is theory can be used in implementing paychother- ‘apy. guiding parent-child celations, and interpreting abnormal bebavior. j objects other than pment of these life g which the fort or: concomitant tasks omcentrated on the se foci Froud stated 1s that must be 7 ALFRED ADLER [1870-1997] ‘ifred Adler's concepts ofthe uniqueness of man rep tosentad the first major departure from Freud's theory. ‘Adler emphasized the conscious as being the core of personality, Believing thot personality is shopod by ‘ne individual social environments and interactions, ke proposed that individuals can activaly guide and fashion their own growth and development. ‘Adler was tho socond-born of six childron of a Wi eomose merchant [tis easy to assume that Adler drow experionees from his unhappy childhood when he pro posed in his theory thet person can compensate for feolings of inferionty. (Adler was unable to run and play with other children because he had rickets. When fe wos 3 yoars old, he saw hia younger brother die in thebod next to him.) Initially viewed as awkward and anatiactive, Adler expended much energy to gain ac ‘eplance from his peers. He wanted to increase his senso of worth-a positive feling he had pot attained within his home and family. Adler rose from being Considered a mediocre student who should not pursue aw academic eareer fo become the best student in the als 234 ‘Aer studying medicine at the University of Vienna ard after several attempts at various fields of med dine, be entered neurology and psychiatry. Adler vorkad closely with Sigmund Froud for 9 years; how ‘vez their eeationship was nota particulary friendly Ge, Afier Word War J, Adler organized many gov feoment- sponsored child counseling clinics in Vienna We was very busy in the following years, froquontly ‘iting the United States to lecture. Iwas on a lecture ‘ur that he succumbed to heart attack in 1897 (23) Adler's Concepts and Terms {arto that inferiority fesings are eer present SShursans and are the stimulus fr growth, fet hat Senn could compensate for ether imagined or ral rites. Adior proposed that a porson could do oP an “inferiority complex” or “an inability to solve problems” (1) by being organically inferior (2) by piled and then having to meet rejection, o (3 nog neha, He bal tht people sive fr Beton" or perfection” and are always sooking pb ovement This quest for superiority increases tne od thus calls forth more efforts. Adler lso bo tat the bet situation for making these efforts B. Selected Theories of Development 085, was that of a self-reliant individual working coopera: tively with others within his culture (2) ‘Adler’s Emphasis on Human Growth ‘and Development ‘Adler beloved that each individual cultivates a unique pattern of striving for superiority thet is. every person formulates a life-style or character. This life-style is Jearned from early parent child interactions. Adler postulated that one's lifestyle is firmly set by early ‘childhood {1), Even the very young, he said, are free {to interpret their experiences, An individual mey ‘choose to change in later years only if itis realized that inappropriate and disturbing responses are inadequate “holdovers from childhood (2) Adler belioved that getting elong with others isthe first task one encoun- ters inf; this way of coping becomes a basis for later ‘bchavior. He also proposed birth order os one of the major social factors in ones childhood that affects the type of lifestyle one chooses. ‘According to Adler, all individuals must solve three categories of problems during ther lifetime—problems ‘volving behavior toward others, problems of ocew- pation, and problems of love. He spoke of four basic styles that people use in working through these prob- Jems—avoidance, expecting fo get eversthing from thers, dominating others, and cooperating with oth ‘ers by acting in accordance with their needs [29} Adler's Techniques of Inquiry ‘Adler developed this theory from information he {gained in informal conversations with his patients. Ho paid panticlar attention to body language tthe expres Sion offelings or thoughts by means of bodily move- tents) Adler also gained information from his patients, and thus fr his theory, by assessing their or fer of birth and their dreams, and by asking them to recall their first memories of childhood {17 ‘Somme eiticae Adler's theory for its simplicity; oth cers state that he was not always systematic and that he Joh mony questions unanswered. There are also those ‘who question how a child less than 5 years of age cat ‘choose his ot her awn life-style ‘Allred Adler's thoory has become most appliceble to school guidance counseling, penal reform. peychoso- matic medicine, and individual psychology. ERICH FROMM [1900-1980] Like Adler, Erich Fromm is often referred to as @ s0- cial-psychological theorist. He viowed an individual's personality as influenced more by culture than by bi