Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Sources of Light
1. Luminous Objects:
Give out their own light (Primary Source). e.g. Sun, Stars, light bulb, candle etc.
2. Non Luminous Objects:
Reflect light of luminous objects (Secondary Source). e.g. Moon, planets, etc.
We see things due to reflection phenomenon
There should be light
The light rays must be entering the observers eye making an image.
Types of materials:
1. Transparent (See through) e.g. glass
2. Opaque (Non see through) e.g. wooden chair, table
3. Translucent/semi transparent e.g. frosted glass (partially allows light to pass
through) butter paper/wax paper.
In space we see darkness as there is no dust or particles to reflect the light.
Light:
Type of energy that makes things visible to us.
Ray of light:
Directed path followed by the light.
Fig
Light Beam:
Collection (set) of parallel light rays.
Fig
Pin-hole Camera:
Fig
Reflection of light:
The bouncing of light from a smooth (polished) surface like (mirror) is called reflection of light.
Fig
Light
Fig
i.
Incident Ray:
Light ray (from source) approaching the reflecting surface (mirror).
ii.
Reflected Ray:
Light ray that bounces off the reflecting surface.
iii.
Point of incidence:
Point of the reflecting surface (mirror) where incident ray strikes it.
iv.
Normal:
Imaginary line, at the point of incidence, perpendicular to the mirror.
Fig
v.
Angle of incidence:
Angle between normal and incident ray.
vi.
Angle of reflection:
Angle between normal and reflected ray.
Fig
Whenever you are seeing something, and are given an observer, light ray arrow will be directed
in the eye.
Fig
Laws of Reflection:
There are two laws of reflection:
1. Angle of incidence (< i ) is equal to angle of reflection (< r )
i.e.
<i=<r
2. Incident ray, reflected ray and normal at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
Image formed by plane mirror:
Consider an object O in front of the plane mirror, MM, as shown in the diagram. Draw two
rays emerging from the object and hitting the mirror such that:
Fig
1. One ray is incident at the mirror, at 90o to the surface of the mirror i.e. < i = 0o
2. The second ray striking the mirror at any angle other than 90o to its surface.
i.e. 0< < i < 90o
Fig
3. Now draw reflected rays for both I and II according to the laws of reflection.
4. Produce the reflected rays behind the mirror, these rays intersect at I.
5. The point of intersection of these extrapolated rays is the location of the image formed by
the plane mirror.
Conclusion:
From the diagram, when OG and GI are measured it will be seen that:
GI = OG
Distance between image and mirror is equal to distance between object and mirror.
Real Image:
Image that can be taken (transformed) on screen (Shadow).
Virtual Image:
Image that cannot be taken in screen also called unreal/ imaginary image.
Characteristics of Image formed by plane mirror:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Image is formed at same distance behind the mirror as object is in front of it (mirror).
Image has same size and is upright.
Image has same colors.
Virtual image is formed (i.e. it cannot be taken on screen).
Image is literally inverted (side-wise opposite) i.e. left side of object becomes right of
the image and vice versa.
Fig
Light
Ray Diagram, for image formation, by plane mirror
1. Single Ray Diagram (distance of image is same) (no observer)
Fig
Reversibility Law
Fig
Reversibility Law:
Instead of locating objects image. The image of observer can be located to draw ray diagram.
View Range:
Part of rear object, seen inside the mirror.
When we can see image in mirror? (Range of view)
Fig
Observer B will be able to see the image only. The line drawn from image to observer A, doesnt intersect
the mirror, hence no reflection take place and image is not seen.
Q. What part of the signboard is seen inside the mirror?
Fig
< with wall = < of incidence, provided incident ray is parallel to ground.
Fig
Multiple Reflections:
Reflection from two mirrors.
i.
ii.
Refraction
Refraction
The change in speed and direction of light, due to change in medium (change is density of a
medium) is known as refraction of light (bending of light).
i.e.
When light travels from air to glass (rare to denser medium), it bends closer to the normal
and
Its speed decreases
Its direction changes
Fig
Laws of Refraction
There are two laws of refraction, as given:
1. Incident ray, refracted ray and normal at the point of incidence, all lie on the same plane.
2. The ratio of sine of angle of incidence (< i ) to the sine of angle of refraction (< r ) is
constant (for given medium).
i.e.
s i
=constant
s r
Snells Law:
The ratio between sin < i to sin < r is constant.
Refraction Index (of a medium):
Bending power of a medium
Fig
The constant ratio between sin < i to sin < r is known as refractive index of the medium i.e.
R . I .=
s i
s r
R . I .=
s r
s i
1.5=
s i
s r
s 45
s r
sin 45
1.5
< r = 28.1o
Refraction
Q. Draw the path of light ray through the prism, given that R.I. of material of prism is 1.5.
Fig
R . I .=
1.5=
sin<i
sin<r
R . I .=
sin 55
sin<r
1.5 =
sin55
1.5
r = sin-1
sin 55
1.5
sin <r
sin<i
sin<r
sin 30
48.6o = r
r = 33o
r = 49o
Fig
R . I .=
1.5=
sin<i
sin<r
R . I .=
sin 53
sin<r
1.5 =
sin53
1.5
r = sin-1
sin 53
1.5
sin<r
sin 30
48.6o = r
r = 32o
r = 49o
Transparent Sphere:
Fig
R . I .=
sin<i
sin<r
1.5=
r = sin-1
sin 28
1.5
sin <r
sin<i
sin 28
sinr
r = 18o
Refraction
i.e.
R . I .=
e.g.
Real dept h
apparent dept h
R . I .=
4
3
4 24
=
3 x
x=18 m
R . I .=
V air
V medium
Fig
Light
Critical Angle < c:
The angle of incidence in denser medium for which the angle of refraction in (rare medium) is
90o i.e. < r = 90o, is called critical angle i.e. < c.
Condition for critical angle:
Light ray must be travelling from denser to rare medium. Every medium has particular value of
critical angle.
e.g.
Critical angle for glass is 42o i.e. < c = 42o
And critical angle for water is 49o i.e. < c = 49o
Fig
Fig
By definition of R.I. for light travelling from denser to rare medium, we can write:
R . I .=
sin<r
sin<i
<i=<c
And
< r = 90o
Periscope
Optic Fiber
i.
Medical use
Telecommunication
Medical Use:
Optic cable is injected into the patients body to view inner body organs. The end of this optic
cable bears a lens; light is shown onto the inner body organs, through this optic cable (by
phenomenon of total internal reflection). The light reflected by the organs is intercepted by the
cable and following total internal reflection, it reaches the system connected to the cable which
traces the image of that organ from where the light was reflected; which is seen on screen or
computer connected to it.
Telecommunication:
Optic Fiber is used to transmit audio signals and video signals without any interference. Number
of signals can be transmitted simultaneously, without distortion. i.e. almost 1400 audio signals
and above 10 video signals.
Fig
Lenses
Lens:
A transparent (refracting) (object) medium with at least one curved surface.
Mainly, there are two types of lenses:
1) Convex Lens /Converging lens:
Lens which is thicker at the center than at the edges, as shown below:
Fig
Fig
Principle axis
Fig
A line passing through center of curvatures and optical center of the lens
Fig
Principle Focus (F) or Focal Point or Principle Focal Point
Fig
The point on principle axis, where set of rays parallel to principle axis meet after passing (refracting)
through the lens
Focal Plane
Imaginary surface, at the focal point, (passing) perpendicular to the principle axis
Fig
Distance between lens (optical center) and center of curvature is double the distance between
optical center and focal point.
Rays used for image formation by (converging) lens:
1) A light ray incident on lens, parallel to the principle axis, passes through the focal point
(F) after passing through the lens.
Fig
2) A light ray incident on the lens, through focal point (F) becomes parallel to the principle
axis after passing through the lens.
Fig
3) A light ray incident on the lens at its optical center passes straight through the lens
(without bending).
Fig
Fig
Inverted
Smaller than object
Real image
Between F and 2F
Facts:
Virtual image: always upright
Real Image: always inverted
If real rays meet image formed is real image. If unreal rays meet image is virtual.
Object outside 2F
Fig
Image is
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Inverted
Smaller than object
Real image
Lying between F and 2F
Uses: camera, eye
Image is
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Inverted
Magnified (larger than object)
Real image
Lying outside 2F
Uses: projector, photograph enlarger.
All optical devices in the world give image.
Object at F:
Uses: To produce a parallel beam of light, as in a spotlight.
Fig
Image is
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Highly magnified
Upright
Virtual
Formed at infinity
highest magnification at F
Image is
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Magnified
Upright
Virtual
Behind object
Object at 2F
Uses: Photocopier making equal size copy
Fig
Image is
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Inverted
Same size
Real
On 2F
Object far from lens: rays are parallel to each other. e.g. rays from sun.
Object at Infinity
Uses: object lens of a telescope
Fig
Image is
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Lenses
1. Object outside 2F
Fig
Image is
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Inverted
Smaller than object
Real Image
Lying between F and 2F
2. Object at 2F
Fig
Image is
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Inverted
Same size
Real Image
On 2F
Image is
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Inverted
Magnified
Real Image
Lying outside 2F
4. Object at F
Image is
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Fig
Highly magnified
Upright
Virtual
Formed at Infinity
5. Object at Infinity
Image is
i.
Fig
Diminished
ii.
iii.
iv.
Real
Inverted
On focal plane
Image is
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Magnified
Upright
Virtual
Behind Object
Lenses
Focusing
Fig
Screen
Lens
Object
Screen
Lens
Object
Lenses
Q1. (a) An object 2cm high lies 8cm away from a convex lens of focal length 3cm.
By drawing appropriate ray diagram, show the image formed by the lens.
Distance of image
Distance of object
lens lens
(f) Compare the two answers for parts (d) and (e). What do you conclude from these answers?
Linear Magnification (M):
The ratio between image size to object size is known as linear magnification.
i.e.
Object
Image
Linear Magnification=
Object
Image
M =
Linear magnification has no units, as it is a ratio between similar quantities.
Lenses
Q1. An object of size 1m is placed in front of a thin converging lens of focal length 0.5m, at a
distance of 0.75m. By using appropriate scale, draw ray diagram to show the image formation by
the lens and hence calculate linear magnification of the image, stating the nature of the image.
Scale:
1cm = 0.25m
2cm = 0.5m
3cm = 0.75m
4cm = 1m
Fig
Image is
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Inverted
Magnified
Real Image
Lying outside 2F
Linear Magnification=
7.2 cm
4 cm
= 1.8
Q2. An object of 3cm is placed 6cm in front of thin converging lens, such that the image
obtained on screen has a magnification of 2. Draw appropriate Ray Diagram, and using this
diagram, measure focal length of the lens used.
Fig
Image is
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Inverted
Magnified
Real Image
Lying outside 2F
Diverging Lens:
Image is
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Diminished
Virtual
Upright
Between F and O
Short Sightedness
A person, unable to see distant objects, clearly, but can see near objects, clearly, is said to
be suffering from short sightedness.
In short sightedness, image of distant object is formed before the retina as shown below
Fig
Long Sightedness:
A person suffering from long sightedness cannot see near objects clearly, but distant objects can
be seen clearly.
In long sightedness, the image of near object is formed behind retina as shown below.
Fig
Focal Length of a convex lens is inversely proportional to the thickness of the lens.
Fig
Two Phenomena:
Refraction
Dispersion
Both occur as soon as light enters prism.
Spectrum:
Band of seven colors, resulting from dispersion, is known as (visible) spectrum.
The colors obtained in this spectrum are:
Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, Red
(VIBGYOR)
Fig
Or Refraction
Human eye cannot detect frequency less than red or greater than violet.
Hence, red color has least frequency (within visible spectrum) so it shows least refraction,
whereas violet has highest frequency (within visible spectrum) so it shows greatest refraction.
The rest of the colors in spectrum (ROYGBIV) are in increasing order of frequency:
Frequency increases
Frequency Decreases
R O Y G B I V
V I B G Y O R
Decreasing Wavelength
Dispersion:
Visible and Invisible spectrums
Frequency Increases
Set of frequencies coming from the sun, is known as electromagnetic spectrum. Those radiations
that can travel through vacuum are electromagnetic rays or electromagnetic radiation.
OR
Collectively, visible and invisible spectrum, are known as electromagnetic spectrum.
OR
Set of all frequencies that can pass through vacuum.
Radio
Waves
Micro
waves
Radiations
Infra-red
Visible
Radiations
Spectrum
UltraViolet
Radiation
X-rays
Gamma
Rays
The frequency remains unchanged. When they enter from one medium to another (speed
and wavelength changes).
They carry no charge.
They transfer energy from one place to another.
They can be emitted and absorbed by matter.
Revision Points
1. Reflection
What you should know:
Light
Sources of light (Primary, Secondary)
Propagation of light : along a straight path shown by an arrow
Fig
Beam: Collection of rays can be parallel, conical.
Non reflecting object: anything that we cant see in a lighted room.
Reflecting Object: Anything visible to our eye e.g. mirror has maximum reflection,
minimum absorption.
Opaque Table: Max absorption, minimum reflection.
Fig
Fig
Reversibility Law and Range of View
Fig
Multiple Reflection:
Parallel Mirrors: (Infinite no of images formed)
Whenever an image lies on I2 in 1 front side of mirror, it becomes object for
the mirror.
Fig
Fig
Periscope:
To view optical device objects above line of sight formed by 2 parallel mirrors,
inclined at 45o. Image is virtual, upright, cant be taken on screen and is of same
size.
Fig
Sini
=R . I
Sinr
sin<i
=Constant
sin<r
sin<r
=Constant
sin<i
sin<i
sin<r
R . I .=
3
2
4
3
Real Dept h
Apparent Dept h
R . I .=
V air ( vacuum )
R . I .=
V medium
R . I .=
sin 90
Sinc
R . I .=
1.5=
1
sin
1
sin
Fig
sin =
1
1.5
=sin1
[ ]
1
1.5
= 41.8 =42o
Critical < : the angle of incidence in optically denser medium for which the < of refraction is 90o.
Total I R:
-
Physical Quantities:
Stop Clock
Stop watch (Electronic, Analogue)
Electronic Timer
Physical balance/ beam balance
Electronic balance
Top pan balance
Spring balance / Newton Meter (N)
Meter rule, measuring tape
1m = 100cm
Vernier calipers (correct to 0.1mm or 0.01cm)
1cm = 10mm
Micrometer screw gauge (correct to 0.01 mm or 0.001cm)1m=1000mm
Pressure
P=
F
A
SI unit
pressure
min
F
100
P= =
A 0.015 m2
N
m2
P=
Pa or Nm-2
Weig h t
A
P=
T h rust
A
pressure
max
100
P=
0.1 x 0.02
Weight = mg
=10x10 = 100N
Factors affecting pressure:
Fig
Atmospheric Pressure:
Def: Pressure exerted by air beyond us.
-
Def: Weight of air column above surface area of 1m2 on the ground.
Weight is Wair = 100,000N
A = 1m2
Po = 100,000 Pa
1 Pa = 1Nm-2
Fig
Wherever there is air there will be atmospheric pressure, irrespective of direction or position of
object.
Constant pressure is maintained as upward and lower and sideward pressure cancel each other
and shape and size of object is maintained. It doesnt break.
In outer space, there is no air, so a balloon expands:
Fig
Suits worn by astronauts in space maintains atmospheric pressure so body doesnt feel stress.
Weight on Moon as compared to earth = less
Pressure on Moon as compared to Earth = less
As P F
Pressure due to liquids:
-
PD > PC > PB
Pressure = atm pressure + pressure due to liquid
PA = Po
PB = Po + h1g
PC = Po + h2g
PD = Po + h3g
Q. Why does pressure decrease at mountain top?
Pg = 100,000 Pa
g = 10N/kg
Pwater = 1000 kgm-3
Pressure at:
A = 100,000 Pa
B = gh = 1000x10x1
= 10,000 Pa + 100,000
= 110,000 Pa
C = gh = 1000x10x3 = 30,000+100,000
= 130,000 Pa
D = gh = 1000x10x5 = 50,000+100,000
=150,000Pa
Vectors
200N East
300N South East
Fig
Scale:
Let 50N = 1cm
200N = 4cm
300N = 6cm
Resultant
= 9.2cm
Magnitude = 9.2x50
= 460 N
Direction = 27o clockwise with east
Fig
Waves
Waves:
Travelling disturbance, in a medium is named as wave.
e.g.
When water surface is disturbed with a stick/pencil/stone, ripples are seen moving on the surface
of water. The disturbance imparted at one point, in water, spreads throughout the water surface.
When wave moves across water surface, it disturbs the water particles. The water particles do not
more along with the wave (particles are not displaced), rather particles vibrate about their mean
position.
On the basis of vibration of particles of the medium, waves are classified into two groups:
i.
ii.
Transverse Waves
Longitudinal Waves
i.
Transverse Waves:
Such waves in which particles of the medium vibrate/oscillate perpendicular to the
direction of propagation (motion) of wave.
Fig
Examples:
Water waves
Electromagnetic waves (Light waves)
Waves generated on slinky spring.
Waves produced on rope etc.
Fig
Longitudinal
Waves:
Such waves, in which particles of the medium vibrate/ oscillate along the direction of
motion (propagation) of wave
ii.
Fig
Examples:
Sound waves
Waves generated on slinky spring
Shock waves (seismic waves)
Fig
1. Crest:
Part of wave above mean position or highest point on wave
Fig
2. Trough:
Part of wave below mean position or lowest point on a wave
Fig
Waves
4. Time Period: (T)
The time taken to complete one wave.
Oscillation: One complete up and down movement of the particles of the medium.
5. Frequency: (f)
f=
1
T
Fig
6. Amplitude:
Maximum displacement of a particle, on a wave from its mean position
Fig
Speed of Wave:
Distance covered per unit time (per second), by a wave, is called wave speed.
Speed of wave=
distance cover ed
time taken
V=
d
t
equ (1)
(a)
V=
d
t
0.50
5
= 0.1 m/s
(b) 10 waves in 50s
x waves in 1s
frequency = x =
V = f
f = 0.2 Hz
V = f
10
50
= 0.2 Hz
V
f
0.1
0.2
1
= =0.5 m
2
(c) Frequency = 0.2Hz
1
(d) Time period = f
=
1
0.2
10
= 2
= 5s
Putting these in equ (1):
We get
V=
V =f
or
equ (2)
V=
1
x
T
where
1
=f
T
A light is fitted above the tank and screen is placed underneath, where image of waves is
obtained.
A vibrator is used to produce waves in water contained in Ripple Tank, as shown below.
Fig
Wave front:
Waves
Fig
Draw direction indicator of motion of wave, which is perpendicular to the wave fronts.
Draw normal on the barrier, at the point where direction indicator meets the barrier.
Draw reflected direction indicator according to < i = < r.
Draw reflected wave fronts perpendicular to the reflected direction indicator.
Fig
Note:
In waves and light chapter, speed may be taken as cm/s, instead of m/s.
T=
0.5 5
=
2 20
1 1 20
f= = =
T
5
5
20
= 4Hz
Fig
Waves
Since shallow water is denser medium, we dont sink in it. But we must have greater density than
deep water, so there is a chance that we can sink in deep water.
Fig
The change in speed and direction of water waves due to change in depth of water is known as
refraction of water waves.
Deep and shallow region is created in Ripple Tank by immersing a Perspex sheet in one part of
the tank, as shown below:
Fig
V1
V2
(1)
Since
V 1=f 1
(i)
and
(2)
V 2=f 2
(ii)
R . I .=
1
2
(3)
Sound Waves:
Sound is a form of energy that produces the sensation of hearing in human/animals.
These waves in which particles oscillate parallel to direction of propagation of wave
(longitudinal waves).
Q. How sound is produces?
Ans. A vibrating body/surface produces sound.
e.g. tuning fork
Fig
When tuning fork is hit against rubber pad, its prongs vibrate and sound is produced. The right
prong vibrates about its mean position, o, during these vibrations, it compresses air on its right,
(as it moves from A to B) and produces rarefaction in the air, (as it moves from B to A),
continuous vibrations produce series of compressions and rarefactions in the air, which travel
away from the tuning fork, consequently hitting the surface of ear drum and producing sensation
of sound, as shown in the diagram.
Fig
Rarefaction:
When distance between particles is greater than in during normal (when no wave passes through
air)
Compression:
When distance b/w particles is smaller than during normal (they are closer than normal).
Sound
Sound waves require Material Medium for its propagation:
Fig
Consider an electric bell suspended inside a glass jar with the help of connecting leads (passing
through the cork) as shown in diagram. The glass jar is fitted with a vacuum pump. When the
electric bell is turned ON, the bell can be seen ringing and sound is hear. While keeping the
bell ON, switch on the vacuum pump, which gradually removes air from inside the jar, due
to which the sound becomes fainter and fainter, and when all the air is removed, the bell can be
seen ringing inside the jar, but NO sound heard. If the vacuum pump is reversed, i.e. as air is
pumped into the Jar, the sound gradually increases and becomes maximum loud, when jar is
filled completely with air.
Conclusion: Sound needs material medium for its propagation.
OR
Sound cannot travel through vacuum.
Speed of sound in air
Fig
Consider two stations A and B few km apart (2-3 km) with no obstruction between them, hold a
starting pistol at A, and stopwatch at B, turn on the stopwatch, on seeing flash from starting
pistol, when it is fired.., stop the stopwatch on hearing sound at B. The time interval t
recorded so, is the duration which sound took to travel from station A to station B. Since
distanced b/w stations is known, hence speed of sound v can be calculated using the formula,
V=
d
t
(1)
The speed of sound calculated so is 330m/s. [340ms-1]. The direction wind may affect speed of
sound; in order to get an accurate result, the time taken by sound b/w A and B, is once calculated
by holding pistol at A, and stopwatch at B, i.e. time taken = t1 (say).
Next, the positions of stopwatch and starting pistol are exchanged, and some activity is repeated
to get time taken by sound to move from B to A, i.e. time taken = t, (say).
To calculate speed of sound:
t 1 +t 2
Average time i.e. t= 2
is used in formula (1).
Sound travels faster in liquids, and faster in solids.
Speed of sound in:
When there is an explosion, sound travels faster through the ground than through air.
Evidence:
When horses gallop, sound can be heard, putting your ear next to the ground.
Echo: Reflection of sound
Fig
Sound
Characteristics of Musical Sound
1. Loudness:
Intensity of sound, i.e. no of sound waves passing through a certain area, per unit time.
Fig
Fig
Amplitude of vibration
Fig
Larger the amplitude, greater the vibration, thus more energy imparted, and louder sound
produced and vice versa.
Sound
Work sheet
(a)
i.
ii.
iii.
The cone of the loud speaker vibrates about its mean positions; during these vibrations, it
compresses the air on its either side, and continuous vibrations produce a series of
compressions and rarefactions in the air, which travel away from the cone.
Loudness is the no of sound waves passing through a certain area, per unit time.
Graphically, loudness is represented by variation in amplitude of the wave. Even though
the amplitude changes, wavelength remains same. Low pitch is represented with farther
waves (longer wavelength).
Time taken=
Distance
Speed
iv.
= 1.73 x 10-3s
The time taken is less in water than in air as water is denser than air so sound travels
faster in water than in air.
(b)
i.
0.57
330
V =f
V
f
330
200
= 1.65m
ii.
Fig
Quality/Timbre
Timbre or quality of sound is that feature of sound by which one can distinguish between two
sounds of same pitch and loudness.
Fig
Characteristics of sound:
i.
ii.
iii.
Loudness
Pitch
Timbre
Sound
Q. t = ?
Distance = Speed x time
For echo
Fig
2d = v x t
d=v x
t
2
Q. A student fires a starting pistol xm in front of a tall building. If speed of sound is 330ms-1.
Calculate the value of x, giving that the receives first echo five seconds after firing the pistol.
d=v x
t
2
330 x
5
2
Fig
=825m
Q.
Fig
A fires a starting pistol and B hears two echoes with a delay of t seconds b/w them. If speed of
sound in air is 340 m/s, calculate the value of t.
2d = v x t
2d = v x t
2(200) = 340t
2(500) = 340t
400
=t
340
1.18s = t (1st sound)
1000
=t
340
2.94s = t (delay)
Logically:
Let t1 be the time sound takes to move from A to B (directly) then
d=vxt
200 = 340 x t1
t1 =
200
340
t1 = 0.59s
Also, sound from A hits building, bounces off, and reaches B in time t2, and covers a total
distance of:
500+500+200 = 1200m
d = v x t2
1200 = 340 x t2
1200
=t 2
340
3053s = t2
Now delay = t2 t1
t = 3.53 0.59
t = 2.94s
Fig
2s = t2
Delay = t1 t2
= 6-2
= 4s
Audible Range Audibility Range Audible Frequencies
Set of frequencies that can be detected by normal human-ear is taken as audible frequency range.
20,000Hz
Any sounds below 20Hz or above 20KHz cannot be detected by normal human-ear and
are known as inaudible frequencies.
Dog whistle produces ultrasonic sounds which humans cant hear (human ear cant
detect) but dogs can hear.
Ultrasound:
Sounds which have frequency above 20 KHz and cant be detected by human-ear.
Sound
Uses of Ultrasound:
1) To find depth of seabed.
Signals of ultrasound are sent at regular intervals and reflected signals are intercepted.
Time b/w sending and receiving a signal is recorded (t).
Speed of ultrasonic is known using formula:
2d = v x t
Fig be calculated.
Depth d of seabed can
2) Cleaning ornaments
When ultrasound passes through this water (solution)
liquid + chemical, it causes
water particles to move (vibrate) at a frequency above 20KHz, thus brushing the dust off
the ornaments. (The cleansing chemical softens the dust).
Fig
V = 1500 m/s
Calculate depth of sea bed
2d = v x t
Fig
2d = 1500 x 2 x 10-3
d = 1.5m
Q1.
Fig
Calculate
a) Time period of given wave
b) Frequency of given wave
If speed of above wave is 1.5 x 107ms-1
Calculate the wavelength of wave.
0.7
a) Time Period = 3.5
= 0.2ms
0.2
= 1000
f=
b)
=
1
T
= 2 x 10-4s
1
2 x 104
= 5000 Hz
c) V = f
V 1.5 x 107 m/s
= =
f
5000 s
= 3000m = 3x105cm
Sound Waves
Fig
Q. It takes 1s to move from A to B, and waves pass from shallow to deep region in the ripple
tank. Take R.I. of water =
1
3
, hence calculate:
40
4
= 10mm
b) Speed in shallow region
x 40
=
t 1
= 40 mm/s
c) Value of frequency:
V = f
f=
0.04
0.01
Note:
If you take V
and in mm/s
and mm or m/s
or m value of f
will be same.
40mm/s =
40
1000
= 0.04 m/s
10 mm=
10
=0.01 m
1000
x=vxt
= 330 x 6
= 1980m
Fig
Static Electricity
Electronics:
The study of properties of charges while they are at rest:
Fig
Laws of Electronics:
1. Like charges repel each other.
Fig
Q. A & B cause each other to move away, what are their charges?
Ans. They both have same charges.
Electric Field
Region of space around a charge where it can attract/repel (affect) other charges.
Fig
q. placed near +q will repel along straight path. (q. and +q repel as both have +ve charge).
Imaginary path followed by unit positive charge, within electric field of given charge i.e. B
represents electric field line of charge q (+ve).
Fig
Radial electric field directed, outwards from the charge, exists around it.
For negative charge, electric field lines are directed radially inwards as shown below:
Fig
Fig
Fig
Conclusion: The strength of field decreases with increase in distance and vice versa.
i.
ii.
iii.
Like charges
Unlike charges
Oppositely charged parallel plates (finite length).
i.
Like Charges
ii.
Fig
Unlike charges
iii.
Fig
As the field lines are infinite in number, they repel each other from both sides so
all remain straight.
i.
ii.
Conductors:
Those materials which allow charges to pass through them e.g. metals
Insulators:
Those materials which do not allow charges to pass through them e.g. wood,
plastic, glass.
Electrostatic Induction:
Rearrangement of charges on a neutral object, due to presence of charged object near it (without
any physical touch) is named as electrostatic induction.
Fig
1) Consider two neutral metal spheres (touching each other) resting on insulating stands as
shown.
2) When (+vely) charged rod is brought near sphere A, charges are induced on spheres A
and B, as shown below (rod must not touch any sphere).
3) Separate the spheres and then remove the charged rod.
Fig
Fig
4) Check the polarity of charges on A and B, it will be seen that A becomes vely charged
and B becomes +vely charged.
Fig
Whenever we bring a freely suspended neutral body to a charged object, the neutral body
will be attracted to the object by the phenomenon of electrostatic induction.
Earth Wire:
A metal (conducting) wire that connects the object to the Earth (ground)
Symbol of Earth is
Fig
Fig
Earth is taken as hug source of electrons. So any number of electrons can be taken from or
added to the Earth.
When positively charged sphere (object) is earthed, electrons from the ground rush on
to the sphere to neutralize positive charges on it, as shown below:
Fig
Note: Human body is a good conductor of electricity, so never play with electricity.
If the charge from the switch is positive, electrons move through the body form the
ground and if the charge from the switch is negative its is vice versa.
If a person barefooted and touches any charged body, the electric shock is greater than
when he is wearing insulating shoes or standing on a carpet. The person acts as an earth
wire.
We can rub insulating material to temporarily charge it, so paper is attracted to the comb.