Bio 3442 readings

Pg. 1-37

Species a group of populations that are reproductively isolated

Subspecies races, are local populations with genetically based traits grouped
geographically or by habitat, but are not reproductively isolated
The unit of management acted upon by legislation is the population
o Most species have many populations separated by unfavourable habitat or their
behaviour. These are local populations or subpopulations and they are largely
closed breeding groups
o Metapopulation the dynamics of populations and the gene interchange between
them
Downside to using species as the unit of conservation it ignores other species in the
community.
Ecosystem or community is not used as the unit of conservation because they cannot
be defined unambiguously. The ecosystem can also be variable, could include 8 or 800
species within it.
Gene as the unit of conservation would be trying to increase number of alleles. Genetic
variance can also be useful, it looks at the amount of homozygous individuals in a
population
We use species as the unit of conservation because we cannot get a species back once
it is gone, unlike genes or ecosystems which we can modify and restore, species are
gone forever once they become extinct.
Have to take scale into account dont spend large amounts on a species that is
endangered locally when it may have a huge population elsewhere
Biological diversity the millions of plants, animals, and microorganisms, the genes
that they contain and the intricate ecosystems they help build into the living
environment.
Biological diversity must be considered on three levels
o Genetic diversity within a species
o Species diversity within an ecosystem. Morphological definition of species: a
group of individuals that is morphologically, physiologically, or biochemically
distinct from other groups used by identification biologists and taxonomists.
Biological definition of species: a group of individuals that can potentially breed
amongst themselves but not amongst other groups used by evolutionary
biologists.
o Community diversity within a region
Morpho-species one or more individuals that look different from other individuals and
might represent a different species
Taxonomy the science of classifying living things
Similar species make a genus, similar genera make a family etc.
Kingdom phylum class order family genus species
Spp. Means many species within the genus are being discussed, sp. Means that the
exact species within the genus is uncertain.
Speciation the process of new species formation
Phyletic evolution a populations gradual transition from one species into a new
species which can no longer breed with the original species.
Adaptive radiation the process of local adaptation and subsequent speciation

Polyploids- when a new species arises in one generation without geographic separation.
Unusual, unequal separation of chromosome sets in plant reproduction, the offspring
have an extra set of chromosomes. These individuals may be morphologically and
physiologically different from their parents, these individuals may form a new species if
they are well suited to their environment and mate among themselves.
Hybrids that result from the mating of two species can also form a new species.
The present rate of extinction is more than 100 times faster than the rate of speciation
much of this is due to anthropogenic causes. As the number of species decreases,
there is less opportunity for speciation as well. Many of the species going extinct are
also the last ones in their genus or family such as the gorilla or giant panda.
Species diversity the number of species in a place. Also known as species richness.
In the wild, no simple relationship between diversity, productivity and stability exists.
Quantitative measure of biodiversity
o Alpha diversity
o Gamma diversity
o Beta diversity
Gene pool the total array of genes and alleles in a population.
Genotype the particular combination of alleles that any individual possesses.
Phenotype represents the morphological, physiological, anatomical and biochemical
characteristics of the individual that results from the expression of its genotype in a
particular environment.
Gene frequencies will change in subsequent populations if certain alleles make them
better or worse at surviving in their environments this is natural selection
Polymorphic genes genes that have more than one allele
Amount of genetic variability is determined by:
o Number of polymorphic genes
o Number of alleles for each of these genes
The existence of polymorphic genes means that some people will be heterozygous for
the gene it will receive a different allele for the gene from each parent
Rare species are more vulnerable to extinction because they have a smaller gene pool
and cant tolerate change as much
Hybrid vigour - Individuals that are heterozygous have a greater fitness this is because:
o Having two different alleles gives the individual greater flexibility in dealing with
lifes challenges
o Non-functional or harmful alleles received from one parent are masked by the
other allele
Unique populations of a species especially those at the edge of their range are worth
protecting for biological diversity
Gene flow the transfer of new alleles and genetic combinations between populations
Artificial selection keeping species that are beneficial to us, they are now adapted to
local conditions to meet human needs. Ex. cows that produce a lot of milk
Biological community the species that occupy a particular locality and the interactions
among those species
Ecosystem a biological community together with its associated physical environment
Biota a regions flora and fauna
Biota can affect local conditions and vice versa

Sea otters were abundant in kelp forests, fisherman killed otters because they were
competition, their food, shell fish exploded and ate all of the kelp creating a barren
wasteland of an ocean. It is now coming back.
Limiting resource a resource that restricts population size
Succession the gradual process of change in species composition, community
structure, soil chemistry and microclimatic characteristics that occur following natural
and human caused disturbance in a biological community
The composition of communities is affected by competition and predation
o Predators can increase or decrease species abundance decrease if they predate
to the point of extinction, increase if they feed on many species and their
presence keeps the number of species high, since they do not compete with one
another for resources.
Carrying capacity the number of individuals that the resources in an ecosystem can
support
Mutualistic relationship when two species benefit one another. Ex. bees and pollen
producing flowers
Symbiotic relationship when two species only occur together and cannot live without
one another. Ex. coral and algae that keeps it alive
Trophic levels represent ways in which energy is obtained from the environment
o Photosynthetic species (primary producers) use solar energy to build the
organic molecules they need to live and grow
o Herbivores (primary consumers) eat plants
o Carnivores (secondary consumers or predators) eat meat aka herbivores
o Omnivores eat both plants and meat
o Parasites, pests and disease causing organisms work better at higher densities
o Decomposers and detritivores feed on dead plant and animal tissue
Biomass living weight. This is highest in primary producers
Food chains when species have specific species that they eat (ex. lady beetle only
feeds on one type of aphid)
Food web when species feed on many different species and it creates a web when you
link them all together
Guild a group of species who are on the same trophic level and use approximately the
same environmental resources.
Keystone species certain species or guilds that determine the ability of a large
number of other species to persist in the community. These species affect the
organization of the community to a far greater degree than we would predict based on
their numbers and biomass. Predators are more likely to be keystone species it is
important to protect them.
Ecosystem engineers species that extensively modify the physical environment
through their activities. These are also considered keystone species.
Extinction cascade a series of linked extinction events that results in a degraded
ecosystem with much lower biodiversity at all trophic levels.
Keystone resources often physical or structural resources that occupy only a small
area yet are crucial to many species in the community
Key ecosystem processes:
o Transfer of energy
o Production of biomass
o Cycling of carbon, nitrogen and other nutrients

o Movement of water
Ecosystem integrity important to conservation. The condition in which an ecosystem
is free from human influences
Healthy ecosystem an ecosystem where all the processes are functioning normally,
regardless of human influences
Stable ecosystems are able to retain their same state, because of lack of disturbance
or because of special features that allow them to remain stable. Such features could be
because of:
o Resistance the ability to maintain the same state even with ongoing
disturbance
o Resilience the property of being able to return to the original state quickly after
disturbance has occurred

Article: How many species are there on earth and in the ocean?

Estimates of number of species range between 3 and 100 million species

We literally have no clue how many species are out there which will be embarrassing
when aliens come
Number of higher taxa is strongly correlated to taxonomic rank

Pg. 55-78

Laws have increased over the past 20 years to increase legislation to protect species
and habitats
Legislative protection is incompatible with economics
Three levels of international treaties and conventions
o Worldwide the three most important are:
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora (CITES) 1973.
By 1994, 126 nations had signed. Regulates the trade of species and
their parts perceived to be in danger of extinction partially or wholly
through international trade.
Has species listed in appendices I, II and III
o Appendix I are species who are threatened by extinction and
are actually or potentially affected by trade. Export and import
are not allowed by any signing nation except under special
conditions such as scientific research.
o Appendix II are species who could become affected by trade
unless it is regulated. Can only be traded if the exporting nation
has a CITES permit with scientific authority saying that the
trade will not be detrimental to the species. This also covers
look-a-like species such as black bears whose gall bladders look
the same as an endangered Asian bear whose gall bladder is
used for medicine. This prevents the labelling of an Asian bear
part as a black bear part.
o Appendix III is anything, there are no specific criteria but a
country can list a species here if they feel that international
cooperation is needed to assist them in conservation efforts.
The efficacy of this category is questionable.

The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar) 1971

The only treaty to deal with the protection of habitat. Ramsar is a city
and not an acronym. This treaty does not legislate protection of the
wetlands, this is left to the national level, 81 countries have signed
and each had to list at least one wetland where humans cannot
destroy its ecological characteristics. If a wetland is damaged they
must list a new one or face disapproval from other countries.
The Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and
National Heritage (World heritage) 1972
Encourages international interest in national resources on behalf of
the international community. Sites are eligible for funding through
UNESCO and has 138 parties signed.
Two newer conventions are:
Biodiversity Convention 1993
Convention on the law of the sea 1994
o Regional specific to geographic areas such as the arctic
o Multilateral treaties that deal with groups of species
the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling 1946
North American Convention on Migratory Birds 1918
Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears 1973. This was signed by
many countries and stopped the killing of them as well as protecting their
habitat.

CITES contd:

The criteria for listing in appendices I and II are from Berne in 1976 and are known as
the Berne criteria, they are quite loose and it is a goal to make these criteria more
objective but this is difficult.
Reservations can be taken out for a species where a country can opt out of CITES and
trade with other reservation countries or those who have not signed CITES. This is to
allow countries to stay signed even though they do not agree with some of the species
listed. This can be bad too though when for example, Japan took a reservation out on
Musk Deer, then decided to close the reservation so people went crazy and harvested
double the amount that year before the trade became illegal.
For CITES to work, all countries have to sign as well as have scientific population
assessments happen as well as effective enforcement. Just listing a species is not an
effective conservation action. Exports are often shifted to areas where there is less
strict legislation or enforcement.
Some of the risk must be attributable to trade for a species to be listed
Whether trade is beneficial to the conservation of wildlife depends upon whether the
market is structured to prevent being locked into a positive feedback loop and the
capabilities and willingness of member nations to implement effective controls

International Union for Conservation of Nature The World Conservation Union

o Does not have the mandate to legislate. It was founded in 1948 and is
unquestionably the most weighted international nongovernment conservation
force operating. Signed: 18 governments, 7 international and 107 national nature
protection organizations. These numbers have increased greatly.

o Objective is to encourage and help cooperation between governments and

national and international organizations concerned with the protection of nature
and especially the preservation of species threatened with extinction.
o They needed funding for conservation efforts so the World Wildlife Fund was born
in 1961, it has always been closely linked to the IUCN.
o The world wildlife can translate to meat in some languages so it makes it difficult
for some of these international agreements to work
o The IUCN is small but very influential
o It has a combination of members which gives it the flexibility of a private sector
with the recognition of a government sector.
o One of its achievements was the red data books started in 1966. Their history
relates struggles with the definitions for different categories of endangerment.
Uses categories of Extinct, endangered, vulnerable, rare, indeterminate, and
insufficiently known.
o Constantly being updated
o The IUCN and WWF oversee the compilation of statistics on the trade of wildlife
and wildlife parts through the Trade Record Analysis of Flora and Fauna in
Commerce (TRAFFIC). The data from this is not just from CITES
Prohibition of hunting may fail to protect unless the possession is also covered.
Species adding and removal from a list should not be the same because species decline
and recovery are not mirror images.
Serious issue for listing endangered species is when morphologic or geographic criteria
for a species are contradicted or modified by molecular genetics. We cant lose sight of
the purpose of conservation using genes. One of the mitochondrial DNA of a brown
bear is closer to a polar bear than it is to any other brown bear, but we wouldnt put
them together because it doesnt make sense.
Endangered in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range
Threatened likely to become an endangered species throughout all or a significant
portion of its range
Listing species is difficult, costly and time consuming. You need a lot of information and
it can be very difficult to find. Private interest may also hinder listing a species.
Canada relies on non-binding cooperation between provincial, federal and territorial
government to list a species as endangered.
Means to protect habitat
o Legislation
o Private ownership can attach conditions to land titles (covenants)
o Private ownership can grant or restrain the use of the land by someone else
(easement)
o Species-specific approach
In Canada, any terrestrial species listed as endangered, threatened or extirpated must
have a recovery plan. They include:
o Intro species ecology and reasons for its decline
o Proposed means for recovery
o Implementation schedule and estimates of cost
Action Plans from the IUCNs Species Specialist Groups operate at a different scale than
the governments species-specific recovery plans.
o Since 1986 each specialist group of volunteer experts has created a document
outlining the needs for conservation of species in groups, ex pikas, rabbits and

hares. These are good but still have shortcomings. They are longer on treatment
and shorter on the science of diagnosis.
o Emphasises managing captive populations in the context of wild populations
o Action plans put a large portion of the resources to one group of species
o Rarely distinguish between technical and value judgements. It is not a
conservationists role to make value judgements.
Recovery plans and the IUCN action plans bring together people who should have a role
in helping the species, which encourages the exchange of information.
o First level of exchange: technical people, a mixed group who have a disconnect
between ideas and field work feasibility
o Technical and administrative interaction
o Within administrative exchange if more than one government is involved
o Absent from plans are often government, local nongovernment organizations,
local people
o The protection plans are often imposed upon local people rather than letting
them have a say in it and integrating them through every step
Have to make sure the recovery plans dont have unintended effects on other species
o Informally grouping species recovery plans by habitat may be a compromise
Recovery plans do not currently find the reason for the decline, yet this is what will
drive recovery action
Putting numbers on recovery such as population numbers, decline rates etc. are
inappropriate because they give a sense of complacency once these numbers are
reached. A population is never safe.
Box 12.2 pg. 71
The reliability of risk assessment depends upon the accuracy of estimated populations
Risk assessment is necessary before doing anything so that you can weigh the
outcomes and whether they are worth the risk
o They allow all parties to lay down their ideas even though they have their own
biases
o Allows everyone to contribute their ideas
Decision analysis is important but is not always used or used to its full advantage.

Article in book Biases in legal listing under Canadian endangered species legislation

Protection is the first step in the process of recovering a species

Canada was the first to ratify the Rio Convention on biological diversity
Listing species in Canada is a 2 step process
o COSEWIC assessment of the species at risk
o Accept the assessment, reject the assessment or send the assessment back to
COSEWIC for more info this decision is made by the federal government
After a species is listed under SARA
o Protection of the species, parts and habitat
Enforced with steep fines
o Recovery strategy document that must be made public
Determines technical and biological feasibility of recovery
o Action or management plan document that must be made public
socioeconomic trade-offs and implementation strategies
COSEWIC criteria include population decline, abundance, and range

Harvested fish and mammals were far less likely to be listed than non-harvestable ones
Species above the 60 degree line were less likely to be listed
Marine fish were almost always denied listing these are the sole responsibility of the
federal government
Reasons for the biased listings:
o Reluctance by wildlife management boards and the Department of Fisheries and
Oceans to accept additional stewardship that comes with a SARA listing
o Deficiencies in the cost-benefit analyses that precede the legal listings decisions
Legal listing process includes a Regulatory Impact Analysis (RIAS) - these are a cost
benefit analysis.
o These are not subject to external review
o Could bias the socioeconomic impact because it cannot provide a complete
assessment of costs and benefits of a species
o Many of these are missing the benefits section all together
Biases when listing marine or northern species often because of the economic benefits