Q-1:

Surveying
Surveying is the art of and science of determining the relative positions of various points or
stations on the surface of the earth by measuring the horizontal and vertical distances, angles,
and taking the details of these points and by preparing a map or plan to any suitable scale.
Leveling is a branch of surveying which deals with the measurement of relative heights of
different points on, above or below the surface of the earth. Thus in leveling, the measurements
(elevations) are taken in the vertical plane. Levelling, is the process of measuring, by direct or
indirect methods, vertical distances in order to determine elevations.
Types of Levelling
Geometric Levelling : In geometric levelling the difference of height between two points is
determined by differences of readings to the levelling rod placed on those points. The readings
are made with a levelling instrument.
Trigonometric Levelling : The difference in elevation between two points is determined by
measuring distance (slope or horizontal) and vertical angle
Precise Levelling : is a particularly accurate method of geometric levelling which uses highly
accurate levels and with a more rigorous observing procedure than general engineering levelling.
In precise levelling we aim to achieve high orders of accuracy such as 1 mm per 1 km traverse.

Q.2:
CHAIN SURVEYING
This is the simplest and oldest form of land surveying of an area using linear measurements
only. It can be defined as the process of taking direct measurement, although not necessarily with
a chain.
EQUIPMENTS USED IN CHAIN SURVEYING
These equipments can be divided into three, namely
Those used for linear measurement. (Chain, steel band, linear tape)

(ii) Those used for slope angle measurement and for measuring right angle (Eg. Abney level,
clinomater, cross staff, optical squares)
(iii) Other items (Ranging rods or poles, arrows, pegs etc).
Chain:The chain is usually made of steel wire, and consists of long links joined by shorter links. It is
designed for hard usage, and is sufficiently accurate for measuring the chain lines and offsets of
small surveys. Chains are made up of links which measure 200mm from centre to centre of each
middle connecting ring and surveying brass handless are fitted at each end. Tally markers made
of plastic or brass are attached at every whole metre position or at each tenth link. To avoid
confusion in reading, chains are marked similarly form both end (E.g. Tally for 2m and 18m is
the same) so that measurements may be commenced with either end of the chain .
There are three different types of chains used in taking measurement namely:
Engineers chain
ii. Gunters chain I
ii Steel bands
GENERAL PROCEDURE IN MAKING A CHAIN SURVEY
1. Reconnaissance: Walk over the area to be surveyed and note the general layout, the position of
features and the shape of the area.
2. Choice of Stations: Decide upon the framework to be used and drive in the station pegs to
mark the stations selected.
3. Station Marking: Station marks should where possible be tied - in to a permanent objects so
that they may be easily replaced if moved or easily found during the survey. In soft ground
wooden pegs may be used while rails may be used on roads or hard surfaces.
4. Witnessing: This consists of making a sketch of the immediate area around the station
showing existing permanent features, the position of the stations and its description and
designation. Measurements are then made from at least three surrounding features to the station
point and recorded on the sketch. The aim of witnessing is to re-locate a station again at much
later date even by others after a long interval.
5. Offsetting:- Offsets are usually taken perpendicular to chain lines in order to dodge obstacles
on the chain line.

6. Sketching the layout on the last page of the chain book, together with the date and the name of
the surveyor, the longest line of the survey is usually taken as the base line and is measured first.
CRITERIA FOR SELECTING A SURVEY LINES/OFFSETS
During reconnaissance, the following points must be borne in mind as the criteria to provide the
best arrangement of survey lines,
a. Few survey lines: the number of survey lines should be kept to a minimum but must be
sufficient for the survey to be plotted and checked.
b. Long base line: A long line should be positioned right across the site to form a base on which
to build the triangles.
c. Well conditioned triangle with angles greater than 30o and not exceeding : It is preferable
that the arcs used for plotting should intersect as close as 90o in order to provide sharp definition
of the stations point.
d. Check lines: Every part of the survey should be provided with check lines that are positioned
in such a way that they can be used for off- setting too, in order to save any unnecessary
duplication of lines.
e. Obstacles such as steep slopes and rough ground should be avoided as far as possible.
f. Short offsets to survey lines (close feature preferably 2m) should be selected: So that
measuring operated by one person can be used instead of tape which needs two people.
g. Stations should be positioned on the extension of a check line or triangle. Such points can be
plotted without the need for intersecting arcs.
NECESSARY PRECAUTIONS IN USING CHAIN SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS
1. After use in wet weather, chains should be cleaned, and steel tapes should be dried and wiped
with an oily rag.
2. A piece of coloured cloth should be tied to arrow (or ribbon attached) to enable them to be
seen clearly on the field.
3. Ranging rods should be erected as vertical as possible at the exact station point.
4. The operating tension and temperature for which steel bands/tapes are graduated should be
indicated.
5. Linen tapes should be frequently tested for length (standardized) and always after repairs.
6. Always keep tapes reeled up when not in use.

The following points should be kept in mind in booking the field work:
1) Each chainage should be recorded on a separate sheet. If necessary recording may continue in
the next page.
2) All measurement should be recorded on a separate sheet.
3) Sketches should be neat and complete
4) Figure should be neat. Over writing is not permitted. Good quality pencil should be used.
Explanatory notes should be given whenever necessary
Q-3:
Instruments Used in Chaining
The following instruments are used while chaining.
Chains
Tapes
Arrows
Ranging rods and offset rods
Laths & Whites
Pegs
Plumb bob
Line Ranger
Chains
Various types of chains used in surveying are
Metric Chain
Gunters Chain or Surveyors Chain
Engineers Chain
Revenue Chain
Steel Band or band chain

Metric Chain
Normally this chain consists of galvanized mild steel wire of 4 mm diameter known as link. The
ends of the links are bent into loop and connected together by means of three oval rings which
provide the flexibility to the chain and make it less liable to kinking. Both ends of the chain have
brass handle with swivel joint so that the chain can be turned round without twisting
In a metric chain at every one meter interval of chain, a small brass ring is provided. Brass tallies
are also provided at every 5.0 m length of chain. Each tally has different shape which indicates
5 , 10, 15m from any one side of the chain, metric chains are available in 20 m and 30 m length.
A 20 m chain has 100 links each of 20 cm and 30 m chain has 150 links. Length of chain is
embossed on the brass handles of the chain.
Gnter's chain
A 66 feet long chain consists of 100 links each of 0.66 ft it is known as Gunters Chain
Here, 10 sq chain are equal to 1 acre,
10 chains= 1 furlong and 8 furlongs = 1 mile
This chain is suitable for taking length in miles and areas in acres.
Engineers Chain
A 100 ft chain of 100 links each of 1 foot is known as Engineers chain. Brass tags are fastened
at every 10 links. This chain is used to measure length in feet and area in square yards.
Revenue Chain
Revenue chain is 33 ft long chain consisting of 16 links. This chain is used for distance
measurements in feet & inches for small areas.
Steel Band or Band Chain
Steel bands are preferred than chains because they are more accurate, but the disadvantages is
that they get broken easily and are difficult to repair in the field. They are 20 and 30 m long, 12
to 16 mm wide and 0.3 to 0.6 mm thick. They are numbered at every metre and divided by brass
studs at every 20 cm
Tapes are used for more accurate measurement. The tapes are classified based on the materials of
which they are made of such as:
Cloth or linen tape
Fibre Tape

Metallic Tape
Steel tape
Invar Tape
Cloth or linen Tape
Linen tapes are closely woven linen and varnished to resist moisture. They are generally 10 m,
20 m, 25 m and 30 m long in length and 12 to 15 mm wide. They are generally used for offset
measurements. These tapes are light and flexible.
Fibre Glass Tape
These tapes are similar to linen and plastic coated tapes but these are made of glass fibre. The
tapes are quite flexible, strong and non-conductive. These can be used in the vicinity of electrical
equipment. These tapes do not stretch or shrink due to changes in temperature or moisture. These
tapes are available in length of 20 m, 30 m and 50 m length.
Metallic Tape
A linen tape reinforced with brass or copper wires to prevent stretching or twisting of fibres is
called a metallic tape. As the wires are interwoven and tape is varnished these wires are visible to
naked eyes. This is supplied in a lather case with a winding device. Each metre length is divided
into ten parts (decimetres) and each part is further sub-divided into ten parts. It is commonly
used for taking offset in chain surveying.
Steel Tape
The steel tape is made of steel ribbon of width varying from 6 to 16 mm. The commonly
available length are 10 m, 15 m, 20 m, 30 m and 50 m. It is graduated in metres, decimetres, and
centimetres. Steel tapes are used for accurate measurement of distances.
Invar Tape
Invar tape are made of alloy of nickel 36 % and steel 64 % having very low co-efficient of
thermal expansion. These are 6 mm wide and generally available in length of 30 m, 50m, 100m.
It is not affected by change of temperature therefore, it is used when high degree of precesion is
required.
Arrows are made of tempered steel wire of diameter 4 mm. one end of the arrow is bent into ring
of diameter 50 mm and the other end is pointed. Its overall length is 400 mm. Arrows are used
for counting the number of chains while measuring a chain line. An arrow is inserted into the
ground after every chain length measured on the ground.

Ranging rods are used for ranging some intermediate points on the survey line. Ranging rods are
generally 2 to 3 m in length and are painted with alternate bands of black or white or red and
white colour with length of each equalizing 20 cm. The location of any survey station can be
known from long distances only by means of ranging rods. If the distance is too long, a rod of
length 4.0 to 6.0 m is used and is called ranging pole.
Ranging Rods and Offset Rods
The offset rod is similar to ranging rod with the exception that instead of the flag, a hook is
provided at the top for pushing and pulling the chain or the tape. It is also used for measuring
small offsets
Pegs
Pegs are made of timber or steel and they are used to mark the position of the station or terminal
points of a survey line. Wooden pegs are 15 cm long and are driven into the ground with the help
of a hammer.
Plumb Bob
Plumb-bob is used to transfer points on the ground. It is also used for fixing the instruments
exactly over the station point marked on the ground by checking the centre of the instrument
whether coincides with the centre of the peg or station not, by suspending the plumb-bob exactly
at the centre of the instrument under it. Plumb bob is thus used as centring aid in theodolites and
plane table.
Line Ranger
It is an optical instrument used for locating a point on a line and hence useful for ranging. It
consists of two isosceles prisms placed one over the other and fixed in an instrument with
handle. The diagonals of the prisms are silvered so as to reflect the rays.
Operation in Chain Surveying
Measuring the distance (Survey Line)
Two persons are required in this operation, i.e. Leader and Follower.
The chainman at the forward end of the chain who drags the chain forward, is known as the
leader
The chainmen at the rear end of the chain, who holds the zero end of the chain at the station, is
known as the follower.
To chain the line, the leader moves forward by dragging the chain line and taking with him
ranging rod and ten arrows. The follower stands at the starting station by holding the other end of

the chain. When the chain is fully extended, the leader holds the ranging rod vertically at arms
length.
The follower directs the leader to move his rod to the left or right until the ranging rod is exactly
in the line. Then the follower holds the zero end of the chain by touching the station peg.
The leader stretches the chain by moving it up and down with both hands, and finally place it on
the line. He then inserts an arrow on the ground at the end of the chain and mark it with cross.
Again the leader moves forward by dragging the chain with nine arrows and the ranging rod. At
the end of the chain, he fixes another arrow as before, As the leader moves further, the follower
picks the arrow which were inserted by the leader. During chaining the surveyor or an assistant
should conduct the ranging operation.
In this way, chaining is continued, when all the arrows are inserted the leader has non left with
him, the follower hands over to the leader.
To measure the fractional length, the leader should drag the chain beyond the station and the
follower should hold the zero end of the chain at last arrow, then odd links should be counted.
Folding of Chain
To fold the chain, a chainmen should move forward by pulling the chain at the middle. Then the
two halves of the chain will come side by side. After this, commencing from the central position
of the chain, two pairs of links are taken at a time with the right hand and placed on the left hand
alternately in both directions. Finally the two brass handles will appear at top. The bunch should
be then fastened by the strap.
References:

Surveying and Levelling Vol I

Kanetkar and Kulkarni (2011) Pune Vidhyarthi Griha, Pune

Q-4:
Traverse Surveying
A traverse surveying is one in which the framework consists of connected lines whose lengths
are measured with a chain or tape and the directions are determined with an angular instrument.
1. Open Traverse

2. Closed Traverse
Open Traverse:

A traverse is said to be an open traverse when it does not form a closed polygon.
It consists of a series of lines extending in the same general direction and does not return to the
starting point. Similarly, it does not start and end at points whose positions on plan are known.
It is suitable for the survey of a long narrow strip of country e.g the roads, canals or railways
etc.
Closed Traverse:

A traverse is said to be closed when a complete circuit is made i.e. when it returns to the
starting point forming a closed polygon as shown in figure. Or when it begins and ends at points
whose positions on the plan are known.
Sum of angles for a closed traverse = (2N 4) 900
Where N = No. of sides of closed traverse.
+ve sign for exterior angles and ve sign for the interior angles.
Q-6:

Plane Table Surveying

Plane Table Surveying is a graphical method of survey in which the field observations and
plotting are done simultaneously.
It is simple and cheaper than theodolite survey. It is most suitable for small scale maps.
The plan is drawn by the surveyor in the field, while the area to be surveyed is before his eyes.
Therefore, there is no possibility of omitting the necessary measurements.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Plane Table Surveying
Advantages
The plan is drawn by the surveyor himself while the area to be surveyed is before his eyes.
Therefore, there is no possibility of omitting the necessary measurements.
The surveyor Can compare the plotted work with the actual features of the area.
It is simple and cheaper than the theodolite survey.
It is most suitable for small scale maps.
No great skill is required to produce a satisfactory map and work may be entrusted to a
subordinate.
It is useful in magnetic areas where compass may not be used.
The mistakes in writing field books are eliminated.
Disadvantages (Limitations)
It is not intended for very accurate work.
It is not suitable in monsoon.
It is essentially a tropical instrument.
Due to heaviness, it is inconvenient to transport.
Since there are so many accessories, there is likelihood of them being lost.

References
Surveying and Levelling Vol- I
Kanetkar and Kulkarni (2011)

 Surveying Vol- I
Dr. B.C. Punamia
Surveying and Leveling
N.N. Basak

====================================================================

Q-8
(1) ) Profile leveling
Profile leveling is a method of surveying that has been carried out along the central line of a
track of land on which a linear engineering work is to be constructed/ laid. The operations
involved in determining the elevation of ground surface at small spatial interval along a line is
called profile leveling. The route along which a profile is run may be single straight line, as in
case of a short sidewalk; a broken line, as in the case of a transmission line or sewer; or a series
of straight lines connected by curves, as in case of a railroad, highway or canal.
station.
The line along which the profile is to be run is to be marked on the ground before taking any
observation. Stakes are usually set at some regular interval which depends on the topography,
accuracy required, nature of work, scale of plotting etc. It is usually taken to be 10 meter. In
addition, stakes are placed at locations where marked changes in slope occur; a change in
direction occur; at critical points like culverts, bridges and other features crossing the alignment.
The beginning station of profile leveling is termed as 0+00. Points at multiples of 100m from this
point are termed as full stations. Intermediate points are designated as pluses. For example, a
point that is 153.25m from the beginning point of the survey is station 1+53.25 i.e., the point is
53.25m beyond the first full station.
Procedure
In carrying out profile leveling, a level is placed at a convenient location (say I1) not necessarily
along the line of observation (Figure 14.1). The instrument is to be positioned in such a way that
first backsight can be taken clearly on a B.M. Then, observations are taken at regular intervals
(say at 1, 2, 3, 4) along the central line and foresight to a properly selected turning point (say
TP1). The instrument is then re-positioned to some other convenient location (say I2). After
proper adjustment of the instrument, observations are started from TP1 and then at regular
intervals (say at 5, 6 etc) terminating at another turning point, say TP2 . Staff readings are also
taken at salient points where marked changes in slope occur, such as that at X.
The distance as well as direction of lines are also measured.

Field Notebook:
The notes of profile leveling are recorded in a level note book where backsights, intermediate
sights and foresights are placed in independent columns. The distances of points as well as
direction of lines are also noted in separate columns (Table 14.1).
In case of profile leveling as shown in Figure 14.1, for instrument position at l1, the first
backsight (B.S) is taken at B.M and the reading of 3.005m is placed in its column in the row of
station A (Table 14.1). Then, intermediate sights 2.285m, 1.560m, 1.785m, 2.105m respectively
at stakes 1,2,3,4 are placed in the corresponding row. The first foresight 3.105m taken at station
B is placed in its row. From changed instrument location l2, a backsight 2.875m is taken at B and
it is entered in the B.S. column in the row of B. Thus, at station B, both backsight and foresight
readings are entered. The intermediate sights 3.465m, 3.955m, 3.120m, 3.015m, 2.580m, 1.955m
respectively at stakes 5, X, 6, 7, 8, 9 are placed in their corresponding row. The foresight 1.465m
taken at station C is placed in its row.

Plotting of profile
Plotting of profile leveling provides a graphical representation of the ground points on a
longitudinal section along the alignment. It is being used to determine the depth of cutting or
filling on the proposed gradient (for highways, railways, canals, etc.), to study grade crossing
problems, to select appropriate grade, to locate depth of sewer, tunnels etc. In this, a datum line
is drawn along which distance of the stakes are marked and reduced levels are plotted along
vertical lines drawn on the marked points. Segmented straight lines joining the reduced level
points represent the longitudinal profile of the ground surface. Profile is generally drawn so that
the vertical scale is much larger than the horizontal scale in order to accentuate the differences of
elevations.
Figure 14.2 shows the longitudinal section of the profile leveling (Figure 14.1). In this, the datum
and ground lines are drawn in black and the ordinates in blue. The value of the datum line is
given and the reduced levels are written against ordinates.

2) cross-section
In many projects, terrain information transverse to the longitudinal section (through profile
leveling) is also required such as for highways, railways, canals etc. In those cases, surveying is
carried out at right angle to the central line, generally, at regular interval is being carried out and
is termed as cross- sectioning. If, for any reason, a cross-section is run in any other direction, the
angle with the centre line is required to be noted. The observations are then recorded as being to
the left or right of the centre line. The notes of the readings are maintained as shown in Table
14.2 for taking a cross-section along the stake point 4. Reduction of levels, Plotting etc. can be
done as in case of profile leveling. A plotting of the cross section at stake 4 is as shown in Figure
14.3.

Ex14-1 Following staff readings were taken with a level. The instrument having been shifted
after the 4th, 7th and 10th reading. R.L. of the starting B.M. is 100.00 m. Enter the reading in the
form of a level book page. Find the R.L. of stations and apply usual checks.
2.665, 3.745, 3.830, 2.275, 2.645, 0.385, 0.960, 1.640, 2.845, 3.845, 2.680 and 3.265

Q-9:

Q-10:
DUMPY LEVEL
A dumpy level, builder's auto level, leveling instrument, or automatic level is an optical
instrument used to establish or check points in the same horizontal plane. It is used
in surveying and building with a vertical staff to measure height differences and to transfer,
measure and set heights.

BASIC COMPONENTS OF LEVEL:

1. Telescope to provide a line of sight
2. Level Tube to make line of sight horizontal
3. Levelling head to bring the bubble of tube level at the centre of its run.
4. Tripod to support the above three parts of the level.
1. TELESCOPE : Telescope is an optical instrument used for magnifying and viewing the
images of distant objects. It consists of two lenses. The lens fitted near the eye is called the eye
piece and the other fitted at the end near to the object is called the objective lens.
The objective provides a real inverted image infront of the eye piece at a distance lesser than its
focal distance.
Two essential conditions are involved. :
i) The real image of the object, must be formed.
Ii) the plane of image must coincide with that of cross hairs.
Focusing of Telescope : The operation of obtaining a clear image of the object in the plane of
cross hairs is known as focusing.
2.Level Tube : Also known as Bubble Tube consists of a glass tube placed in a brass tube
which is sealed with plaster of paris. Level tube is filled with either or alcohol, the remaining
space is occupied by an air bubble. The centre of air bubble always rest at the highest point of
the tube.

Outer surface of the bubble tube is graduated in both the directions from the centre.
The line tangential to the circular are at its highest point i.e. the middle of tube is called the axis
of bubble tube. When the bubble is central the axis of bubble becomes Horizontal.
The level tube is attached on the top of telescope by means of capstan headed nuts.
3)Levelling head : Levelling head generally consists of two parallel plates with 3 foot screws.
Upper plate is known as Tribrach and lower plate is trivet which can be screwed on to the tripod.
Levelling head has to perform 3 distant functions :
i) to support the telescope
ii) to attach the level to the tripod
iii) to provide a means for level (foot screws)
References:

Surveying and Levelling Vol I

Kanetkar and Kulkarni (2011) Pune Vidhyarthi Griha, Pune