. It may
occur in areas where permeability decreases with soil
depth. This mechanism provides a long lasting saturation of the subsurface soil layer. In this way, the
effect of rainfall variability on the water content of the
uppermost layer tends to be buffered, allowing overland flow to last for longer periods of time and to
cover greater distances. Puigdefabregas et al. (1999)
point out that this mechanism is probably the most
important for the creation of hydrological connections
across hillslopes.
1.2. Objectives and study areas
A review of the published work on runoff generation knowledge and soil infiltration behaviour in
Mediterranean ecosystems is used as a background
to interpret data collected in an area of southeast Spain
where research on geomorphological and soil processes has been going on for the last 8 years. New
unpublished and some published data provide a database to investigate the runoff generation mechanisms
on soils developed on limestone bedrock in Mediterranean ecosystems. These limestone areas represent a
high percentage of the ecosystems surrounding the
Mediterranean Basin. Yet, due to their less spectacular
erosion, less attention has been paid to these types of
environment. The main objective of this study is to
synthesise and harmonise information on water redistribution within the soil profile and runoff generation
mechanisms on limestone slopes under different Mediterranean environmental conditions. These results
will be considered in the light of recent findings on
soil hydrological research in Mediterranean ecosystems. The study was carried out in the province of

272

Table 1
Hydrological and erosional data obtained under natural or simulated rainfall on limestones in different Mediterranean environments in the last 15 years
Study area

Annual
average
pp (mm)

Lithology

Soil type

Vegetation/ Plot size

land use
and type

Applied or
registered pp

Yair and Enzel

(1987)

Negev
desert
(Israel)

70 250

Limestones
and gypsum

Grazing

Wilcox et al.
(1988)

Sierra de
Guadalupe
(New Mexico,
USA)

500

Limestones
and
dolomites

Lithic
Forest,
Calciustolls,
seasonal
Lithic
grazing
Argiustolls,
Aridic
Haplustalfs cos

Closed
plots,
1 m2

136 mm
(natural
and in
1 year),
72 mm (natural
and in 1 year)
59.5 mm
(applied)

Wood and Wood

(1988)

Fort Staton
330 406
Experimental
Range (New
Mexico, USA)
Benidorm
393
(Alicante,
Spain)

Limestones

Litic
Haplustolls

Grazing

Closed
plots,
1 m2

Limestones
and marls

Forest fires Closed

plots,
1 m2

Grazing,
patchwork
of small
forest fires
Grazing

Llovet et al.
(1994)

Boix Fayos et al.

(1995)

Cerda` and Lavee

(1995)

Lefka Ori
(Crete,
Greece)

Desierto
de Judea
(Israel)
Cerda` i Bolinches Genoves
(1995)
(Valencia,
Spain)
Cerda` i Bolinches Vall de
(1995)
Gallinera
(Alicante,
Spain)

500 1400 Limestones

260 330

Limestones

Chromic
Luvisols,
Eutric
Regosols

688

Limestones

985

Limestones
and
dolomites

Closed
plots,
0.24 m2

Closed
plots,
0.24 m2
Forest fires Closed
plots,
0.24 m2
Abandoned Closed
agricultural plots,
terraces
0.24 m2

Runoff/
infiltration

Runoff:
27 mm
(in the
same year),
6.5 mm (in
the same year)
Steady
infiltration
rate:
69 91 mm h 1
(on dry soil),
41 76 mm h 1
(on wet soil)
506 mm
Steady
(applied)
infiltration rate:
528 998
mm h 1
60 mm (on dry Runoff
soil. (applied), coefficients:
0.00 0.12,
55 mm
(on wet soil,
0.05 0.52
applied)
41.25 mm
Runoff
(applied on
coefficient:
wet and
0.37 0.69
dry soil)
36.80 mm
Runoff
(applied)
coefficient (%):
82 91, 50 82
55 mm
Runoff
(applied
coefficient
on dry soil)
(%): 18
55 mm
Runoff
(applied on
coefficient
dry soil)
(%): 10

Sediment
Erosion
concentration

0.96 1.06,
0.87 3.23
gl 1

7.79 18.63,
2.21 54.50
gm 2h 1

1.40 9.26
gl 1

33.40 356.19
gm 2h 1

0.99 9.42,
0.18 2.31
gl 1

39.43 228.75,
5.11 98.62
gm 2h 1

A. Calvo-Cases et al. / Geomorphology 50 (2003) 269291

Source

Bolbens
(Valencia,
Spain)

688

Limestones

Forest fires Closed,

0.24 m2

Romero Daz
et al. (1995)

El Ardal
(Murcia,
Spain)

276

Limestones

Petric
calcisol

Lopez
Bermudez
et al.
(1996)
Bergkamp
et al. (1996)

El Ardal
(Murcia,
Spain)

276

Limestones

Petric
calcisol

El Ardal
(Murcia,
Spain)
Majahadillas
(Cuenca,
Spain)

276

Limestones

Petric
calcisol

Abandoned
fields,
cereals and
shrubland
Abandoned
fields,
cereals and
shrubland
Abandoned
fields

394

Limestones

Calcic
luvisols,
Petric
calcisols

Bergkamp
et al. (1996)

Wainwright
(1996)

Mollans-surOuve`ze
(France)

Alluvial
terrace on
Quaternary
or limestones
Limestones
Lithic
leptosols

Diamantopoulos
et al.
(1996)

Petralona
(Thessaloniki,
Greece)

Cerda` (1997)

Valencia
(Spain)

688

Limestones

Calvo Cases
et al. (1998)

Benidorm
(Alicante,
Spain)

350

Limestones

Lithic
leptosols

Kosmas
et al. (1997)

Spata
(Greece)

496

Limestones

Tipic or
Calcis
xerochreptsp

2  8,
2  10 m

55 mm
applied
on dry soil),
55 mm
(applied
on wet soil)
? (natural)

2  8,
2  10 m

713,
315 mm

Halfclosed,
2  10 m

35 mm
(applied)

Shrubland

Halfclosed,
2  10 m

35 mm
(applied)

Vineyards
and other
crops

Closed,
61  61 cm

50 mm
(applied)

Grazed
Closed:
shrubland
2  10 m
and cereals

30 mm
(natural),
45 mm
(natural)
Shrubland Closed,
55 mm
and old
0.25 m2
(applied on
agricultural
different
terraces
soil moisture
conditions)
Shrubland Open
187 mm
(trap 50 cm) (natural)

Olive trees

Closed,
3  10 m

450 575
mm
(natural)

Runoff
coefficient
(%): 8, 29

Runoff
coefficient
(%):
0.35 2.38

Sediment
yield:
0.08 5.13
gm 2

100.52,
1.19 g m

Runoff
coefficient:
0.01
Runoff
coefficient:
0

30 g l

Steady
infiltration
rate: 87.1 87.9
mm h 1
Runoff
coefficients:
0.8 and 0.2

Infiltration
rate: 8 55 mm

Runoff/
pp rate:
from 2.1%
to 24%
Total
runoff:
0 2.6%

From 3.8
to 68 g l 1
on average

0 2.8
t km 2 a

A. Calvo-Cases et al. / Geomorphology 50 (2003) 269291

Cerda` i
Bolinches
(1995)

(continued on next page)

273

274

Table 1 (continued)
Source

Study area

Annual
average
pp (mm)

Lithology

Soil type

Vegetation/
land use

Plot size
and type

Applied or
registered pp

Runoff/
infiltration

Sediment
concentration

Erosion

Calvo Cases
et al. (1998)

Cocoll
(Alicante,
Spain)

826

Limestones

Shrubland

Open
trap 50 cm)

191.6 mm
(natural)

Serra
Grossa
(Valencia,
Spain)
Benidorm
(Alicante,
Spain)
Callosa
(Alicante,
Spain)
Ifach
(Alicante,
Spain)
Finestrat
(Alicante,
Spain)
Coll de
Rates
(Alicante,
Spain)
Givat
Yearim
(Israel)
Mishor
Adumin
(Israel)
Kalia
(Israel)

688

Closed,
0.25 m2

55 mm
(applied rain)

Runoff/
pp rate:
from 0.2%
to 10%
Runoff
coefficient:
0 0.38

From 0.95
to 6.67 g l
on average

Cerda`
(1998)

Lithic
leptsols and
Chromic
luvisols
Regosols
and
Luvisols

Closed,
0.24 m2

17 mm
(applied)

2.55 g l

Closed
plots,
0.24 m2
Closed
plots,
0.24 m2
Closed
plots,
0.24 m2
Closed
plots,
0.24 m2

30 mm
(applied)

Runoff
coefficient:
0.36
Runoff
coefficient:
0.54
Runoff
coefficient:
0.31
Runoff
coefficient:
0.55
Runoff
coefficient:
0.11

Closed
plots,
3  21 m
Closed
plots,
3  21 m
Closed
plots,
3  21 m
Closed,
0.25 m 2

210 mm
(natural)

Runoff
coefficient:
0.007
Runoff
coefficient:
0.01
Runoff
coefficient:
0.03
Infiltration
rates: 30 38
mm h 1

Imeson
et al. (1998)
Imeson
et al. (1998)
Imeson
et al. (1998)
Imeson
et al. (1998)

Lavee
et al. (1998)
Lavee
et al. (1998)
Lavee
et al. (1998)
Cerda` (1999)

Valencia
(Spain)

350

550

Limestones

Limestones

Shrubland

Shrubland

Shrubland

550

Limestones

Shrubland

350

Limestones

Shrubland

850

Limestones

Shrubland

620

Limestones

Grazing

260

Limestones

Grazing

120

Limestones

Grazing

400 600

Limestones

Shrubland

47 mm
(applied)
25 mm
(applied)
33 mm
(applied)

200 mm
(natural)
50 mm
(natural)
55 mm
(applied
rain)

0 3.96 g l

0.84 g l

0 0.7 g l

20.22
gm 2h

18.94
gm 2h

11.30 g l

0.30 g l

0 34
g m2 h

202.79
gm 2h

0.60
gm

13
g m2 h

A. Calvo-Cases et al. / Geomorphology 50 (2003) 269291

Imeson
et al. (1998)

Limestones

El Ardal
(Murcia,
Spain)

300

Limestones
and
conglomerates

Kerollic
Paleothirds

Cultivated
cereals

Closed
plots,
8  2 and
10  2 m

Limestones
and
conglomerates

Kerollic
Paleothirds

Fallow

Closed
plots,
8  2 and
10  2 m

Limestones
and
conglomerates

Kerollic
Paleothirds

Shrubland

Limestones
and
conglomerates

Kerollic
Paleothirds

Cut shrubs

324

Limestones,
gypsum,
clay and
marls

Dry farming
abandoned

Open plots,
1385 cm2

Central Ebro
Depression
(Spain)

324

Limestones,
gypsum,
clay and
marls

Dry farming
abandoned
with chemical
fertilizer

Open plots,
1385 cm2

Lasanta
et al. (2000)

Central Ebro
Depression
(Spain)

324

Limestones,
gypsum,
clay and
marls

Cereal
(barley)

Lasanta
et al. (2000)

Central Ebro
Depression
(Spain)

324

Limestones,
gypsum,
clay and
marls

Petric
calcisols,
gypsisols
and
solonchaks
Petric
calcisols,
gypsisols
and
solonchaks
Petric
calcisols,
gypsisols
and
solonchaks
Petric
calcisols,
gypsisols
and
solonchaks

Natural
rain from
January
1991 to
August 1994
Natural
rain from
January
1991 to
August 1994
Natural
rain from
January
1991 to
August 1994
Natural
rain from
January
1991 to
August
1994
30 mm
(applied rain)

Romero
Daz et al.
(1999)

El Ardal
(Murcia,
Spain)

300

Romero
Daz et al.
(1999)

El Ardal
(Murcia,
Spain)

300

Romero
Daz et al.
(1999)

El Ardal
(Murcia,
Spain)

300

Lasanta
et al. (2000)

Central Ebro
Depression
(Spain)

Lasanta
et al. (2000)

Fallow land

Closed
plots,
8  2 and
10  2 m
Closed
plots,
8  2 and
10  2 m

Runoff:
11 15 l m

Runoff:
19 l m

Sediment yield:
39 110 g m 2

Sediment yield:
1 18 g m 2

Runoff:
1 11 l m

Sediment yield:
2 18 g m 2

Runoff:
9 10 l m

Sediment yield:
21 70 g m 2

Runoff
coefficient:
0.75 F 9.2

1.2 F 0.2 g l

30 mm
(applied rain)

Runoff
coefficient:
0.40 F 12.0

2.1 F 0.3 g l

Open plots
1385 cm2

30 mm
(applied rain)

Runoff
coefficient:
0.47 F 9.2

6.1 F 1.2 g l

Open plots
1385 cm2

30 mm
(applied rain)

Runoff
coefficient:
0.53 F 7.4

1.8 F 0.5 g l

A. Calvo-Cases et al. / Geomorphology 50 (2003) 269291

Romero
Daz et al.
(1999)

275

276

A. Calvo-Cases et al. / Geomorphology 50 (2003) 269291

Alicante, southeast Spain (Fig. 1) along a transect

representing a gradient of strong contrast in climatological conditions (Mediterranean subhumid to Mediterranean semiarid). Along this gradient, differences
in land uses introduce an additional contrasting variable. The three selected study sites are representative
of the extremes of this gradient and the intermediate
conditions. In all cases, lithology has been taken as a
constant (similar types of limestone) as well as other
morphological properties such as average slope range
or aspect, in order to make the study sites comparable
and representative of their area conditions.
The fieldwork was focussed at three sites along the
gradient which runs over a straight transect of approximately 20 km from the coast inland (Fig. 1). The
highest study site, Cocoll (CC), is located at the most
northern position, at 900 m of altitude, with a mean
rainfall of 826 mm year 1 and a mean annual
temperature of 13.8 jC. The intermediate site, Callosa
(CS), is located at 350 m of altitude, with an mean
rainfall of 474 mm year 1 and an annual mean
temperature of 15.6 jC. Finally, the lowest and driest
site, Benidorm (BE), is located in the southern most

position of the transect, at 100 m of altitude, with a

mean rainfall of 387 mm year 1 and a mean annual
temperature of 17.9 jC. At each study area, two
slopes of contrasting aspect (North and South) were
chosen to carry out the experimental work and sampling. All the studied zones are located on calcareous
bedrock (Limestone) from the Upper Cretaceous.
Their present land use is semi-natural forest and on
some slopes, the remains of old agricultural terraces
can be found. Soils are classified as Lithic Leptosols
in the most arid site (BE), in the intermediate site (CS)
soils are classified as Lithic Leptosol, Chromic Luvisol, Haplic Calcisol and Calcic Regosol. In the highest
and wettest site (CC), soils are mainly Lithic Leptosols and Chromic Luvisols (Soriano et al., 1996). Soil
structure is much more stable on north facing slopes
under vegetation than on south facing slopes in bare
patches. Soil aggregate stability has shown to be
dependent on organic matter, clay and calcium carbonate contents. Interesting relations between soil structure and soil hydrology have appeared, suggesting that
small aggregate sizes facilitate water infiltration (Boix
Fayos et al., 1998, 2001).

2. Methods

Fig. 1. Location map of the study areas with expression of the mean
annual rainfall. CC = Cocoll, CS = Callosa, BE = Benidorm.

The hydrological response of the soil was studied

by means of (i) rainfall simulation experiments, (ii) by
monitoring runoff and sediments under natural rain in
the field and (iii) by laboratory determination of water
retention characteristic of the soils.
(i) The rainfall simulator described by Calvo et al.
(1988), Cerda et al. (1997) and BGRG Rainfall Simulation Database (http://www.geog.le.ac.uk/bgrg/) was
used carrying out two types of rainfall experiments:
(a) Long duration rainfall simulation experiments
with soil moisture monitoring at different depths.
These experiments had the objective of characterising the evolution of soil moisture and soil water
redistribution within the soil profile during the rain
events.
Experiments of between 2 and 5 h at 27 mm h 1
of average rain intensity were performed on south
facing slopes at Benidorm and Cocoll (in the two
extremes of the climatological gradient). A total of 12
experiments were carried out, 7 in Benidorm and 5 in
Cocoll on soil surfaces with different degrees of

A. Calvo-Cases et al. / Geomorphology 50 (2003) 269291

vegetation and rock fragment coverture representative

of the surface properties along the slopes.
During these experiments, soil moisture was continuously monitored with a TDR (Tektronix 1502C),
placing sensors at different depths within the same
soil profile (Fig. 2). TDR roods where placed horizontally at each depth and in different directions in
order to avoid interferences. At the top of the soil, one

Fig. 2. Detailed topography of the Benidorm and Cocoll sites and

distribution of the measurement points.

277

of the sensors was placed with the rods in vertical

position and in some cases the deeper sensor was also
placed vertically within the soil infilling bedrock
cracks. The number of sensors was dependent on
the thickness of the soil. A minimum of two sensors
were placed in some very shallow soils (12-cm depth)
in Benidorm, and a maximum of seven in deeper soils
(more than 50 cm deep) in Cocoll. Runs of rain at 15min intervals (15 min of rain and 15 min without rain
to allow drainage) were performed. Every experiment
lasted a minimum of 2 h and a maximum of 5 h
(depending on the soil response) until steady soil
moisture was reached at each horizon. TDR measures
where converted into soil moisture using the Topp et
al. (1980) model.
(b) Short duration rainfall simulation experiments
to quantify runoff generation and sediment production
at the three sites (BE, CS and CC) were carried out
(Boix Fayos et al., 1998). The same simulator from
the former experiments was used. Rain intensity was
of 55 mm h 1 on closed circular plots of 0.24 m2. An
average of 10 plots was established at different slope
positions and covering different microenvironments
on six slopes (one south facing and the other north
facing per site). A total 59 experiments were carried
out in summer with very dry soil conditions (with an
average gravimetric soil moisture of 5% in the upper 6
cm) and 58 in winter with wetter soil conditions
(average soil moisture of 19%). The experiments
lasted between 45 and 60 min until a steady infiltration rate was reached. Runoff was measured every
minute and sediment concentration was determined
during three points within the experiment (1) at the
beginning of the runoff, (2) before a stable runoff rate
was reached and (3) at the end of the experiment
under constant runoff rates. Soil moisture and bulk
density were determined gravimetrically before and
after each experiment at two soil depths (0 3 and 3 6
cm, sampling the soil in the area surrounding the plot
that was also under the simulated rainfall cone).
(ii) To study the soil response under natural rain
and at a different scale, erosion plots of Gerlach type
(50 cm wide and open) were set up on the south
facing slopes of the two extremes of the climatological gradient (BE and CC). Precipitation, total runoff
and sediment yield recorded during 3 1/2 years are
presented here (from August of 1996 until February
2000).

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A. Calvo-Cases et al. / Geomorphology 50 (2003) 269291

The plots (5 in CC and 7 in BE, Fig. 2) were

regularly cleaned for sediments in the traps and runoff
measured in the collectors, especially after each rainfall event. Over half of the measuring period, three
plots at each of the sites were continuously monitored
with an automatic pressure sensor for water level.
(iii) Soil water retention curves determination.
Volumetric soil water content at pF values 0.4, 1,
1.5, 2, 2.7, 3.4, 4.2 and 6.1 was determined using sand
and kaolinite boxes and a pressure membrane apparatus (Stakman et al., 1969; Stakman and van der
Harst, 1969). Volumetric soil moisture and correction
for stones were determined by the method described
in Boix Fayos (1997).

3. Results
3.1. Runoff production
The results of the rainfall simulation experiments
show that in general low runoff coefficients, low
erosion rates and high infiltration capacities are found
in all the studied areas (Table 2). The hydrological and
erosive response of the soils is similar to the findings
of other authors on the same type of lithology and
under similar environmental conditions (Table 1). In
general, soils react differently to rainfall depending on
the antecedent soil moisture conditions and on the
associated changes of bulk density.
Under low soil moisture conditions (summer), soils
follow the expected degradation gradient, which
means that the bare and vegetated patches of the most
arid zone suffer more erosion than those in the wetter
areas. The factors that influence the hydrological and
erosive response of the soil under these conditions are
vegetation, bedrock outcrops, stoniness, slope angle
and soil organic matter content (Table 3).
Under high soil moisture conditions (winter), the
soils on the south facing slopes suffer more degradation than those on the north facing slopes. The
vegetation controls the soil hydrological response
over the climate conditions of each study area. In
other words, higher infiltration capacities appear in
the vegetated soil patches independently of their
situation along the gradient and of the climatological
characteristics. Under these conditions, the factors that
control the hydrological and erosive behaviour of the

soil are, according to the results in Table 4, the same

as in summer, together with the antecedent soil water
content and the changes in bulk density.
During the summer experiments, only the surface
horizon of some soils of the north facing slope of
Cocoll reached saturation conditions (Fig. 3), during
the winter experiments, with higher antecedent soil
moisture conditions, some soils of the north facing
slopes in Benidorm and Cocoll showed saturation of
the upper soil layer (5 cm). After the experiments, the
soils on both south and north facing slopes in Benidorm and Cocoll were close to saturation (Fig. 3).
Thus, part of the runoff produced could be due to the
saturation of the superficial layer of soil.
The results obtained in the erosion plots under
natural rain events are in agreement with those
obtained from the rainfall simulation experiments.
They show that soils in the semiarid site, Benidorm,
produce higher runoff rates than soils in the subhumid
area of Cocoll. These results (Fig. 4) show that the
runoff/precipitation ratio in BE is 3.3 times higher
than in CC (0.16 and 0.08, respectively). The total
runoff during the studied period (3 1/2 years) was 1.5
times higher in BE than in CC (176 and 119 l m 1,
respectively). In the same slopes, the average infiltration rate (Fc) obtained in the rainfall simulation
experiments is 33.2 and 20.8 mm h 1 for BE and
CC, respectively.
3.2. Water redistribution in the soil profile
Both in Cocoll and in Benidorm, two types of
water redistribution in the soil profile during the
infiltration processes are observed (Figs. 5 and 6,
respectively). First, profiles 1 and 6 in Benidorm
(Fig. 6) show a uniform distribution of the water in
the soil. Second, in profiles 2, 3, 4, 5 and 7 in
Benidorm and all the profiles in Cocoll (Fig. 6) a
nonuniform distribution of the water in the soil can be
distinguished. The first group of soils shows soil
moisture contents that decrease in depth during the
rainfall event. In the second group, some deeper
horizons of the soil reach higher soil moisture than
the upper ones.
Furthermore, in Cocoll (Fig. 5), the shallower soils
located at the middle part of the slope (Lithic Leptosols, profiles 1, 2 and 3) have a different behaviour
from the deeper soils (Chromic Luvisols, profiles 4

A. Calvo-Cases et al. / Geomorphology 50 (2003) 269291

279

Table 2
Some soil hydrological and erosional parameters derived from the 1-h rainfall simulations on all the slopes
Time to
ponding
(min)

aa

mg

mg

cvh

Pob (min)

cvh

mg

cvh

Fcc
(mm h

Tcd (min)

Rce

Scf
(g l

Sediment
yield (g)

Erosion
(g m 2 h

cvh

mg

cvh

mg

1.4
0.19
0.28
0.76
0.07
0.02

119
164
163
102
117
2.54

2.06
0.69
8.33
3.15
1.53
0.39

104
141
191
153
248
212

mg

cvh

mg

cvh

mg

cvh

mg

96
202
187
98
150
122

0.77 60
0.43 84
0.53 70
0.95 127
0.26 93
0.29
2.17

Summer
BESi 1.3 116 0.26
BENj 3.42 126 1
CSSk 6.42 72 0.79
CSNl 6.12 26 0.9
CCSm 9.15 153 0.2
CCNn 9.47 31 0.93

119 3.07 67
161 6.77 82
268 2.43 153
161 11.1 105
209 4.79 142
162 9.1
78

33.2
37
17.01
49.37
20.77
38.09

55
66
148
11
129
69

28.49
10.43
3.34
19.71
12.05
16.91

141
85
228
83
163
148

0.17
0.0
0.02
0.08
0.01
0

Winter
BESi
BENj
CSSk
CSNl
CCSm
CCNn

135
148
101
203
218
130

35.29
41.75
23.39
28.54
26.66
41.79

38
42
76
62
76
51

59.99
25.07
10.23
7.49
61.62
33

221
168
68
127
236
1.75

0.29 77 0.91 108

0.1 121 0.43 102
0.55 57 1.06 180
0.32 98 0.46 94
0.19 90 0.25 181
0.17 160 0.06 170

2.37
2.22
1.13
1.02
1.35
2.27

76
98
96
71
86
84

0.65
0.74
1.02
2.58
1.27
1.13

1.94 86
4.43 93
1.12
0.67
2.05 89
1.48 96
5.38 118

cvh

6.61
0.88
1.16
4.2
0.33
0.1

124
174
163
106
119
2.52

11.58
3.56
47.28
17.89
6.5
1.86

134
149
196
167
2.43
2.14

Decay of the infiltration rate index according to Horton equation.

Threshold of precipitation to runoff.
c
Infiltration rate according to Horton when Tl.
d
Starting time of steady infiltration according to Horton.
e
Runoff coefficient.
f
Sediment concentration.
g
Average value.
h
Coefficient of variation (%).
i
Benidorm south facing slope.
j
Benidorm north facing slope.
k
Callosa south facing slope.
l
Callosa north facing slope.
m
Cocoll south facing slope.
n
Cocoll north facing slope.
b

and 5) located on the uppermost and lowermost part

of the slope. This different behaviour can be understood by considering two parameters: (i) the time
threshold at which the soil reaches a steady infiltration
rate translated into a constant soil moisture value and
(ii) the transmission of water within the soil profile
translated in the different degrees of moisture in the
horizons.
Regarding the first parameter, one or more horizons of profiles 1, 2 and 3 seem to reach a constant
soil moisture value (around 30%) around 50 min from
the beginning of the rainfall event. However, in
profiles 4 and 5, most of the horizons (with the
exception of the deepest ones) reach a constant soil
moisture value after 100 min of rain. Regarding the
second parameter, profiles 1, 2 and 3 show an inter-

mediate horizon which hardly increases its moisture

content during the rain event (located at 3.5, 7 and 5
cm of depth in profiles 1,2 and 3, respectively) and all
the profiles show very low moisture contents in their
deepest horizons. However, the surface and intermediate horizons (located at 6, 9.5 and 10 cm in profiles 1,
2 and 3, respectively) get a progressive and parallel
increase in their moisture contents. From this, a
behavioural model of soil water distribution during
the infiltration process can be postulated. These soils
have a nonuniform infiltration behaviour that is determined, probably, by the existence of macropores at the
soil surface. Between the soil surface and the deeper
horizons with similar water contents, there is an
intermediate soil layer with very low moisture values
that is acting as a transmission layer between the

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Table 3
Correlation matrix between hydrological and erosional indicators and morphological characteristics of the rainfall simulation plots derived from
the experiments carried out in summer (N = 58, p = 0.05)
Summer

Slope
(j)

Time to
ponding (min)
Runoff
coefficient
Fce
Sediment
concentration
(g l 1)
Erosion
(g m 2 h 1)
a
b
c
d
e

Lichens
(%)

Moss
(%)

Vega
(%)

Litter
(%)

Stones
(%)

Rock
(%)

Soil
depth
(cm)

BDb
(g cm

SMc 0
3 cm
(cm3 cm

SMc 3
7 cm
(cm3 cm

OMd
(%)
3

0.29

0.27

0.41

0.30

0.25

0.29

0.48

0.31

0.55

Vegetation cover.
Bulk density.
Volumetric soil moisture.
Organic matter content.
Infiltration rate according to Horton when Tl.

deeper layers, especially in profile 5 (layers at 15 and

22 cm of depth), with a higher soil moisture than the
surface horizon, also indicate preferential macropore
flow. However, in these profiles, all the layers experience a progressive increase of their water contents
compared to profiles 1, 2 and 3, probably caused by a
more homogeneous soil structure and a high water
retention capacity of all the layers.

upper and lower wetter layers. Finally, the low soil

moisture contents recorded by the deepest sensors are
indicating the border marked by the wetting front,
which is located above the 20-cm depth in profiles 1,
2 and 3. This infiltration behaviour seems to be caused
by preferential water flows by macropores due to
roots, biological activity and stones. In profiles 4
and 5, the high soil moisture contents reached by

Table 4
Correlation matrix between hydrological and erosional indicators and morphological characteristics of the rainfall simulation plots derived from
the experiments carried out in winter (N = 57, p = 0.05)
Winter

Time to
ponding (min)
Runoff
coefficient
Fce
Sediment
concentration
(g l 1)
Erosion
(g m 2 h 1)
a
b
c
d
e

Slope
(j)

Lichens
(%)

Moss
(%)

Vega
(%)

Litter
(%)

Stones
(%)

Rock
(%)

Soil
depth
(cm)

BDb
(g cm

SMc 0
3 cm
(cm3 cm

SMc 3
7 cm
(cm3 cm

OMd
(%)
3

0.28

0.39

0.51

0.30

0.32

0.29

0.25

0.36

0.27

0.27

Vegetation cover.
Bulk density.
Volumetric soil moisture.
Organic matter content.
Infiltration rate according to Horton when Tl.

A. Calvo-Cases et al. / Geomorphology 50 (2003) 269291

281

Fig. 3. Soil moisture in Benidorm and Cocoll after the 55-mm rain applied in winter (antecedent wet soil conditions) and summer (antecedent
dry soil conditions) compared with soil moisture at pF 0.4 and 2.7 determined in the laboratory for the same soils.

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A. Calvo-Cases et al. / Geomorphology 50 (2003) 269291

Fig. 4. Average values during the measuring period (August 1996 February 2000) of runoff/pp ratio, sediment concentration, total runoff and
total sediment yield in the open erosion plots.

In the case of profile 4, the water content recorded

by the 42-cm deep sensor indicates that the wetting
front is located under it. In the case of profile 5, the
wetting front seems to be located at about 22 cm due
to the low water content recorded by the sensors
located at 22 and 24 cm of the depth.
Recent unpublished research for the same site
monitors the moisture content of these soil profiles
under natural rain and it has recorded that profiles 1
and 2 in the middle part of the slope, corresponding
with the most shallow soils and with more than 80%
of stones on the surface, show a more homogeneous
distribution of soil moisture, decreasing from the
upper to deeper horizons within the profile. During
most of the year, profiles 3, 4 and 5 show intermediate
and deeper layers with high water contents. They
correspond to soils under vegetation or soils with
argilic horizons.
In Benidorm (Fig. 6), all the profiles, with the
exception of profiles 6 and 7, reach a constant

moisture content around 50 min from the beginning

of the rain. Profiles 6 and 7 located at the lower part of
the slope only reach steady soil moisture content after
100 min of rain. Steady soil moisture values are
reached in most of the profiles at around 25% or
30% of water content, except in profile number 4
where the surface horizon shows a steady water
content at 32% while the sensor located at 7.5 cm of
depth indicates a stabilisation of the soil moisture
values around 40%. Only in profiles 1 and 6 does the
surface horizon retain higher water contents during
the whole experiment than the underlying ones. These
two profiles show crusted and bare surfaces where no
macropore flow occurs, resulting in a quite uniform
infiltration behaviour. In the other profiles, there are
always deeper horizons, which reach higher steady
moisture contents than the superficial ones, pointing
out the existence of nonuniform infiltration processes.
In contrast with Cocoll, at Benidorm, the transmission horizons reach very high water contents,

A. Calvo-Cases et al. / Geomorphology 50 (2003) 269291

283

Fig. 5. Evolution of soil moisture at different depths in monitored soil profiles at Cocoll study site during rainfall simulation experiments.

similar to the ones in the surface horizon, with the

exceptions of profiles 3 and 5. In the latter, clear
transmission horizons can be seen but with higher
water contents than those in Cocoll. This fact indicates a more uniform advance of the wetting front.
The deepest sensors in the Benidorm profiles also
show quite high values of soil moisture, indicating
that water is percolating under this depth.
In Cocoll, despite the long duration of the rain and
apparently steady soil moisture contents, none of the
soils were completely saturated after the experiments.

However, in Benidorm, the deeper soil reached saturation in all the profile, indicating that the runoff
generated in that area after 110 mm of rain was
saturation excess runoff.
3.3. Sediment movement
The exported sediment collected in the erosion
plots of the semiarid site was 16.4 times higher in
BE (1739 g m 1) than in CC (106 g m 1) in the
measurement period (21/8/1996 to 16/2/2000). This

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A. Calvo-Cases et al. / Geomorphology 50 (2003) 269291

Fig. 6. Evolution of soil moisture at different depths in monitored soil profiles at Benidorm study site during rainfall simulation experiments.

A. Calvo-Cases et al. / Geomorphology 50 (2003) 269291

285

small storms has shown, in most cases, a much more

erosive effect than the storm of 55 mm simulated
during the experiments. This could be explained by
the influence of other erosional processes, besides the
sediment movement by overland flow, such as splash,
which probably is much more effective in open
(erosion plots) than in small closed plots (rainfall
simulation plots).
Sediment exportation and detachment is much
higher on the semiarid site than on the subhumid site.
In addition, sediment movement rates are underestimated in experiments of simulated rainfall.

can be translated into a sediment concentration 4.5

times higher in BE (13.44 g l 1) than in CC (3.18 g
l 1). High runoff rates in Benidorm are associated
with high sediment yield (plots 1 and 2, Fig. 4), but
not in Cocoll where plots which produce much more
runoff than other ones (plots 1, 2 and 5 compared to
plots 3 and 4, Fig. 4) show very similar sediment
concentrations. Thus, bare patches in Cocoll act as
runoff sources but not as sediment sources because
soils are not very erodible. In Benidorm, however,
bare patches act as runoff and sediment sources, and
higher runoff rates are associated with higher sediment concentrations in runoff water.
When the sediment concentration obtained from
the rainfall simulation experiments is compared with
the sediment concentration obtained in the erosion
plots under natural rain over a period where the
amount of accumulated natural rain was comparable,
erosion plots in both sites BE and CC in most of the
cases showed much higher sediment concentrations
than the ones obtained in the experiments (Table 5). In
BE, the sediment concentration of the erosion plots is
4 times the average sediment concentration from the
rainfall simulation experiments and in CC between
0.2 and 4 times. While the experiments produce a
storm of 55 mm in 1 h, the natural rain events
produced between 50 and 69 mm in a period of time
over several storms during several days with different
antecedent soil moisture conditions. The succession of

3.4. Relationships between soil surface cover and soil

hydrological and erosional response
The associations between hydrological and erosional parameters and soil surface characteristics
have been studied in the rainfall simulation and in
the erosion plots. The correlation matrixes calculated
are presented in (Tables 3, 4 and 6), respectively.
The results obtained in the correlation matrixes
performed for the variables of the rainfall simulation
plots show that vegetation cover associates negatively with runoff coefficient ( 0.41) and positively
with infiltration capacity both in dry and in wet soil
conditions (summer and winter, respectively). For the
experiments carried out in summer, the slope correlates positively with runoff coefficient (0.27) and

Table 5
Sediment concentrations (g l 1) obtained in the erosion plots in the above-mentioned events (only sediments < 2 mm) compared with the
average sediment concentration obtained in the rainfall simulation experiments at the same areas
Natural
rain events

18/10/96,
55 mm

17/12/97,
69 mm

16/1/98,
47.6 mm

21/7/99,
51.8 mm

Event

13/7/97,
56 mm

22/9/97,
50 mm

27/11/98,
59 mm

12/4/98,
62.4 mm

BE1
BE2
BE3
BE4
BE5
BE6
BE7
Average

3.1
1
0.8
0
0
2.7
9
2.37

2.4
1.8
0
0
0
0.8
1
0.86

1.1
0
1.5
2.7
0
0.8
1
1.01

4.4
1
0.8
0.6
14.3
1
0
3.16

CC1
CC2
CC3
CC4
CC5

0
0
0
0.8
3.6

0.2
0.6
0.8
0.1
1.2

0
0
0
0
0

0.3
0
0
0
0

Average

0.88

0.58

0.23 Variation
coefficient

1.15

Rainfall simulations experiments (55 mm)

BE
Average

CC
0.84 Variation
coefficient

0.73 Average

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A. Calvo-Cases et al. / Geomorphology 50 (2003) 269291

Table 6
Correlation matrix between hydrological and erosional parameters and surface parameters in the erosion plots
Runoff
(l m 1)
Average distance
to vegetation (cm)
Maximum distance
to vegetation (cm)
Minimum distance
to vegetation (cm)
Average distance
to the crust (cm)
Maximum distance
to the crust (cm)
Minimum distance
to the crust (cm)
Vegetation cover (%)
Crust cover (%)
Stones cover (%)
Precipitation (mm)
Aggregates 10 mm (%)
Aggregates 10 5 mm (%)
Aggregates 5 2 (%)
Aggregates 2 1 (%)
Aggregates 1 0.105 (%)
Aggregates < 0.105 (%)
Stones >10 mm (%)
Stones 5 10 mm (%)
Stones 2 5 mm (%)
MWDa
RMMb

Erosion
(g m 2 h

Sediment
concentration
(g l 1)

Runoff
coefficient

0.83 *

0.78 *

0.21

0.94 *

0.85 *

0.75 *

0.22

0.86 *

0.58 *

0.59 *

0.10

0.74 *

0.67 *

0.27

0.02

0.62 *

0.57

0.27

0.03

0.53

0.46

0.04

0.09

0.43

0.54
0.64 *
0.47
0.06
0.32
0.17
0.42
0.07
0.10
0.08
0.08
0.14
0.44
0.43
0.26

0.70 *
0.74 *
0.63 *
0.46
0.12
0.04
0.25
0.04
0.28
0.34
0.32
0.44
0.68 *
0.05
0.34

0.51
0.41
0.50
0.59 *
0.54
0.11
0.56
0.06
0.34
0.28
0.06
0.31
0.42
0.49
0.50

0.67 *
0.83 *
0.58 *
0.39
0.17
0.17
0.03
0.03
0.22
0.25
0.20
0.44
0.71 *
0.08
0.21

Marked correlations (*) are significant at p < 0.05, N = 12.

a
Mean Weight Diameter of aggregates (mm).
b
Ratio Microaggregation ( < 2/>2 mm).

sediment concentration (0.25), rock outcrops associates positively with runoff coefficient (0.3) and
stoniness and organic matter content with the infiltration capacity (0.29 and 0.48, respectively). For the
experiments carried out in winter, stoniness (0.3) and
bulk density (0.32) associate positively with runoff
coefficients and negatively with infiltration capacity.
Soil moisture correlates negatively with runoff coefficients ( 0.29) (Tables 3 and 4).
Results obtained from the analysis of the variables
at the erosion plots show that runoff and erosion
correlate positively with the distance to the plants
(in a range of 0 1 m) and with the crust cover. When
the distance to the plants and the crust cover is higher,
runoff and erosion rates are also higher. The coverage

percentage of the vegetation correlates negatively with

the erosion and with the runoff coefficient. The stone
cover at the soil surface and in particular the percentage of stones between 2 and 5 cm in size correlates
positively with the erosion and with the runoff coefficient (Table 6).
At both scales of analysis, the vegetation cover on
the soil surface appears as a key factor influencing
infiltration capacity and erosion. The analysis of the
data at the erosion plots, however, has revealed that
the distance to the plants is an even more important
factor for runoff production than total cover of vegetation. When the distance to the plants or the size of
the bare patches is higher, the runoff production is
also higher.

A. Calvo-Cases et al. / Geomorphology 50 (2003) 269291

4. Discussion and conclusions

4.1. Behaviour of the soil moisture profile during the
infiltration process
From the simulation experiments, three conceptual models of water distribution in the soil profile
during the infiltration process can be drawn. The first
one (Fig. 7(1)) corresponds to a nonuniform water
redistribution process and occurs especially in the
soil under vegetation and in shallow soil profiles
which show a noncompacted and noncrusted surface.
In this model, the superficial and a second intermediate soil horizon reach steady soil moisture
values almost at the same time. Between these two
horizons, a first intermediate horizon shows much
lower soil moisture values during the infiltration
process. This is a transmission horizon where the
water is being transferred quite quickly from the
upper, wetter, to the lower horizon through macropore flow. This first intermediate soil layer retains
very low amounts of water. The second is a uniform
water redistribution model that only occurs in the
shallow crusted soils of Benidorm located on bare

287

areas. In this model, the soil moisture gradient

decreases from the upper to the lower horizons,
indicating the absence of quick macropore flow
and the existence of a progressive advance of the
wetting front (Fig. 7(2)). The third model has characteristics of the two former ones (Fig. 7(3)). It is a
nonuniform water redistribution model, but not so
extreme as the first one. This infiltration behaviour
happens in deeper soils located mainly downslope,
although in the case of Cocoll also in the clay
accumulation pocket which appears upslope. In this
model, similar steady soil moisture values are also
reached by the upper and intermediate-lower horizons of the soil, but much later than in the first
model described (after 100 min of rain at 55 mm
h 1), indicating a macropore flow. However, the
soil horizons between these two are able to retain
important amounts of water and reach quite high soil
moisture values, although never as high as in the
upper and lower horizons. This behaviour indicates
that the macropore flow is less quick than in the first
model and that the intermediate, better structured
horizons retain higher amounts of water which
delays the generation of runoff.

Fig. 7. Models of water redistribution in the soil profile during the infiltration process: 1, 3: nonuniform water redistribution; 2: uniform water
redistribution process.

288

A. Calvo-Cases et al. / Geomorphology 50 (2003) 269291

Similar nonuniform soil water redistribution processes have been described by Bergkamp et al. (1996)
in other limestone slopes in Spain. They observed
how rapid nonuniform infiltration near vegetation
clusters occurred, related to preferential flow paths
of water. This prevented the development of runoff
over distances larger than 1 m. The results shown here
are quite similar to those of Bergkamp et al. (1996)
with the addition of at least two types of nonuniform
infiltration behaviour depending on the thickness and
development of the soil profile. This nonuniformity of
the infiltration is probably causing a feedback mechanism where water is being rapidly reinfiltrated in the
clusters of vegetation improving the soil conditions
for the growth of the vegetation cluster.
4.2. Runoff generation mechanisms
The two traditional mechanisms of runoff generation (runoff by infiltration excess and runoff by

saturation excess) have been identified in the study

areas. When soils were very dry, runoff was generated
only on very degraded and crusted surfaces. However,
this runoff was quickly reinfiltrated in close soil
patches with higher infiltration rates as already
described for similar Mediterranean environments
(Yair and Lavee, 1974, 1976, 1982, 1985; Yair and
Klein, 1973; Yair, 1983, 1996; Cerda` i Bolinches,
1995; Lavee et al., 1998). When the soils are wet,
higher runoff rates occurred. Even though the whole
soil profile was not saturated after 55 mm of rainfall, it
produced runoff. This runoff was not continuous
along the slope and it was also reinfiltrated in adjacent
vegetated patches. In both cases, it could be termed
discontinuous Hortonian runoff.
Some of the surfaces presented high soil moisture
values after the rainfall experiments, showing saturation of the first 5 cm of soil and causing runoff, as has
been found in other types of Mediterranean soils
(Puigdefabregas et al., 1998, 1999). This mechanism

Fig. 8. Models of runoff generation in Mediterranean limestone slopes, (A) Hortonian discontinuous runoff model, (B) mixed discontinuous
runoff model. Q0 = Hortonian overland flow, Q0(s) = Saturation excess overland flow. Arrows indicate the water paths.

A. Calvo-Cases et al. / Geomorphology 50 (2003) 269291

corresponds to a saturation runoff type, also discontinuous in space, because it is reinfiltrated before it
reaches the bottom of the slope.
The long duration rainfall experiments have demonstrated that in deeper soils, the saturation of the
profile can occur after 110 mm of rain and the runoff
generated is then due to a saturation excess of the soil
profile.
At the slope scale, this behaviour implies a hydrological disconnection between the different slope segments. Thus, both Hortonian and saturation runoff can
be generated but both can be reinfiltrated downslope.
In the most degraded slopes, or during high intensity
rain events, the most suitable hydrological model is
the Hortonian discontinuous runoff model (Fig. 8A).
On less degraded slopes or during rain events with
previously wetted soils, a mixed runoff generation
model fits better (Fig. 8B). In this case, infiltration
excess runoff as well as saturation excess runoff can
happen on the same slope.
Upscaling this behaviour to the small basin scale,
it is difficult to predict under which type of conceptual
model runoff would reach riverbeds close to these
slopes. It is logical to think that, with sufficient
amounts of rainfall, a saturated area could occur
downslope, but in general during most of the rainfall
events in these areas, this saturated zone does not
occur. If runoff does reach the riverbed, it will be
generated by isolated contributing areas adjacent to
the riverbed, where runoff can be the result of both an
excess of infiltration or an excess of saturation.
The vegetation plays a very significant role in
controlling runoff generation and erosion. More
important than the total cover of vegetation, however,
is the size of the bare patches (measured as distance to
the plants in the erosion plots). This parameter can
generate a higher or lower runoff and erosion rate.
These Mediterranean limestone slopes behave as a
patchwork of runoff and runon patches as described
by Lavee et al. (1998) where the size of the bare
patches (contributing areas to runoff) depends on the
climatic characteristics. Wetter climatological conditions (subhumid areas or rainy periods) produce runoff generated by the Hortonian mechanism or by the
saturation of the upper soil layer. This is always
discontinuous in space with a decrease of the size of
source areas. More arid climatological conditions
produce an increase in the size of the contribution

289

areas to runoff and normally when overland flow

takes place, it is due to infiltration excess, which
again is discontinuous in space and time

Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the Commission of the
European Union for the support provided by the
research contracts ERMES I (EV5V-CT91-0023) and
ERMES II (ENV4-CT95-0181). The Spanish Ministries of Environment and of Science and Education is
also acknowledged because of the support through the
contract RESEL (Contribucion Espanola al Desarrollo
del Convenio Mundial para Prevenir la Desertificacion: I.Red de Cuencas y Parcelas Experimentales
de seguimiento y Evaluacion de la Erosion y
Desertificacion) and project SENSI (AMB99-1246),
respectivelly. A. Corell, J. Cuenca, B. Garca, L.
Ramrez, A. Reus, M.D. Soriano and L. Navarro are
greatly acknowledged because of their valuable work
in the field and in the laboratory. C. Fitzjohn, J.
Wainwright and A. Mather are thanked for improving
earlier versions of the manuscript.

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