References:

Ymas, S.E. & Dayrit, B.C. (2012). College statistics with computer applications. Manila: Ymas
Publishing House
Mendenhall, W., Beaver, R.J., & Beaver, B.M. (2013). Introduction to probability and statistics. [14th
Ed.]. Boston: Brooks/Cole

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
1. Levels of Measurement
*There are two types of data: quantitative and qualitative.
*Qualitative Data may be Nominal or Ordinal. These are discrete data.
*Quantitative Data may be Interval or Ratio. These may be discrete or continuous, but
most often continuous.
*NOMINAL Data these are names or categories (ex. Gender)
*ORDINAL Data these are ranks or hierarchy (ex. Level of Customer Satisfaction)
*INTERVAL Data these are actual amounts. Zero (0) is just a place holder. (ex. age, a
person with an age of 0 is not a person because he is not alive)
*RATIO Data these are values where zero (0) has meaning (ex. 0 votes in an election
means the candidate did not get any vote)
2. Measures of Central Tendency
*These are descriptions of the central point of a given data set. They show the middle
value of a set of data.
*For a data said to be of normal distribution, the mean, median, and mode are EQUAL.
*Mean average of the data. Used for INTERVAL/RATIO
*Median the center of the data. Used for ORDINAL
*Mode the highest occurring data. Used for NOMINAL
3. Measures of Variation
*These are descriptions of how far given data are from one another. They show
scatteredness of a set of data.
*Range
*Interquartile Range
*Mean Deviation
*Variance
*Standard Deviation most important
*Coefficient of Variation
*To interpret:
-The larger the measure of variation, the more scattered a set of data is. The data are
highly variable. The set is then considered heterogenous.
-The smaller the measure of variation, the less scattered a set of data is. The data are less
variable. The set is then considered homogenous.
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
STATISTICAL TESTS and HYPOTHESIS TESTING
Purpose of Hypothesis Testing: to make a judgement of the difference between the sample and
the population.
*Statistic a value that describes the Sample
*Parameter a value that describes the Population
*When the statistic has no significant difference from the parameter, the sample is
representative of the population.
*When the statistic has a significant difference from the parameter, the sample is not
representative of the population.
1. Parts of a Statistical Test

a. Null Hypothesis: implies there is no significant difference between variables

b. Alternative Hypothesis: implies there is a significant difference between
variables
2. Errors in Conclusions
a. Type I Error ( error): rejecting the null hypothesis when it should be accepted
b. Type II Error ( error): accepting the null hypothesis when it should be rejected
3. Statistical Significance
a. Level of Significance (): the maximum possibility of rejecting the null hypothesis
when it is true.
*For example, a level of significance of 0.05 means that the possible error we make
in concluding about a hypothesis is only 5%. Therefore, we are 95% confident all the
time that a certain relationship is true.
*The lower the level of significance, the higher the possibility of getting an accurate
observation.
*Usually:
= 0.05 in behavioral/psychological, epidemiological, sociological studies
= 0.01 in RCTs, experimental, investigational studies
b. P-value: the possibility of having a result that is as extreme as or too extreme than
a set value
*To interpret:
-If the p-value is lower than the , reject the null hypothesis
-If the p-value is higher than the , accept the null hypothesis
-p-value is < 0.01 reject the null hypothesis because the results are highly
significant
-p-value is between 0.01 to 0.05 reject the null hypothesis because the results are
moderately significant
-p-value is between 0.05 to 0.10 accept the null hypothesis because the results
are moderately insignificant
-p-value > 0.10 accept the null hypothesis because the results are highly
insignificant
*For example, a study has an = 0.05. The results revealed a p-value of 0.04. It
means that the maximum possible error is 5% (because is 0.05); since the p-value
is less than , the decision should be to reject the null hypothesis.
4. Interpretation of Results of Statistical Tests
a. If the computed value is GREATER THAN the tabulated value at a given degree of
freedom and level of significance, reject the null hypothesis. There is a
significant difference.
b. If the computed value is LESS THAN the tabulated value at a given degree of
freedom and level of significance, accept the null hypothesis. There is no
significant difference.
5. Statistical Tests
PARAMETRIC TESTS
When to use Parametric
Tests:
a. The sample size is relatively
small (each sample consists
of 30 members or less).
b. The sample must have been
randomly selected.
c. The population from which
the sample has been
obtained should be of normal

Conditions of the Data

Under Consideration

NON-PARAMETRIC TESTS
When to use Non-Parametric
Tests:
a. The sample size is relatively
large (each sample consists
of more than 30 members).
b. The samples were not
randomly selected.
c. The population from which
the sample has been
obtained has a large

distribution (variability is
small).
d. Standards of observation over
a population are set.

1. Z Test
2. T Test (Dependent)

3. T Test (Independent)

4. ANOVA/F-Test
One Dep Variable: One
Way
Two Dep Variable: Two
Way
5. Chi Square
6. Pearsons Correlation
Coefficient

d.

One Sample (General)

One/Two Samples (With
Correlation; Dependent
Groups)
Two Samples (Without
Correlation; Independent
Groups)
Several Samples

Categorical Samples
(NOMINAL DATA)
Relationship Between
Variables

variability.
The standard of observation
is arbitrary, or researcherdependent.

1. (No Equivalent)
2. Wilcoxon Rank Sum
Test
Wilcoxon Rank Signed
Test
(ORDINAL DATA)
3. Mann-Whitney U Test

4. Kruskal-Wallis Test

5. Chi Square
6. Spearmans Correlation
Coefficient