Environmental Engineering Lecture Notes

17/07/2014
LECTURE NO. 1
KC31903 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
Introduction
Dr Abu Zahrim Yaser
Ph.D. in Chemical and Environmental Eng. (SWANSEA)
M.Sc. in Chemical and Process Eng. (UKM)
B.Eng. in Chemical Eng. (MALAYA)
Introduction
Introduction to syllabus
Legislation and regulation
Role of Chemical Engineers
Acts and Laws

Akta Kualiti Alam Sekeliling 1974
Peraturan-Peraturan Kualiti Alam Sekeliling
(Effluen Perindustrian) 2009
Notes:
Standard A: Catchment area, Standard B:
Other than catchment area
Not imply to palm oil mill effluent, rubber
effluent etc.
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Acts and Laws (cont.)
BOD = Biochemical oxygen demand

COD = chemical oxygen demand (potassium dichromate)
Total solids (TS): Residue after dried at 105 0C.
Total suspended solids (TSS) : filter (1.58 m), dried at 105
0C.
Oil and grease
Ammoniacal nitrogen (NH3-N) = ammonia nitrogen = total
ammonia nitrogen (NH3 + NH4+)
pH
Colour
Total dissolved solid = TS - TSS
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LECTURE NO. 2
Mass and Energy Balances
Dr. Abu Zahrim Yaser

MASS BALANCE
APPLICATIONS
1. Hydrologic Balance
2.Rational Method for Predicting Runoff
3. Volume of Retention Ponds & Reservoirs
4. Reactor Design
Water Treatment
Wastewater Treatment
Air Pollution Control
5. Oxygen Balance in Streams & Rivers
6. Waste Audits in Hazardous Waste
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Concept
Analogous to Balancing Checkbook
Balance = Deposit - Withdrawal
or
Deposit - Withdrawal - Balance = 0
IN ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS
Accumulation = Input - Output
of mass
of mass
of mass
PROBLEM SOLVING APPROACH

A. Draw a flowchart to show Inputs, Outputs, and
Accumulation
B. Mark system boundaries

(Similar to Free Body Diagrams)
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C. Example: Mark boundaries around

watershed as shown in next slide
Mass Balance Concept Example
River
Lake
River
Stream
Groundwater
Mass balance for water in the lake in this system can be simplified to:
Mass Out (Evaporation)
Mass in or Water in (river)
Lake
Mass out or Water Out (river+ stream)
Mass in/Out or Water in /out (seepage to

and from Groundwater)
D. Identify inputs, outputs and

accumulations as shown in next
slide
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E. Convert Concentrations and

Flow Rates to Mass Units
Example Calculation of Mass

a. Flow
Mass = (Flow) (Density) (Time)
1 m3/d = ? kg
Mass = (1m3/d) (1000 kg/m3) (1d)

= 1,000 kg
b. Compounds in Water
Mass = (Concentration) (Volume)
1 mg/L in 1 m3 = ? mg
Mass = (1 mg/L) (1 m3) (1,000 L/m3)
= 1,000mg
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F. Write Mass Balance Equation to

Account for
1. Inputs
2. Outputs
3. Accumulations
D. Verify That System Closes or Balances

Input of mass-Accumulation of Mass
Output of Mass = 0
Rate Concept
Rate Means Change With Respect to
Time so,
Rate of
Rate of
Accumulation = Input of mass
of mass
Rate of
Output
of mass
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In Calculus
dM d(In) d(Out)
dT
dT
dT
Footnote:
Steady State vs Equilibrium
Problem Solving Approach

Same as above but often requires selection of
convenient time interval
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Examples of Convenient Time intervals

m3 / d
convenient
1 day
L/s
convenient
1s
Example 1
Mr Tobobon is filling his bathtub but he forgot
to put the plug in. If the volume of water for a
bath is 0.4 m3 and the tap is flowing at 1.3
L/min and the drain is running at 0.3 L/min,
how long will it take to fill the tub to bath
level? Assume the density of water is 1000
kg/m3.
Example 2
Assuming Mr Tobobon shuts off the water
when the tub is full and does not flood the
house, how much water will be wasted?
Wasted water,
= (0.3 L/min)(400 min)
= 120 L
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Example of 3 (mixing)
A drain from palm oil mill industry that
contain 50 mg/L of oil and grease (O&G) meet
with a river. The river has naturally occurring
1.2 mg/L of O&G. If the rivers flow rate is
2000 L/min and the drains flowrate is 30
L/min, what is the concentration of O&G after
the mixing point? Assume that the river and
drain flow are completely mixed.
Mass Balance With

Transformations
Examples
1. Softening Water
a. Input
Ca(HCO3)2
b. Reaction
CaCO3
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2. Change of O2 in Stream
a. Input
O2
b. Microorganisms Use O2
CO2
IN THESE INSTANCES, THE PREVIOUS

EXPRESSION SHOWS ONLY THAT Ca(HCO3)2 OR
O2 DISAPPEARED!
MASS BALANCE WITH

TRANSFORMATION
Rate of
Rate of
Accumulation =
Input
of Mass
of Mass
Rate of Rate of
Output + Transof Mass formation
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Time Dependent Reactions are

called Kinetic Reactions
Stoichiometric Reactions are
those that have achieved

equilibrium.
Transformation rate is described by

the Reaction Rate r
dM
dt
d(In)
dt
d(Out)
dt
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Reaction rate is function of

r = f(Temperature, Pressure,
Reacting components or Products)
Example 4
A well-mixed sewage lagoon is receiving 430
m3/day of untreated sewage. The lagoon has a
surface area of 10 ha(hectares) and a depth of
1.0 m. The pollutant concentration in the raw
sewage discharging into the lagoon is 180
mg/L. The organic matter in the sewage
degrades biologically (decays) in the lagoon
according to first order kinetics.
Example 4 (cont.)
The reaction rate constant (decay coefficient)
is 0.70 d-1. Assuming no other water losses or
gains (evaporation, seepage, or rainfall) and
that the lagoon is completely mixed, find the
steady-state concentration of the pollutant in
the lagoon effluent.
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Energy balance
Conservation of Energy
Energy entering the system is equal to that
leaving plus left in the process
Forms of energy: enthalpy, electrical energy,
chemical energy (in terms of H reaction), kinetic
energy, potential energy, work, and heat inflow.
In engineering process, normally the pressure is
constant.
Due to this; electrical energy, kinetic energy,
potential energy, and work either are not present
or can be neglected.
Conservation of Energy (cont.)

Heat balance:
o Enthalpy of the materials (at constant
pressure),
o Standard chemical reaction energy (H0) at 25
0C, and
o Heat added or removed
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Heat balances
Steady state
Energy/heat coming into a process in the inlet
materials plus any energy added to the
process is equal to the energy leaving in the
materials.
Heat balances (cont.)
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OUTPUT
INPUT
Example 5
A liquid fermentation medium at 30 0C is pumped at a
rate of 2000 kg/h through a heater, where it is
heated to 70 0C under pressure. The waste heat water
used to heat this medium enters at 95 0C and leaves
at 85 0C.
The average heat capacity of the fermentation
medium is 4.06 kJ/kg. K, and that for water is 4.21
kJ/kg. K. (Assume: Constant throughout the process)
The fermentation stream and the wastewater stream
are separated by a metal surface through which heat
is transferred and do not physically mix with each
other.
Example (cont.)
1) Make a complete heat balance on the system
2) Calculate the water flow and the amount
heat added to the fermentation medium
assuming no heat losses.
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Example 5
The leachate to be fed to anaerobic digester must be
heated from 28 0C to 50 0C for the microorganisms to
function. If the flowrate of the wastewater into the
process is 17 m3/hr, at what rate must heat be added
to the wastewater flowing into the treatment
system? Assume the treatment system is completely
mixed and that there are no heat losses once the
wastewater is heated. The average heat capacity of
the wastewater is 4.21 kJ/kg. K. (Assume: Constant
throughout the process)
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LECTURE NO. 3 & 4

Water Chemistry
Dr Abu Zahrim Yaser
Physical properties of water

Mass density, : mass per unit volume
Specific weight, : = .g where g = 9.81 m/s2
Specific gravity, S = / o = / 0
Viscosity
Dynamic viscosity (absolute viscosity),
Kinematic viscosity, = /
States of solution impurities

Suspended - 0.1 m
Colloidal light reflected by particles (Tyndall
effect), 1-1000 nm (0.001-1 m)
Dissolved one phase present
Colour :
Between colloidal and dissolved
Manganese or iron complex, dye, humic acid
(reddish colour in water, Molecular Mass 80050000) etc.
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Concentration of solutions
Expressed in physical units
Expressed in chemical units
Expressed in physical units

By number of mass units of solute per volume
units of solution (as 30 g KCl per liter solution)
By the percentage composition, or number of
mass units of solute per 100 mass units of
solution
By the mass of solute per mass of solvent (as
3.5g NaCl in 100 g H2O)
Weight percent parts per million (ppm),
parts per billion (ppb) etc.
Weight percent
=
%
+
Where:
P = percent of substance by weight
W = grams of substance
W0 = grams of solution
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Weight percent
Assume:
substance does not change the density of the
water
1 mL of water weights 1 g

= = %
Density change must be accounted when the solute

concentration exceeds 10 percent
Example
A water treatment plant produces 100 kg of
dry weight of by-product material called
sludge, per day. That sludge is removed from
the treatment process in 10 m3 water. What is
the actual percent solids and the approximate
mg/L concentration?
(assuming the density of water does not change)
Expressed in chemical units
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n
Acid/base reaction: number of hydrogen ions
that the molecule transfers.
Precipitation: valence of the element
(normally refer to metal ion valence)
Compounds: number of hydrogen ions that
would be required to replace the cation.
Oxidation/reduction: change in oxidation
number that the compound undergoes the
reaction.
Expressed in chemical units (cont.)
Dilution
Volume1 x Concentration1 = Volume2 x Concentration2
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Example
Calculate the mass of anhydrous (no water)
HCl in 5.00 mL of concentrated hydrochloric
acid (density 1.19 g/mL) containing 37.23%
HCl by weight.
Example
Example
Calculate the normality for 150.0 mg/L H2SO4
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Example
What is the volume of 6M HNO3 that you must
measure to produce 175 mL of 4.5 M HNO3?
Answer: 131 mL
Equivalent weight (EW)
n
Acid/base reaction: number of hydrogen ions
that the molecule transfers.
Precipitation: valence of the element
(normally refer to metal ion valence)
Compounds: number of hydrogen ions that
would be required to replace the cation.
Oxidation/reduction: change in oxidation
number that the compound undergoes the
reaction.
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Example
Find EW for (a)
and (b) CaCO3
Answer
(a) n = 2, MM = 60.01, EW = 30.00 mg/meq
(b) n = 2, MM = 100.09, EW = 50.04 mg/meq
Chemical reactions
Precipitation (dissolved phase to solid phase)
Acid/base (hydrogen ion added/removed)
Ion-association OR Formation of dissolved
complexes: ions of opposite electrical charge
come together in solution to form a distinct
chemical entity OR tied together in solution
Oxidation/reduction (valence changes and
transfer of electrons)
Precipitation
Formation of calcium carbonate
Ca2+ + CaCO3 (s)
Coagulation
Phosphate removal
Softening, corrosion control
Iron removal
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Precipitation reactions
AbBb (s) aAb+ + bBaKs = [A]a [B]b;
Ks = solubility constant,
[ ] in mol/L
pKs = -log Ks
Example
If 50.0 mg of CO3 2 and 50.0 mg Ca2+
are present in 1 L of water, what will
be the final (equilibrium)
concentration of Ca2+ ?
pKs : 8.305
Example
How many mg/L of PO4 3 would be in
solution at equilibrium with AlPO4 (s)?
MW = 95 g/mol
Answer
AlPO4 Al3+ + PO4 3
; pKs = 20.0
Ks = 10-20.0 = [Al] [PO4]
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Example (cont.)
At equilibrium:
[Al3+] = [PO4 3 ] = X
Thus:
10-20.0 = X2 X = [PO4] = 10-10 mol/L
So, concentration in mg/L
(95 g/mol) (103 mg/g) (10-10 mol/L)
= 9.5 x 10-6 mg/L
Acid/Base reactions
pH adjustment
Analytical techniques
Coagulation
pH = - log [H+]
Example
If 100 mg H2SO4 (MW = 98) is added
to 1 L of water, what is the final pH?
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Weak acid (not completely

dissociate in water)
Acetic acid product from anaerobic digestion

Carbonic acid corrosion, softening
Hydrogen sulfide odour control
Hypochlorous acid Disinfection
Phosphoric acid phosphate removal
Weak acid (cont.)

HW H+ + W Ka =
Then, pKa = - log Ka
Formation of dissolved complexes

In aqueous solution, Al3+ is strongly hydrated and
found surrounded by six co-ordinated water
molecules in an octahedral configuration.
The high positive charge on the central metal ion
causes some polarisation of the O-H bonds and there
is a tendency for protons to dissociate giving one or
more hydroxylated species as shown by:
Al(H2O)63+ Al(H2O)5(OH)2+ + H+
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Formation of dissolved complexes

(cont.)
Since each step involves the loss of a proton,
increasing pH causes the equilibrium to be
shifted to the right.
The simplest representation, for Al3+, omitting
the hydration shell for convenience, is
represented by the following equation:
Al3+ Al(OH)2+ Al(OH)2+ Al(OH)3
Al(OH)4- (3)
Buffer solutions
Resists large changes in pH when
an acid or base is added or when
the solution is diluted e.g.
Atmospheric carbon dioxide
(carbonate buffer system)
Carbonate buffer system

+
+ + + +
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Carbonate buffer system

= carbonic acid = true carbonic
acid (H2CO3) and dissolved carbon dioxide
(CO2 (aq)), which cannot be distinguished
analytically
= bicarbonate ion
= carbonate ion
Case I
Acid is added to carbonate buffer system
Reaction shifts to the left as

is
formed when + and

combine
is released to the atmosphere
pH is lowered slightly because the availability
of free + (amount depends on buffering
capacity)
Alkalinity
How much acid to lower the pH of
water to 4.5
Carbonate species and any free H+
or OH Alkalinity = + 2 [ ]
+[OH-] + [H+]
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Alkalinity (not in molarity unit)
Alkaline vs. Alkalinity

Water has pH > 7 is alkaline
water ; alkaline water may or
may not have a high buffering
capacity
High alkalinity water is high
buffering capacity
Reaction Kinetics
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Example 4
A well-mixed sewage lagoon is receiving 430
m3/day of untreated sewage. The lagoon has a
surface area of 10 ha(hectares) and a depth of
1.0 m. The pollutant concentration in the raw
sewage discharging into the lagoon is 180 mg/L.
The organic matter in the sewage degrades
biologically (decays) in the lagoon according to
first order kinetics.
Example 4 (cont.)
The reaction rate constant (decay coefficient) is
0.70 d-1.
Assuming no other water losses or gains
(evaporation, seepage, or rainfall) and that the
lagoon is completely mixed, find the steadystate concentration of the pollutant in the
lagoon effluent.
Reaction kinetics
How reaction proceeds
Rate of reaction, r : rate of formation or
disappearance
Reaction rate
constant
Stoichiometric reaction:
aA + bB cC

= =
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Homogenous reaction
=
Moles or miligrams
unit volume unit time
Homogenous reaction: single phase
Heterogeneous reaction
=
Moles or miligrams
unit surface unit time
Heterogeneous reaction: surfaces between

phases
Determination of Kinetic Order

and Reaction Rate Constant
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Kinetic order
Reaction order
Zero
First
Second
Rate Equation
=
=
= 2
Reaction Rate Constant

Reaction order
Zero
First
Second
Integrated Equation
[C] []0 = kt
C
ln
=
C0
1
1
Toxicogical terms (pg 92)

Carcinogen: A cancer-producing substance
Teratogenesis: Production of a birth defect in the
offspring after maternal and paternal exposure
Acute toxicity: An adverse effect that has a rapid
onset, short course, and pronounced symptoms.
Chronic toxicity: An adverse effect that frequently
takes a long time to run its course and initial onset of
symptoms may go undetected.
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LECTURE NO. 5
Water Treatment I (Water

Quality and Coagulation)
Dr Abu Zahrim Yaser
Introduction
Water system (WS) classification by USEPA:
o Very small WS serve 25-500 people
o Small WS serve 501-3300 people
o Medium WS serve 3301-10000 people
o Large WS serve 10001-100000 people
o Very large WS serve 100000+ people
KK population (2010): 452058
Water Quality
Physical
Chemical
Microbiological
Radiological
Malaysia Drinking Water Standard:

http://kmam.moh.gov.my/public-user/drinkingwater-quality-standard.html
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Physical Characteristics
Turbidity: suspended material e.g. Clay, Unit:
Turbidity Unit (TU), Nephlometric Turbidity
Unit (NTU), Raw water (max): 1000 NTU,
Treated water (max): 5 NTU
Colour: Dissolved organic matter, algae,
growth of aquatic microorganism, Unit: PtCo
(True Colour Unit (TCU)), HAZEN, Raw water
(max): 300 TCU, Treated water (max): 15 TCU
Physical Characteristics
Taste NOT STATED
Odour NOT STATED
Temperature NOT STATED
Chemical Characteristics
NH3-N (ammonia nitrogen): Raw (max): 1.5
mg/L, Treated (max): 1.5 mg/L taste &
odour, toxicity to aquatic life, eutrophication,
oxygen depletion
Chloride: max: 250 mg/L (Malaysia) if
excess; bad taste, United States: 100 mg/L
Fluoride: Min: 0.4 mg/L, Max: 0.6 mg/L ;
More than 1.3 mg/L, fluorosis (mottling developmental disturbance of dental enamel )
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Chemical Characteristics (cont.)

Manganese: Raw (max): 0.2 mg/L, Treated
(max): 0.1 mg/L black in colour, pipe
clogging
Arsenic : Raw (max): 0.01 mg/L, Treated
(max): 0.01 mg/L lung and urinary bladder
cancer
Sodium (Heart, kidney and circulatory
ailments)
Sulfate: Laxative effect (bloating, passing
wind)

Toxic inorganic substances: Nitrates (NO3),
cyanides (CN) and heavy metals (arsenic, barium,
cadmium etc.)
o Nitrates (NO3-N): (Raw water: 10 mg/L, Treated
water: 10 mg/L) - methemoglobinemia
o Cyanides (CN): thyroid and central nervous
system (Raw water: 0.07 mg/L, Treated: 0.07
mg/L)
o Heavy metals: acute toxicity & produce chronic
disease
Nitrification
+
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Toxic organic substances: pesticides,
insecticides and solvent (USEPA Priority
Pollutant List) pentachlorophenol (0.009
mg/L), benzene (0.01 mg/L)
Microbiological Characteristics
Drinking & cooking water free from
disease producing organisms (pathogens).
Pathogens: viruses, bacteria, protozoa, &
helminths (worms)
Microbiological Characteristics
(cont.)
Total Coliform Test. Why coliform?
Coliform inhabits intestinal tract fecal
contamination
Easy to culture than pathogens
Survives but not reproduce in natural
waters
Not expensive, simple lab equipment
Raw water: 5000 MPN (Most Probable
Number)/100 mL, Treated: 0 / 100 mL
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Radiological
SALT LAKE CITY: Pencemaran radioaktif berpunca
daripada kebocoran loji nuklear Fukushima
dikesan sejauh 643 kilometer luar Jepun di
Lautan Pasifik, dengan bacaan air menunjukkan
radiasi 1,000 kali lebih tinggi berbanding tahap
sebelum ini, lapor saintis, kelmarin.
(Berita Harian - 23 February 2012)
Water Quality Standard based on

USEPA (pg 259)
MCLs : maximum contaminant levels
MCLGs: maximum contaminant level goals
Phase II Rules: Acrylamide, Pentachlorophenol
Disinfectants and Disinfection By-Products
Turbidity limits: <0.3 NTU
Surface water
Water source
1. Varying
composition
2. Low mineralisation
3. High turbidity
4. Colour
5. Microorganism
present
6. Dissolved oxygen
7. Low hardness
Groundwater
1. Constant
composition
2. High
3. Little
4. Low
5. Low bacteria
6. No DO
7. High hardness
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National Water Quality Standard for Malaysia

Class
Uses
Class I
Conservation of natural environment

Water supply 1 practically no treatment necessary
Fishery I Very sensitive aquatic species
Class IIA Water Supply II - Conventional treatment.
Fishery II - Sensitive aquatic species.
Class IIB Recreational use body contact.
Class III Water Supply III - Extensive treatment required.
Fishery III - Common of economic value and tolerant
species; livestock drinking.
Class IV Irrigation
Class V http://www.wepa-db.net/policies/law/malaysia/eq_surface.htm
None of the above.
Conventional Surface Water Treatment Plant
Chlorine
Particle sizes (Gregory 2006)
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Hardness Classification
Hardness range (mg/L
CaCO3)
0-75
75-100
100-300
>300
Description
Soft
Moderately hard
Hard
Very hard
Target at water softening

plant
Water Softening Plant (if Hardness >150

mg/L CaCO3
Water Softening Plant

Softening agent: Lime (Ca(OH)2),
Soda (Na2CO3)
Recarbonation: introducing CO2
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COAGULATION
Why coagulation?
Electrical Double Layer
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Particle surface interactions

Surface interactions between particles
can give forces of attraction or repulsion.
If attraction dominates then
aggregation will happen.
When repulsion dominates, there is no
aggregation and the particles in the
solution are known to be stable.
Colloid stability due to repulsion
Coagulation: Colloid destability
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Coagulation
Coagulation tends to overcome
the factors that promote colloids
stability and form agglomerates or
flocs (microflocs).
Rapid mixing tank
Properties of Coagulant
Trivalent ion
Nontoxic
Insoluble (cannot be dissolved) in
the neutral pH range
Coagulant aids
pH adjusters H2SO4, lime (Ca(OH)2),
soda ash (Na2CO3)
Activated silica proper equipment
Clay
Polymer
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Flocculation
Flocculation: process of whereby
destabilized particles, or particles
formed as a consequence of
destabilisation, are induced to come
together, make contact, and thereby
form large(r) agglomerates (macroflocs)
(Bratby, 2006).
Polymer - Slow mixing tank
Inorganic coagulant
Inorganic: Alum based, Ferric based,
Magnesium based etc.
Organic coagulant/flocculant
Organic: Synthetic polymer, natural polymer
Cationic polyacrylamide
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Natural polymer: Kacang kelo

(Moringa oleifera)
Mechanism
Double layer compression

Adsorption and charge neutralisation
Entrapment of particles in precipitate
Adsorption and bridging between particles
Precipitation
*in reality, the mechanism is combination of

several mechanism
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Double layer compression

The interaction between two charged
particles begins when the diffuse layers
of each particles overlap with one
another (Gregory, 2006).
When the dispersion medium contains
low concentration of ions (low ionic
strength), the diffuse layer will be spread
over a wide distance.
Double layer compression (cont.)

On the other hand, when the dispersion
medium possesses a high ionic strength (e.g.
as coagulant is added), the diffuse layer
would get compressed, become thinner, and
eventually extend far less distance into the
bulk of the solution.
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Electrical double layer

Electrical double layer is a combined charge between
particle surface charge and excess charge in solution
(counter ions-oppositely charged ions).
The balance between electrostatic to charged surface
and the randomising effect of thermal motion effect
causes the distribution of charge and electric
potential in solution (See Figure).
It is estimated that the Stern layer is about 0.3
nm (based on radius of hydrated ion) (Gregory, 2006).
Electrical double layer(cont.)

There will be a deficit of co-ion (in this case
negative charge) close to the charged surface.
Approximately, the Stern and diffuse layer
could extend up to 100 nm.
In bulk solution, the charge is exactly balanced
and the whole system i.e. charged surface
and the solution is electrically neutral
(Gregory, 2006).
Adsorption and charge neutralisation

Positively charge particles attached (adsorbed)
to the negatively charge particles
particles get neutralised
electrostatic repulsion decrease
agglomeration
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Entrapment of particles in precipitate

Entrapment/enmeshment of the colloid into
the metal hydroxide precipitates (gelatinous
flocs), and then removed by what is known as
sweep coagulation
Adsorption and bridging between

particles

particles (cont.)
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Bridging by polymer as flocculant aids

particles (cont.)
The polymers have reactive groups that adsorb to
specific sites on the surface of the colloidal particles.
When a group on a polymer molecule attaches to a
colloid, the remainder of the long-chain molecule
extends away into the water.
Once the extended portion of the polymer gets
attached to another colloidal particle, the two
particles become tied together or bridged by the
polymer.
Influencing factors
Colloid concentration
Dilute solution (very little colloid): coagulation
rate is slow
Coagulant dosage and pH (Zahrim et al. 2010)
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Influencing factors (cont.)

Temperature
Coagulant reactions and metal coagulant chemistry are strongly
affected by temperature. For example, with decreasing water
temperature, the minimum solubility of aluminium hydroxide
species shift to higher pH, and the optimum operating pH value also
shifts to higher pH
Mixing
Sufcient mixing time for both coagulation and occulation is
important in order to get sufcient kinetic energy for the colloidal
particles in the wastewater to destabilize and aggregate. If the
agitation time is not sufcient for complete
coagulation/occulation, the colloids will not be able to react with
the coagulants.
Alum coagulation diagram
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LECTURE NO. 6
Water Treatment II (Mixing,

Flocculation and Sedimentation)
Dr Abu Zahrim Yaser
Mixing and Flocculation
Velocity gradient, G
(G turbulence)
= power input, W
= volume of water in mixing tank, m3
= dynamic viscosity, Pa. s
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Rapid Mix: Vertical shaft mixer
Rapid Mix: In-Line Blender
Rapid mix (cont.)

Colour or Natural Organic Matter removal
Detention times: 2-5 minutes
G values: 300-700 s-1
Softening
Detention times: 5-10 minutes
G = 700 s-1
17/07/2014
Rapid Mix Tanks
Volume: 8 m3
Radial-flow impeller: more turbulence
2-3 compartments
Baffle: to minimize vortexing
Radial-Flow Impeller
Table 6.9: Tank and impeller

geometries
Geometric ratio
D/T (radial)
D/T (axial)
H/D (either)
H/T (axial)
H/T (radial)
B/D (either)
Allowed range
0.14-0.5
0.17-0.4
2-4
0.34-1.6
0.28-2
0.7-1.6
D = impeller
diameter
T = equivalent
tank diameter
H = water depth
B = water depth
below impeller
17/07/2014
Flocculation
Mixing to bring the floc into contact and to
keep the floc from settling in the flocculation
basin
Too much mixing? control velocity gradient
Heavy floc, high suspended solid mixing
Softening floc heavier
Normally, 20 minutes flocculation time
Temperature detention time
Flocculation: Axial flow impeller
Flocculation: Paddle flocculator
17/07/2014
Upflow Solids-Contact
Power Requirements: Baffled Tank
= ,
=
= ,
=
= , /
Power Requirements: Paddle Mixer
. . .
=
= ,
= , /
= ,
= , /
17/07/2014
Sedimentation
Surface water treatment plant (filtration plant)
Sedimentation Zone
Inlet zone: to evenly distribute the flow
and suspended particles across the cross
section of the settling zone.
Sludge storage zone
Settling zone
Outlet zone: remove the settled water
from the basin without carrying away any
of the floc particles.
17/07/2014
Horizontal flow clarifier
Upflow Clarifier
Outlet Zone
Weir
Provide large area for

water to flow through
Minimize the velocity
in sedimentation tank
17/07/2014
Upflow solids contact tank.

Effluent weir on right.
Settling tank with radial weirs
Sedimentation Concept
= particle floc settling velocity

0 = overflowrate
> 0 particle is removed
0 is set at 50 70% of (upflow clarifier)
Overflow rate = surface loading rate = loading
rate = amount of water that goes through
each m2 of tank surface area per day
17/07/2014
Settling in an upflow clarifier
THEORETICAL DETENTION
TIME (to)
to
V
Q
OVERFLOW RATE (Vo)
vo
Q
As
17/07/2014
Overflowrate
0 =

=

= Liquid velocity
Ideal Horizontal Sedimentation

Assumptions:
o Particles and velocity vectors are evenly
distributed across the tank across section
o The liquid moves as an ideal slug down the
length of the tank
o Any particle hitting the bottom of the tank is
removed.
Derivation at
page 315
vs
depth h
time to
to
V
Q
10
17/07/2014
vs
h
hQ
V
V
Q
vs
hQ
hl w
vs
Q
vo
A
Figure 6-34: Partial solids removal in ideal

sedimentation tank
P 100
vs
vo
11
17/07/2014
Lets say vo = 0.20 mm/s
What % removal for particles with settling

velocity = 0.15 mm/s?
P 100
0.15
75%
0.20
How to Design Ideal

Sedimentation Tank?
1) Determine of the particle

to be removed
2) Set 0
12
17/07/2014
Types of Sedimentation
Type I: No flocculation e.g. sand removal
during primary sedimentation; no grow
of particles
Type II: Due to coagulation/flocculation;
grow of particles
Type III Zone sedimentation): particles at
high concentration (1000 mg/L) e.g.
softening, activated sludge
Type I: Terminal settling velocity,
Type I: Terminal settling velocity,

Occurs when Drag force = driving
force
Driving force = difference between
the gravitational and buoyant force
Spherical particles with a diameter =
d
13
17/07/2014
Type I: Terminal velocity,

=

Type I: Terminal velocity,

For laminar flow:

=
Stokes Law
Type II: Coagulation/flocculatiom

No adequate mathematical relationship
Jar test to develop design data
14
17/07/2014
Type II: Coagulation/flocculatiom
Type III (Zone Sedimentation)

0.5-0.7 from lab test
15
17/07/2014
LECTURE NO. 7
Water Treatment III

(Sand filtration and Disinfection)
Dr Abu Zahrim Yaser
Lab Scale Sand Filter
Sand Filtration Mechanism
17/07/2014
Sand Filter Classification

(Crittenden et al. 2005)
Type of medium: sand, coal (anthracite), dual
media (coal plus sand), or mixed media (coal,
sand and garnet)
Loading rate (flow rate of water applied per
unit area of filter) or filtration rate
Loading Rate
=
= face velocity,
= loading rate,
m
d
m3
d.m2
= flow rate onto filter surface,

= surface area of filter, m2
m3
d
Loading Rate (Filtration Rate)

Slow sand filter: 2.9 to 7.6 m3/d.m2
Rapid sand filter: 120-235 m3/d.m2
Media diameter
Slow sand filter: 0.3-0.45 mm
Rapid sand filter: 0.5-1.2 mm
17/07/2014
Bed depth
Slow sand filter: 0.9-1.5 m
Rapid sand filter: 0.6-1.8 m
Run length
Slow sand filter: 1-6 month
Rapid sand filter: 1-4 days
Required head
Slow sand filter: 0.9-1.5 m
Rapid sand filter: 1.8-3.0 m
Pre-treatment
Slow sand filter: None require
Rapid sand filter: Coagulation
Regeneration method
Slow sand filter: Scrapping
Rapid sand filter: Backwashing
Maximum raw water turbidity

Slow sand filter: 10-50 NTU
Rapid sand filter: Unlimited
17/07/2014
Rapid Sand Filter
Design and Operation

Surface area of a filter tank (filter box):
100 m2
Length:width = 3-6
2-4 filters are suggested (Odd numbers of
filters normally not practiced)
Design loading rate should be met if one
filter out of service
Finest sand on the top
Coal on top of sand (dual media)
Design and Operation

Exceed!:
Terminal
head loss
Wash water trough:
0.7-1.0m
Water build up: 1.8-3.0 m
Filter: 0.5-0.75 m
Support
17/07/2014
0.7-1.0 m
from filter
media
0.5-0.75 m
support
Terminal Head Loss:

1) Turn off A & C
2) Open E & B
3) After few minutes,
washwater shut
off
Rapid sand filter with exposed under drain block.

Wash water troughs run from left into gullet on
right.
17/07/2014
Rapid sand filter with water level just below

backwash troughs. Note iron stain at high water
line.
Rapid sand filter during filtration.

Reflection shows water level above gullet and
backwash troughs.
Example 1
If the design loading rate to the filter is
200 m3/d.m2, how much filter surface
area should be provided for their design
flow rate of 0.5 m3/s?
17/07/2014
Solution
Surface area required:
0.5 m3 /s 86400 s/d

m3
200
d. m2
=
=
Solution (cont.)
Surface area per filter,
=
216 m2
= 54 m2
Example 2
For a flow of 0.8 m3/s, how many rapid
sand filter boxes of dimensions 10 m x 20
m are needed for a loading rate of 110
m3/d.m2?
17/07/2014
Solution
a) Determine Q in m3/d
Q = (0.8 m3/s)(86,400 s/d) = 69,120 m3/d
b) Determine total area required
=
69120 3 /
110
3
.2
= 628.36 m2
Solution (cont.)
Number of filters (must round to next highest
integer)
No. =
628.36 m2
10 m 20 m
= 3.14 or 4 filters
Grain Size Characteristics
17/07/2014
Grain Size Analysis

1) A sand sample is placed on the top sieve and
the stack is shaken for a prescribed amount of
time.
2) At the end of the shaking period, the mass
material retained on each sieved is
determined.
3) The cumulative mass is recorded and
converted by mass equal to or less than the
size of the overlying sieve.
4) The cumulative frequency distribution is
plotted.
Cumulative Frequency Distribution
d90
d10
Head Loss (Pressure Drop)

Head
loss
Blake-Kozeny Equation:
1
=
Grain
surface
Depth
Kozeny
constant
Bed
porosity
Grain
volume
17/07/2014
Minimum Backwash Flow Rate

Requirement
Minimum fluidization velocity: velocity
necessary to overcome weight of the media and
raise it into water
Wen and Yu (1966) Equation

=
. + .
.
.
.
Where:
=
Self Study
Example 6-19 & 6-20
10
17/07/2014
Disinfection
Reduce pathogen (disease-producing
microorganisms)
Is NOT sterilization
Human enteric pathogens: bacteria, viruses &
amebic cysts
Disinfectant
o Practicable period of time
o Water fluctuation
o Not toxic
o Reasonable cost, safe and easy to store
o Easy to analyze in treated water
o Persist within disinfected water
e.g. chlorine, chlorine dioxide, ozone etc.
Disinfection Kinetics
Chicks Law: number of organism destroyed in
a unit time is proportional to the of organisms
remaining
11
17/07/2014
Quick Test 12
If the design loading rate to the filter is 0.6
m3/hr.m2, how much filter surface area
should be provided for their design flow
rate of 30 m3/hr? How large should the
filter be if four filters are used? Determine
the dimensions of the each filter is L:W is
4. Design loading rate should be met if one
filter out is of service.
12
17/07/2014
KC31903 Environmental Engineering
Lecture 8: Water Pollution

Dr Abu Zahrim Yaser
Ph.D. (Swansea, Wales)
M.Sc. (UKM)
B.Eng. (Malaya)
Pollutant Categories
Scenario in Malaysia
Total River: 1800
Polluted river: ~900
Sreenivasan et al. (2012) Solid Waste Management in Malaysia A Move Towards

Sustainability. Intech Publication.
17/07/2014
Taken from Yeoh, Idris & Ong, 1988
Objectives
Describe the point & non-point sources

Explain how the source type can affect the engineering works
List main physical characteristics in wastewater
Explain the importance of physical characteristics
Analysis of solids data
Describe the principal constituents in wastewater and its
importance
Define the oxygen demanding materials, their source and the effect
on the environment
Differentiate between several organic measurement: COD, TOC &
BOD
List down major nutrients, their source and the effect on the
environment
List down the source of other contaminants (e.g. Pathogenic
organisms, metals and toxic organic compounds, & colour) and their
effect on the environment
Point Sources
Untreated wastewater from population centres
and industries (if there is collection system).
Population centres
Black water: Human waste, usually from
lavatories.
Grey water: Washing water (dishes, clothes,
personal etc)
Industries
Drainage
Cooling waters
17/07/2014
Non-point sources
Multiple discharge point: e.g. agricultural
runoff, landfill runoff
Require major engineering works
Oxygen-Demanding Material
Anything that can be oxidised by
microorganism or can be
biodegraded Reduce the dissolved
oxygen (DO)
Fish need DO 3 mg/L
Organics measurement
BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand)
The actual oxygen needed for biologically
destroying the organic.
The rate at which organisms use the oxygen in
water or wastewater while stabilizing
decomposable organic matter under aerobic
conditions.
17/07/2014
Organics measurement
COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand)
The chemical oxidation required for
destructions.
A measure of the oxygen-consuming capacity
of organic matter present in wastewater
TOC (Total organic carbon) indicate organic
matter present in aqueous solution and is
independent of the oxidation state of
pollutant
POME (in mg/L except pH)

BOD for palm oil mill effluent:25 000 mg/L
BOD for sewage:100-400 mg/L
Nutrients N and P
Excessive amount lead to large
growth of unwanted plant such
as algae and water hyacinth;
when die becoming oxygen
demanding material
17/07/2014
Total Nitrogen (TN) and Total Kjeldahl

Nitrogen (TKN)
TN: sum of nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N), nitritenitrogen (NO2-N), ammonia-nitrogen (NH3-N)
and organically bonded nitrogen.
TKN: sum of NH3-N plus organically bound
nitrogen but does not include nitrate-nitrogen
or nitrite-nitrogen.
Ammonia-nitrogen (NH3-N)
Ionized form (ammonium, NH4+) and the unionized form (ammonia, NH3).
Ammoniacal nitrogen (NH3-N) = ammonia
nitrogen = total ammonia nitrogen (NH3 + NH4+)
exerts a direct biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
on the receiving water since dissolved oxygen is
consumed as ammonia is oxidized.
lead to eutrophication, or nutrient overenrichment, of surface waters
Conversion of Nitrogen Compounds
17/07/2014
Pathogenic Organisms
Unfit for drinking (non potable),
unsafe for swimming & fishing
Cholera and typhoid world
endemic diseases
Bacteria, Protozoa, Helminths,
Viruses
Solids
Total Suspended Solids (TS) -103 0C
Total Volatile Solids (TVS) 550 0C.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) filtrate
pass through a filter with a nominal
pore size of 2 m Conductivity
Conductivity or Salinity
a measure of the ability of solution
to conduct an electrical current
Affected by: inorganic dissolved
solids such as chloride, nitrate,
sulfate, and phosphate anions or
sodium, magnesium, calcium, iron,
and aluminum cations
17/07/2014
Conductivity or Salinity (cont.)

Organic compounds like oil, phenol, alcohol,
and sugar do not conduct electrical current
very well and therefore have a low
conductivity when in water.
Surrogate measure of TDS
Unit: micro Siemens per centimeter (S/cm)
(1000 S/cm = 1 dS/m)
Irrigation, wetland system e.g. toxic salinity:
e.g. 4040 S/cm (for water hyacinth)
Conductivity or Salinity (cont.)

Effect: reduce plant growth rate e.g. smaller
leaves, may reduce the efficiency WWTP e.g.
nanofiltration, water hyacinth (wetland)
POME: 5000 S/cm
Dairy wastewater: 2510 S/cm
Metallurgic industry: 2.9 S/cm
Textile: 35-6780 S/cm
Metals
Zinc stomach cramps, skin irritation
Chromium Cr (VI) cause skin irritation, lung
problem
Mercury neurotoxin, cause kidney problem
Copper vomiting, death
Nickel lung and kidney problem
Cadmium carcinogen, kidney dysfunction
Lead neurotoxin, kidney, reproductive system
17/07/2014
Pharmaceuticals
Common prescription and veterinary
drugs: beta-blockers (e.g. metoprolol,
propranolol), analgesics (e.g. ibuprofen,
naproxen) and antibiotics (e.g.
erythromycin, trimethoprim).
Personal Care Products (PPCPs)

Carcinogenic: hydroquinone,
ethylene dioxide, formaldehyde,
nitrosamine, acrylamides and PAHs
(Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons)
Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals
(EDCs)
Alters the normal physiological
function of endocrine system and
can affect the synthesis of hormones
17 -estradiol, polychlorinated
biphenyls, atrazine, phthalates etc.
17/07/2014
Pesticides
Herbicides: atrazine, metolachlor
Insecticides: chloropyrifos,
diazinon
Fungicides: chlorothalonil, sulfur
Colour
Visible pollution, recalcitrant organic,
may toxic and carcinogenic
Sewage: show age of wastewater;
Gray dark gray black
Industry: dyes, inorganic pigments
(e.g. iron oxides), tannins, lignins,
melanoidins
Colour (cont.)
Unit:
a) Platinum cobalt (Pt-Co), also known as APHAHazen
b) ADMI (American Dye Manufacturers Institute)
Pulp and paper: 100-600 Pt-Co
Textile: 1100-1300 Pt-Co
Palm oil mill (after anaerobic digestion): 38166994 Pt-Co
17/07/2014
Lecture 9: Water Pollution II

Dr Abu Zahrim Yaser
M.Sc. (UKM)
B.Eng. (Malaya)
Effect of Oxygen-Demanding Wastes
Depletion of DO fish, aquatic

life
How much waste is being
discharged?
How much oxygen need to
degrade waste?
Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD)

The amount of oxygen required to
oxidize a substance to CO2 and H2O.
Calculated by stoichiometry
17/07/2014
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

Strong chemical oxidizing agent
(chromic acid)
Different between initial
concentration and final
concentration of the agent = COD
Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Utilize microorganisms in conditions
similar to those in natural water to
measure indirectly the amount of
biodegradable organic matter
present.
Water sample inoculated with
bacteria
Measure change in dissolved oxygen
17/07/2014
= =
= 0
=
Ultimate BOD
17/07/2014
Ultimate BOD
Indicator of total waste

strength
Not indicate how rapid the
oxygen depleted
BOD test depend on:
The nature of the waste

The ability of the organism in
the system to utilize the waste
The temperature
Temperature
20-30 0C : 1.056
17/07/2014
Determination of BOD Constants (k & L0)
BOD vs. time

Thomas graphical method:
Laboratory Measurement of BOD

Step 1
Fill the BOD bottle with diluted
sample (Why? Max DO: 9 mg/L)
Diluted sample: Sample + special
dilution water (trace minerals +
microorganism seed)

Step 1
vol. of diluted sample

vol. of undiluted sample
100
sample size (%)
17/07/2014

Step 2
Fill the BOD bottle with BLANK

(only special dilution water)
Step 3
Incubate diluted sample and
BLANK for 5 days at 20 0C

Step 4
After t days (normally 5 days), check DO for

diluted sample and BLANK.
,
= , ,
Notes on BOD
17/07/2014
Notes on BOD
Nitrogen oxidation
Carbonaceous BOD (CBOD): oxygen
consumption due to oxidation of carbon
Nitrogenous BOD (NBOD)
Organic compounds releases nitrogen in
the form of ammonia (NH3)
At normal pH: NH3 is in the form of
ammonium cation (NH4 + )
Nitrogen oxidation
NH4 + + 2O2
microorganism
NO3 + H2 O + 2H +
To stop nitrification process:
put chemical inhibitor
17/07/2014
Nitrogen oxidation
17/07/2014
Lecture 10: Air Pollution

Dr Abu Zahrim Yaser
M.Sc. (UKM)
B.Eng. (Malaya)
Sources of air pollution in Malaysia
Units of Measure
g/m3 - concentration of gas pollutant,
particulate matter concentration
Parts per million (ppm) - concentration of gas
pollutant ONLY not affected by changes in
temperature and pressure
Micron, = micrometer
17/07/2014
Comparison between sizes of different materials

(adapted from Coulson and Richardson 1997)
g/m3 ppm
Based: 1 mole ideal gas occupies 22.414 L at
standard temperature and pressure (0 0C and
101.325 kPa):
=
22.414
Correction for the readings:

22.414
2
273
101.325
2
g/m3 ppm
=
101.325
22.414 2732
2
1000 /3
Where:
=

Mp = mass of pollutant, g
Note: Generally, assumed = 1.00 3
17/07/2014
MAJOR AIR POLLUTANTS

CO - carbon monoxide
HAPs - hazardous air pollutants
Pb lead
NOx - nitrogen oxides
O3 ozone
SOx - sulfur oxides
PM10 - particulate matter less then 10
mm in diameter
PM2.5 - particulate matter less then 2.5
mm in diameter
Formation of Sulfur
Dioxide and Nitrogen
Oxides in Combustion
S + O2 SO2
17/07/2014
N + O2
Effects On Materials
MECHANISMS
Abrasion: soil particles in dust storm
Deposition (aesthetic) and Removal (during
cleaning)
Direct Chemical Attack (Tarnishing of silver by
H2S)
Indirect Chemical Attack: Leather becomes
brittle after absorbs SO2 (in the presence of
little quantity of iron)
Electrochemical Corrosion metal surfaces
17/07/2014
Effect of Moisture
Higher humidity increases rate

of deterioration.
Effect of Temperature
Higher temperature
increases rate of
deterioration.
Effect of Sunlight
More sunlight increases

rate of deterioration.
17/07/2014
ACUTE HEALTH EFFECTS
Short time
Intense irritation
CHRONIC HEALTH EFFECTS
Long time
Moderate irritation
COMMON FEATURES OF AIR

POLLUTION EPISODES
Large Source
Not recognized
Stable atmosphere
Water droplets (fog)
17/07/2014
Air Pollution Control
Control of Gaseous Emissions
Figure 9-30: Absorption systems
17/07/2014
Figure 9-32: Adsorption system
Figure 9-35: Direct flame incineration
Control of Particulate Emissions
17/07/2014
Figure 9-37: Reverse flow cyclone
Figure 9-40: (a) Shaker cleaned baghouse,

(b) Pulse jet cleaned baghouse
Figure 9-41: Venturi scrubber
17/07/2014
Figure 9-42: Electrostatic precipitator with

a) wire in tube b) wire and plate
Figure 9-43: Particle charging and collection in ESP
10
17/07/2014
LECTURE 11: NOISE

POLLUTION
M.Sc. (UKM)
B.Eng. (Malaya)
NOISE POLLUTION 1983-1990

50%
had risk of hearing loss

had hearing loss
70% exposed to noise level
>90dBA
22%
Adapted from NIOSH (2005)Training Manual for Safety & Health

officer Certificate Programme Module 2. Bangi, Selangor.
NOISE POLLUTION 1983-1990

Industry
Workers at risk (%)
Textile factories
59.2
Chemical factories
52.9
Beverages industries
52.1
Palm oil factories
48.9
Adapted from NIOSH (2005)Training Manual for Safety & Health

officer Certificate Programme Module 2. Bangi, Selangor.
17/07/2014
WHY WE DONT BOTHER NOISE

POLLUTION?
Subjective
experience
decay time
Physiological and physiological
effects of noise are not very
noticeable
Proud of modern equipment
Short
NOISE IN SEWAGE
TREATMENT PLANT PUMPING
STATION
SOUND WAVES
Vibration
of solid
objects
Separation of fluids
Holes in solid objects
17/07/2014
PROPERTIES OF SOUND WAVES
Alternating
pressure changes
can be detected by
human ear
PROPERTIES OF SOUND WAVES (CONT.)
Sinusoidal wave
17/07/2014
=
Average pressure
could be zero!...need
to introduce other
unit.

Sound pressure (p)
= (total atmospheric pressure) (barometric pressure)
Root mean square (rms) sound pressure, (prms)
=
=
Average pressure can be zero
SOUND POWER AND INTENSITY

Sound
power (W) = the rate of

sound pressure transmitting energy
Sound
intensity =
W = Sound power
A =
s
17/07/2014

Sound
power (W) = the rate of

sound pressure transmitting energy
W = Sound power
A = Area normal to the direction of
propagation of sound wave
=
.
Density of
medium
Speed of
sound
LEVELS AND THE DECIBEL
Scale based
on the
logarithm
17/07/2014
= log
L = level, bels
Q = measured quantity
Q0 = reference quantity i.e.
threshold of hearing
Log = logarithm in base 10
= 10 log
L = decibels, dB
Q = measured quantity
Q0 = reference quantity
Log = logarithm in base 10
SOUND POWER LEVEL
= 10 log
Reported
1012
as dB re: 10-12 W
17/07/2014
SOUND INTENSITY LEVEL
= 10 log
Reported
1012
as dB re: 10-12 W
SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL
= 10 log
Reported
2
0
as dB re: 20 Pa
COMBINING SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL

(SPL)
SPL source no. 1: x dB
SPL source no. 2: y dB
SPL source no. 3: z dB
Combined SPL
= 10 log 10 (x/10) + 10 (y/10) + 10 (z/10)
17/07/2014
Lecture 12:
Sustainability and
Green Engineering
M.Sc. (UKM)
B.Eng. (Malaya)
Sustainability
A METHOD of harvesting or USING A
RESOURCE so that the resource is
not depleted or PERMANENTLY
DAMAGED .
Water Sustainability: A method of
using water so that the water is not
permanently polluted.
Sustainable (economy)
One that produces wealth and
provides jobs for many human
generations with degrading
the environment.
17/07/2014
Sustainable (economy)
Increase process efficiency
Reuse and recycling
Utilization of renewable
resources
1) Reduction in the use of both

renewable and nonrenewable
natural resources.
2) Provision of solutions (that can
reduce the consumption of water,
gasoline etc.) that are both longterm and market-based.
Green Engineering
DESIGN, commercialization and the
use of processes and products that
are feasible and economical (U.S.
EPA, 2010):
Reduce the generation of pollution
AT SOURCE
Minimizing risk to human health and
the environment
Green Engineering (cont.)

LCA (life cycle assessment):
Methodology for assessing the
environmental performance of a
product over its full life cycle.
17/07/2014
The Twelve Principles of Green

Engineering
Anastas, P.T., and Zimmerman, J.B., "Design

through the Twelve Principles of Green
Engineering", Env. Sci. and Tech., 37, 5, 94A-101A,
2003.
Twelve Principles (cont.)

Inherent (mesra alam) Rather Than Circumstantial
Designers need to strive to ensure that all materials
and energy inputs and outputs are as inherently
nonhazardous as possible.
Prevention Instead of Treatment
It is better to prevent waste than to treat or clean up
waste after it is formed.
Design for Separation
Separation and purification operations should be
designed to minimize energy consumption and
materials use.

Maximize Efficiency
Products, processes, and systems should be designed
to maximize mass, energy, space, and time efficiency.
Output-Pulled Versus Input-Pushed
Products, processes, and systems should be "output
pulled" rather than "input pushed" through the use of
energy and materials.
Conserve Complexity
Embedded entropy and complexity must be viewed as
an investment when making design choices on recycle,
reuse, or beneficial disposition.
17/07/2014

Durability Rather Than Immortality
Targeted durability, not immortality, should be a
design goal.
Meet Need, Minimize Excess
Design for unnecessary capacity or capability
(e.g., "one size fits all") solutions should be
considered a design flaw.
Minimize Material Diversity
Material diversity in multicomponent products
should be minimized to promote disassembly and
value retention.

Integrate Material and Energy Flows
Design of products, processes, and systems must include
integration and interconnectivity with available energy and
materials flows.
Design for Commercial "Afterlife"
Products, processes, and systems should be designed for
performance in a commercial "afterlife. [the component(s)
of expired product can be reused or recycled for other
products/processes/systems e.g. XEROX printers]
Renewable Rather Than Depleting
Material and energy inputs should be renewable rather
than depleting.
Green Engineering in Water/Wastewater

Treatment
30-50 % of total operating cost is ENERGY
Most of energy is due to PUMPING
Pumps driven by electric motors are often
regulated by adjusting valves instead of the
speed of the motor itself excess electrical
energy
Application of variable frequency drive (vfd)
adjust the speed.
17/07/2014
Green Engineering in Water/Wastewater

Treatment
Replacement of oversized motors

and/or pump impellers.
Change coarse bubble aerators to
fine bubble aerators
Control chemical dosing

Environmental Engineering Lecture Notes

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17/07/2014

Acts and Laws

Acts and Laws (cont.)

BOD = Biochemical oxygen demand

Mass and Energy Balances

Dr. Abu Zahrim Yaser

PROBLEM SOLVING APPROACH

B. Mark system boundaries

C. Example: Mark boundaries around

Mass Balance Concept Example

Mass out or Water Out (river+ stream)

Mass in/Out or Water in /out (seepage to

D. Identify inputs, outputs and

E. Convert Concentrations and

Example Calculation of Mass

Mass = (1m3/d) (1000 kg/m3) (1d)

F. Write Mass Balance Equation to

D. Verify That System Closes or Balances

Problem Solving Approach

Examples of Convenient Time intervals

Mass Balance With

IN THESE INSTANCES, THE PREVIOUS

MASS BALANCE WITH

Time Dependent Reactions are

those that have achieved

Transformation rate is described by

Reaction rate is function of

Conservation of Energy (cont.)

Heat balances (cont.)

Heat balances (cont.)

Heat balances (cont.)

LECTURE NO. 3 & 4

Physical properties of water

States of solution impurities

Expressed in physical units

Density change must be accounted when the solute

Expressed in chemical units

Expressed in chemical units (cont.)

Equivalent weight (EW)

and (b) CaCO3

Ks = 10-20.0 = [Al] [PO4]

Weak acid (not completely

Acetic acid product from anaerobic digestion

Weak acid (cont.)

Formation of dissolved complexes

Formation of dissolved complexes

Carbonate buffer system

Carbonate buffer system

Reaction shifts to the left as

formed when + and

Alkalinity (not in molarity unit)

Alkaline vs. Alkalinity

Homogenous reaction: single phase

Heterogeneous reaction: surfaces between

Determination of Kinetic Order

Reaction Rate Constant

Toxicogical terms (pg 92)

Water Treatment I (Water

Malaysia Drinking Water Standard:

Chemical Characteristics (cont.)

Chemical Characteristics (cont.)

Chemical Characteristics (cont.)