1st - Magnetism & Electromagnetism

DC Principles
Study Unit
Magnetism and
Electromagnetism
By
Robert Cecci
iii
Preview
Magnets and electromagnets are important components in industrial controls and automation
devices. Devices such as relays, contactors, motors, and transformers all use electromagnets in
their operation.
In this text, youll first be introduced to natural and artificial magnets. Next, youll learn about
various magnetic units and terms. This text will then conclude with presentations on electromagnetism, electromagnetic devices, and electromagnetic induction.
When you complete this study unit, youll be able to
Identify the north and south poles of permanent magnets and electromagnets
List several magnetic and nonmagnetic materials
Describe how to magnetize a piece of steel by induction
Explain the difference between simple, compound, and closed magnetic circuits
Determine the direction of magnetic lines of force around a conductor (if the direction of
the current is known)
Use the right-hand rule to locate the poles of a solenoid

Describe the operation of simple electromagnetic relays, buzzers, and stepping switches
Explain how a DC motor operates
Explain the generator action and motor action of electromagnetic induction in simple terms
Contents
INTRODUCTION TO MAGNETISM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
What Is a Magnet?
Magnetic Poles
Identifying Magnetic Poles
Attraction and Repulsion of Magnetic Poles
Magnetic Fields and Lines of Force
Magnetic and Nonmagnetic Materials
Magnetic Induction
Magnetic Circuits
Magnetic Units and Terms
Magnetomotive Force
Magnetic Properties
ELECTROMAGNETISM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Conventional Theory and Electron Theory of Current Flow
Electromagnetic Forces
Magnetic Forces Between Parallel Conductors
Magnetic Coils
Electromagnets
Electromagnetic Relays
Alarm Bells or Buzzers
Electromagnetic Stepping Switches
Solenoids
DC Motors
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Magnetic Field, Voltage, and Conductor Movement
Generator Action of Electromagnetic Induction
Motor Action of Electromagnetic Induction
Mutual Inductance and Transformers
POWER CHECK ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

EXAMINATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Magnetism and Electromagnetism

INTRODUCTION TO MAGNETISM
What Is a Magnet?
In general terms, a magnet is a special bar of iron that can attract and
hold other pieces of iron to it. The term magnetism refers to the power
of attraction between a magnet and iron. A magnetic field is the area of
space directly around a magnet in which magnetic forces can be felt.
The term magnet is used to refer to both natural and artificial magnets.
Natural magnets (sometimes called lodestones) are ores that have the
unusual ability to attract pieces of iron placed close to them. These
ores were first discovered in the ancient Greek district of Magnesia,
and were therefore called magnets.
Later, someone observed that if a small bar of magnetic ore was hung
by a thread in a horizontal position and allowed to swing freely, the
ore would align itself in a north/south direction. This discovery led to
the invention of the magnetic compass, a device that can point out the
magnetic north and south poles of the earth.
An artificial magnet is simply a man-made magnet that has all the
properties of a natural magnet. An artificial magnet can be created by
rubbing a natural magnet in one direction against a bar of hardened
steel. Straight artificial magnets are called bar magnets. Curved artificial magnets are called horseshoe magnets. Artificial magnets that keep
their magnetic properties for a long time are called permanent magnets.
Very strong permanent magnets can be made artificially by compressing magnetic powder under high pressure and temperature. These
magnets are called rare earth magnets and are used in devices such as
DC motors and special high-power loudspeakers.
A special type of artificial magnet called an electromagnet can be created with electric current. When a magnetic metal core is wrapped in
a coil of wire and electric current is applied to the wire, a magnetic
field forms around the core. The magnetic field concentrates in the
metal core and increases the magnetic power of the core. Electromagnets can be used to create mechanical motion, thereby converting
electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Natural magnets are seldom used in industry because their magnetic
force is weak. However, electromagnets have many practical industrial applications. Small, relatively weak electromagnets are used in
small relays. Larger, much stronger electromagnets are used in large

relays, contactors, or in motors. Some other devices that use electromagnets are solenoids and transformers. (Well discuss electromagnets in more detail later in the study unit.)
Magnetic Poles
The parts of a typical bar magnet are shown in Figure 1. The ends of
the magnet are called the poles. As you can see in the figure, there are
two opposite poles on a bar magnet: a south pole and a north pole. The
strongest force of magnetic attraction is located at the poles of a magnet. The axis is the imaginary line thats drawn through the center of
the bar magnet. The neutral line is the point that falls exactly halfway
between the north and south poles. Little magnetic force is present at
the neutral line.
FIGURE 1This figure

shows the parts of a bar
magnet.
A permanent magnet always has a north pole and a south pole. In a

bar magnet, as youve seen, the poles are located at the opposite ends
of the magnet. In a horseshoe magnet (Figure 2A), the poles are also
found at the opposite ends, and the neutral line is found at the extreme top of the bend of the magnet. An axis passes through one pole,
continues through the center of the magnet, and exits through the opposite pole.
A piece of soft iron called a keeper joins the two free ends of the horseshoe magnet shown in Figure 2B. The keeper helps the magnet to retain its magnetism for a long time.
If a bar magnet is cut apart at its neutral line (or at any other place),
the two halves become two new magnets, each with its own north
and south poles.
Electromagnets also have two poles. The location of the north and
south pole depends on the direction of current flow in the wire coil
surrounding the metal core of the magnet.
To see how the north and south poles of a magnet are determined, look
at Figure 3. Figure 3A shows a magnetized steel needle resting on a
point. The needle can turn freely on the point. If no iron, steel, or other
magnets are nearby, the magnetized needle comes to rest with one end
pointing north and one end pointing south. The end that points to the
north is the north pole and the opposite end is the south pole.
FIGURE 2Figure 2A shows the basic parts of a horseshoe magnet. In 2B, a device called a keeper joins
the ends of the horseshoe magnet. The keeper provides a path between the two ends of the magnet
when the magnet isnt in use.
This device acts as a simple magnetic compass. A real compass (Figure 3B)
is constructed in much the same way, except that the magnetized needle
is suspended by jeweled bearings and sealed in a marked case.
FIGURE 3The simple magnetic compass in 3A can be

made from any thin piece
of hard, magnetized steel
suspended carefully at its
center so that its free to
move horizontally. The familiar magnetic compass
shown in 3B is constructed
according to the same basic principles.
Magnets or electromagnets always attract ferrous metals (metals that

contain iron). Ferrous metals include steel, iron, or cast iron. Copper,
brass, aluminum, and some types of stainless steel are unaffected by
magnets. These materials are often referred to as nonferrous.
If a bar magnet is dipped in iron filings (Figure 4), the filings are
attracted to the two poles and stick there in tufts. These tufts of iron
filings visibly identify the strongest areas of magnetic attraction on
the bar magnet. Note that there are no filings stuck to the middle area
of the magnet.
FIGURE 4Iron filings

are attracted to the
ends of a magnet. Near
the center of the magnet, theres little or no
tendency for the filings
to stick.
Identifying Magnetic Poles

You can easily identify the north and south poles of a magnet by
using a compass. You know that a compass pointer is a permanent
magnet with its north pole and south pole clearly marked. Place the
compass near one pole of the magnet. If the north pole of the compass
pointer is attracted to the nearby magnet, youve identified the south
pole of the magnet. If the south pole of the compass pointer is attracted
to the magnet, youve identified the north pole of the magnet. This
experiment is possible because of the rule of magnetic attraction and
repulsion: like magnetic poles repel each other; unlike magnetic poles
attract each other.
Attraction and Repulsion of Magnetic Poles

If two magnets are brought close together, the opposite poles attract
each other. That is, the north pole of one magnet is attracted to the
south pole of the other magnet. If the like poles are brought close together, they repel each other. That is, if the north pole of one magnet
is brought near the north pole of another magnet, the magnets repel
each other.
Simply stated, like magnetic poles repel each other, and unlike magnetic poles attract each other. These reactions of attraction and repulsion have useful applications in many devices. For example, in
motors, these forces can create a turning motion.
If like poles repel each other, why does the north pole of a compass
pointer point to the north pole of the earth? The reason is that the
earths geographic poles and magnetic poles are different. The earths
poles are called north and south according to their geographic location, not their magnetic effect. The earth has two magnetic poles that
are slightly displaced from the geographic poles (Figure 5). The geographic north pole acts as the magnetic south pole. The geographic
FIGURE 5The earth has

two magnetic poles and
two geographic poles, but
the locations of these poles
dont exactly coincide.
south pole acts as the magnetic north pole. Therefore, although the
compass pointer points to geographic north, it actually points to magnetic south.
Magnetic Fields and Lines of Force

The forces of magnetic attraction and repulsion flow in definite directions or lines around a magnet. These lines of magnetic force are
called magnetic flux. The lines of force are strongest near the surface of
the magnet, and grow weaker as you move away from the surface.
FIGURE 6The lines of

force and the strength of
the magnetic fields are
concentrated at the
north and south poles.
FIGURE 7Iron filings are

attracted to the north
end of a magnet, as
shown here. The view at
the south end would be
the same.
The area of space around a magnet in which the lines of force move is
called a magnetic field.
We cant actually see these lines of force, but we can see the path followed by the lines of force by performing a simple experiment. If you
place a sheet of paper over a bar magnet and sprinkle fine iron filings
over the paper, the iron filings will align themselves in curved lines
extending from the north pole to the south pole of the magnet. The
majority of the filings will align themselves at the poles of the magnet.
The remainder of the filings will form bands around the magnet as
shown in Figure 6.
In another experiment, we can place a sheet of paper over the end of a
bar magnet and sprinkle iron filings on the paper (Figure 7). The figure shows that the lines of force spread out evenly in all directions
from the end of the bar magnet. The greatest concentration of force is
directly at the magnet, with a lighter concentration as you get farther
from the magnet.
As we mentioned, magnetic flux is strongest right at the magnets surface. The strength of the flux grows weaker as you move away from
the magnet. The strength of magnetic flux and the distance from a
magnet are related mathematically according to the inverse square law
of physics. Each time you double your distance away from the magnet, the strength of the flux is divided by four. For example, if the flux
has a given strength when youre one foot away from the magnet, at
two feet away from the magnet, the flux will be one-fourth as strong
as it was before.
The lines of force move in a specific path around a magnet. This path
is called the magnetic circuit. Each line of force leaves the north pole
of a magnet, makes a complete path around the magnet, and then returns to the south pole. From there it goes through the magnet to the
north pole again. The magnetic circuit of a bar magnet is shown in

Figure 8A. The distribution of the lines of force between the poles of a
horseshoe magnet is shown in Figure 8B.
The direction of the lines of force in any magnetic field can be traced
using a small magnetic compass. The north pole of the compass
pointer always points in the direction of the lines of force. If you
move the compass along the length of the magnet, the pointer will
turn so that it always lines up with the lines of force.
FIGURE 8Whether a magnet is straight (8A) or
horseshoe-shaped (8B), the
lines of force leave the
north pole of the magnet,
go through the external
magnetic circuit, and enter
the south pole of the magnet. Every line of force
makes a complete magnetic circuit.
Magnetic and Nonmagnetic Materials

All substances oppose the passage of lines of force through them to
some degree, just as all substances offer some resistance to the flow of
electricity. Those materials that offer very little opposition to the passage of lines of force are called magnetic or ferromagnetic materials.
Some examples of magnetic materials are iron, nickel, and cobalt (and
the alloys of these metals). However, iron and its alloys are much
more magnetic than nickel and cobalt.
Not all magnetic materials are magnets; that is, they dont always
have magnetic poles. However, all magnetic materials are capable of
being attracted by a magnet.
Theres no material that can totally prevent magnetic lines of force
from passing through it. Some materials do, however, offer much
more resistance than others. These materials are called nonmagnetic
materials. Air, paper, wood, glass, copper, brass, and stainless steel
are all nonmagnetic. (In fact, most materials are nonmagnetic.)
Most nonmagnetic substances offer about 2,000 times as much resistance to magnetic lines of force as iron. The resistance of air (compared to other nonmagnetic substances) is about the same. However,
at least some magnetic lines of force will pass through all nonmagnetic substances. Thus, if you place a piece of paper or wood between
a magnet and a piece of iron, the nonmagnetic material wont prevent
the attraction of the iron to the magnet.
Magnetic Induction
When a piece of magnetic material (such as iron) is moved into a
magnetic field, the magnetic lines of force pass through it and the
piece immediately becomes magnetic. When this occurs, the lines of
force appear to crowd together as they pass through the magnetic
material. This happens because the magnetic material is a better
conductor of lines of force than is the surrounding air.
This concept is illustrated in Figure 9. In the figure, a small piece of
iron is placed in the magnetic field of a bar magnet. While the piece of
FIGURE 9In this illustration,

a piece of iron is moved
into the magnetic field of a
bar magnet. Notice that
some of the lines of force
go out of their way to pass
through the iron piece. If a
hardened-steel bar is
placed in the magnetic
field, the steel will retain its
magnetism after the field is
removed.
iron is in the field of the permanent magnet, the iron becomes a

temporary magnet. As long as the piece of iron is in the magnetic
field, it behaves like any magnet: the magnetic lines of force enter the
iron piece at its south pole and leave at its north pole. When the iron
is removed from the magnetic field, its magnetism disappears. Magnetizing a piece of magnetic material in this way is called magnetic
induction.
Note that when the piece of iron is in the magnetic field, it has north
and south poles just like the permanent magnet. The north pole of the
temporary magnet is always aligned with the south pole of the permanent magnet. If the iron bar is moved near to the north pole of the
permanent magnet, the poles on the iron bar reverse. That is, the upper pole of the iron bar becomes the south pole and the lower pole
becomes the north pole.
Magnetic Circuits
You already know that a magnetic circuit is the path of the lines of
force through a magnet. In this section of your text, well examine
three types of magnetic circuits: simple, compound, and closed.
A simple magnetic circuit is a magnetic circuit in which all the lines of
force are contained within the magnetic material (Figure 10). The
material provides a continuous path for all of the lines of force. Such a
circuit is often used as a magnetic shield to surround and shield electric and electronic parts or circuitsand also watches or clocksfrom
the effects of stray magnetic fields.
FIGURE 10In the simple

magnetic circuit shown,
all of the lines of force
are contained within the
magnetic material.
10
FIGURE 11Any kind of

magnetic or nonmagnetic materialwhether
its air, glass, wood, iron,
or some other materialthat separates a
magnet from another
magnetic material forms
a compound magnetic
circuit.
A compound magnetic circuit is a circuit in which the lines of force pass

through several kinds of magnetic or nonmagnetic materials, as
shown in Figure 11. Note how the lines of force pass through the
body of the magnet, then across an air gap, through the iron bar, and
back to the body through the air gap, completing the circuit.
A closed magnetic circuit is composed entirely of a magnetic material;
the lines of force dont pass across an air gap. The magnetic circuit
shown in Figure 10 is closed. Another example is a magnetic circuit in
the shape of a ring. A compound magnetic circuit could be closed if
the air gaps were filled with some magnetic material other than iron,
even with a type of iron different from that in the body of the magnet.
Magnetic Units and Terms

Your study of magnetic circuits wouldnt be complete without a brief
discussion of the units in which magnetic quantities are measured.
Because an electrician or electronics technician seldom has to measure
magnetic fields, the instruction here is limited to a few magnetic
terms and their definitions.
In a drawing, magnetic flux is represented by lines of force that pass
along a magnetic circuit. In a bar magnet, for instance, magnetic
flux is shown as lines passing through the bar from pole to pole
(Figure 12).
The standard unit of magnetic flux is the maxwell. One maxwell is
equal to one magnetic line of force. A larger unit of magnetic flux is the
weber. One weber equals one hundred million (100,000,000) maxwells,
or one hundred million lines of force.
11
FIGURE 12Lines of
magnetic force can be
clearly seen exiting the
north pole of this bar
magnet.
Flux density is the number of lines of force in a given unit area. Flux
density is expressed in a unit called a gauss and represented by the
letter B. One gauss is equal to one maxwell per square centimeter.
A larger unit of flux density is a tesla, which is equal to one weber per
square meter.
Magnetomotive Force
The magnetic flux produced by a magnet can be compared to the electric current flowing through a conductor. Electric current flows because electromotive force (abbreviated EMF) pushes current through a
circuit. In a similar manner, magnetomotive force (abbreviated MMF)
pushes magnetic flux through a magnet.
In an electric circuit, the resistance of conductors opposes the flow of
current. Magnetic circuits also offer opposition to magnetic flux because theyre made of materials that oppose the passage of the flux. In
a magnetic circuit, this opposition to flux is called reluctance.
Magnetic flux can be generated by applying electric current to a wire,
or several turns of wire. The magnetomotive force that pushes flux
through an electromagnet is measured in ampere-turns. We can calculate the number of ampere-turns in a given electromagnet using a
mathematical formula. The amount of MMF (in ampere-turns) is
equal to the current (in amperes) times the number of turns in the coil.
For example, if a current of 2 A flows through a wire coil with 20
turns, you would multiply 2 A times 20 (20 2 = 40) to calculate the
number of ampere-turns produced. According to your calculations,
this electromagnet has an MMF of 40 ampere-turns. The value of the
magnetomotive force doesnt depend on any magnetic properties of
the material.
12
The MMF exerted per unit of length of magnetic material is called the
magnetic field intensity. The magnetic field intensity is represented by
the letter H and is measured in units called ampere-turns per meter. A
comparison of electrical circuit values and magnetic circuit values is
given in Table 1.
Table 1
CIRCUIT VALUES
Electric Circuit
Force
Flow
Opposition
emf
current
resistance
Magnetic Circuit
mmf
flux
reluctance
Magnetic Properties
In the study of magnetism, certain terms are used to refer to magnetic
properties, such as the ability of a material to carry or resist flux, or
the ease with which a material can be magnetized or demagnetized.
The magnetic properties of a particular material determine its use in
electrical or electronic devices such as transformers, motors, and generators. Some of the common terms used to describe magnetic properties are permeability, relative permeability, hysteresis, saturation, and
residual magnetism.
In any magnetic material, the relationship between the magnetic
field intensity (H) and the flux density (B) can be illustrated by the
magnetization curve. The magnetization curve for a magnetic material
is shown in Figure 13. In this figure, the horizontal axis represents the
magnetic field intensity (in ampere-turns per meter) and the vertical
axis represents the flux density (in gauss).
It can be seen that for any value of H there are two values of B. The
lower curve in this figure represents the value of the flux density
when the magnetic field intensity is increasing (that is, when the current in the electromagnetic coil is increasing). At some point, increasing the magnetic field intensity causes only a slight increase in the
flux density. The value of the flux density at this point is called the
saturation flux density (BS).
The upper curve in this figure represents the value of the flux density
when the magnetic field intensity is decreasing (that is, when the current in the electromagnetic coil is decreasing). When the magnetic
field intensity reaches zero, some flux density still remains in the material. This flux density value is called the residual flux density (BR).
13
FIGURE 13This figure illustrates a magnetization

curve for a magnetic material. The shaded area is
called the hysteresis loop.
If the magnetic field intensity is reversed (by reversing the current direction in the electromagnetic coil) the flux density is reduced to zero
gauss. The value of magnetic field intensity at this point is called the
coercive force (HC). If the magnetic field intensity is increased further
in the negative direction, the flux density decreases until it reaches a
negative saturation point. The arrows in Figure 13 indicate the changes
in flux density for both increasing and decreasing currents.
The permeability (m) of a material at any point on the magnetization
curve is defined as the ratio of the flux density to the magnetic field
intensity. This definition is true at any point on the curve. In a vacuum, with no magnetic material present, the permeability value (mO)
is 1.257 106 webers per ampere-meter. In a magnetic material, the
permeability may be several thousand times the value of mO.
Relative permeability (mR) is the ratio of the permeability of a material to
the permeability of a vacuum. Relative permeability is one (1) for a
vacuum and nearly one for air and other nonmagnetic materials.
The shaded loop in the magnetization curve in Figure 13 is called the
hysteresis loop. The area inside the loop represents the energy used to
align the atoms inside the magnetic material. If the magnetic field
intensity continually reverses itself, the atoms continually reverse
themselves, and power (in the form of heat) is produced in the magnetic material. Since power is the rate of energy use, the faster that the
magnetic field changes state, the more power thats produced by the
magnetic material.
14
Special low loss magnetic steels that have very narrow hysteresis
loops are used in the manufacture of transformers, motors, and generators that operate at high frequencies. In a vacuum (which has no
atoms to align) theres no hysteresis loop. The magnetization curve in
a vacuum is a straight line that runs through the origin of the magnetization curve.
Magnetic materials used to make permanent magnets have large
residual flux density values (BR) so that the magnets are strong and
have large coercive force values (HC). The magnetic fields of these
permanent magnets wont be affected by stray magnetic fields. Some
typical residual flux density values and coercive force values for several permanent magnet materials are shown in Table 2.
Table 2
RESIDUAL FLUX DENSITY AND COERCIVE
FORCE OF PERMANENT MAGNET MATERIALS
Material
Carbon Steel
Cobalt Steel
Alnico 2
Alnico 5
BR (Gauss)
9500
9500
7600
12500
HC (Amp/Meter)
3600
18000
42000
44000
Now, take a few moments to review what youve learned by completing Power Check 1.
Power Check 1
At the end of each section of your Magnetism and Electromagnetism text, youll be
asked to check your understanding of what youve just read by completing a Power
Check. Writing the answers to these questions will help you review what youve
studied so far. Please complete Power Check 1 now.
Fill in the blanks in each of the following statements.
1. The two poles of a magnet are the _______ and the _______ poles.
2. Iron, nickel, cobalt, and steel are examples of _______ materials.
3. A magnetic circuit that consists of two or more magnetic materials is called a
_______ magnetic circuit.
4. If two magnets are moved close together, the _______ poles attract each other.
5. A _______ is one unit of magnetic flux.
6. A _______ is a measure of flux density equal to one maxwell per square
centimeter.
7. The MMF that pushes flux through an electromagnet is measured in _______.
8. _______ is needed to demagnetize a magnetic material.
9. A _______ on a magnetization curve represents the energy used to align the atoms
inside the magnetic material.
10. _______ is similar to resistance in an electric circuit.
Check your answers with those on page 39.
15
16
ELECTROMAGNETISM
Conventional Theory and Electron Theory of Current Flow
Scientists have two different theories regarding the flow of electricity
in a circuit. You should be familiar with both of these theories, the
conventional theory and the electron theory.
According to the conventional theory of current flow, a positive charge
of electricity flows from the positive terminal of the voltage source,
through the circuit, and back to the negative terminal of the source. In
contrast, according to the electron theory of current flow, the flow of
electricity is actually the movement of negative charges, or electrons.
Electrons move from the negative terminal of the voltage source,
through the circuit, and back to the positive terminal of the source.
These two theories are illustrated by the circuits in Figure 14.
Actually, for most purposes, it doesnt matter whether the electron
or conventional theory is used. However, its standard practice to use
the conventional theory of current flow to explain electromagnetic
forces used in motors and generators. The electron theory is used to
explain the principles and operation of electric circuits and equipment. For this reason, in this text, well use the conventional theory to
describe the direction of current flow (that is, from the positive terminal to the negative terminal) as we examine various electromagnetic
principles.
FIGURE 14This figure compares the conventional theory and electron theory of
current flow.
Electromagnetic Forces
Electromagnetism is the magnetic effect produced when electric current
flows through a conductor. A conductor carrying an electric current is
surrounded by a magnetic field. The magnetic field is densest in the
space immediately next to the conductor. The density of this field
decreases as the distance from the conductor increases.
17
Suppose that a current-carrying conductor is run through the center

of a square piece of cardboard as shown in Figure 15. If iron filings
are sprinkled on the cardboard, the filings will arrange themselves in
circles or whorls around the conductor. The whorls have the conductor at their center and entirely surround the conductor. (Note: If you
try this experiment, be sure to use a long conductor and place a resistor in the circuit to limit the current. Otherwise, the battery will
quickly run down because of the short circuit.)
The behavior of the iron filings in this experiment indicates that the
field around a current-carrying conductor consists of magnetic rings
or whorls.
FIGURE 15In this figure, a conductor is run through a piece of cardboard,

and iron filings are sprinkled over the surface of the cardboard. When
electric current is applied to the conductor, the filings arrange themselves in
the pattern seen here.
In Figure 16, the pattern of filings is even easier to see. If the cardboard is pulled from one end of the conductor to the other, the circles
on the cardboard remain the same. Thus, the magnetic field of the
conductor is the same all along the length of the conductor.
When conventional current flows through the conductor in the direction indicated by the solid arrows (from positive to negative), the direction of the lines of force around the conductor is clockwise.
Because a magnetic field forms around a wire thats carrying current,
its possible to use a compass to show the presence of the magnetic
lines of force. You can also use a compass to see the direction of the
lines of force. Figure 17 shows a conductor through which current is
flowing away from the observer. One compass is placed above the conductor and another is placed below the conductor. The broken-line
18
circle and the arrowheads show the direction of the lines of force.
Each of the two compass needles points in the same direction as the
lines of force. Note that the lines of force are moving clockwise and at a
right angle to the conductor.
FIGURE 16The dashed
lines in this figure represent the magnetic field
around the conductor.
If you look down at the
surface of the cardboard, the lines of force
are traveling clockwise
around the conductor.
If the direction of the current in this conductor is reversed, the direction of the lines of force around the conductor will also reverse. So, in
this example, if the direction of the current was reversed, the lines of
force would move counterclockwise.
FIGURE 17If you look at a

conductor in the direction
of conventional current
flow, youll see that the
magnetic lines of force
travel around the conductor in a clockwise direction.
19
Right-Hand Rule: Imagine that youre grasping a current-carrying wire

in your right hand with your thumb pointing in the direction of conventional current flow. The curled fingers of your right hand now point in
the direction of the lines of force, or the magnetic field, encircling the
wire.
You can determine the direction in which the lines of force are moving around a conductor by using the right-hand rule. Imagine that
youre grasping a current-carrying conductor in your right hand with
your thumb pointing in the direction of the current flow (Figure 18).
With your right hand in this position, your curled fingers point in the
direction in which the magnetic lines of force move in the magnetic
field encircling the wire. (Warning: Never actually grasp an energized
conductor with your bare hands due to the possibility of electric
shock.)
FIGURE 18You would

never actually hold a
conductor in your right
hand as shown here;
just imagine that youre
doing so. The thumb
points in the direction of
conventional current
flow. The curled fingers
point in the same direction as the lines of
force.
Magnetic Forces Between Parallel Conductors

If two energized conductors are placed in a parallel position, the
magnetic flux produced by each wire exerts a force of either attraction
or repulsion on the moving electrons in the other wire. For example, if
the current in each wire is moving in the same direction, the wires
will be attracted to each other (Figure 19A). If the current in two parallel wires is moving in opposite directions, the wires repel each other
(Figure 19B). If no current is flowing in one of the conductors, no
force is applied to either conductor. (Note: The direction of the force
of the wire can be determined by using Flemings left-hand rule,
which well discuss later in the study unit.)
20
FIGURE 19When current flows in the same direction through two parallel wires, the wires attract each
other. When current flows through the two wires in opposite directions, the wires repel each other.
From these observations, we can state the following rules:

Rule 1: If parallel conducting wires are carrying current in the same
direction, the magnetic field around each wire creates a force on the
moving electrons in the opposite wire. The force attracts the wires
together.
Rule 2: If parallel conducting wires are carrying current in opposite
directions, the magnetic field around each wire creates a force on the
moving electrons in the opposite wire that repels the opposite wire away.
These magnetic forces can place enormous stress on conductors in
electrical machinery circuits. When a large current is moving through
parallel wires in such machinery, the magnetic forces of attraction
and repulsion that are produced can cause trouble. For this reason,
conductors in machinery circuits must be fastened and braced very
securely to hold them in place. In large generators and transformers,
short circuits or surges caused by lightning can cause unusually high
currents to flow. The resulting magnetic forces can tear conductors
out of place or crush insulation.
21
FIGURE 20This figure

shows a basic magnetic
coil and the magnetic lines
of force that surround it.
Magnetic Coils
If a piece of insulated conductor wire is formed into a coil, we call it a
magnetic coil or a solenoid. When current is applied to a magnetic coil,
the magnetic lines of force around each coil of the conductor combine together to form a larger and stronger magnetic field around the entire coil.
The coil also develops a magnetic north and south pole. Magnetic coils
are usually made of insulated wire to prevent short circuits between the
turns of the coil.
Figure 20 shows a magnetic coil and the magnetic lines of force surrounding it. The arrow indicates the direction of conventional current
flow. Current flows through each turn of the coil in the same direction. The magnetic fields in each loop of the coil combine together to
form a stronger magnetic field around the entire coil.
The magnetic field at the center of a magnetic coil is more concentrated and therefore more intense than the fields above or below the
coil. Because of this concentration of the lines of force in the center of
the coil, a magnetic coil acts like a permanent bar magnet. A north
pole and a south pole develop at opposite ends of the coil.
A magnetic field around a magnetic coil looks much like a magnetic
field around a bar magnet. That is, the lines of force leave the north
pole and go around to the south pole.
22
FIGURE 21In Figure

21A, note the direction
of the current flow and
the magnetic lines of
force. The end of the
coil that the magnetic
field leaves is the north
pole. In 21B, the direction of the current is
reversed, and the
magnetic lines of force
move in the opposite
direction.
If you already know the direction of current flow through a magnetic

coil, you can use the right-hand rule to determine the polarity of the
coil. Imagine that youre placing your right hand over the wire with
your thumb pointing in the direction of the conventional current flow.
Your curled fingers now indicate the direction of the magnetic field.
Reversing the direction of the current flow will reverse the direction
of the magnetic field and the polarity of the poles (Figure 21).
Electromagnets
An electromagnet is a magnet made by inserting a piece of magnetic
material (usually iron or soft steel) into a magnetic coil (Figure 22).
The magnetic material around which the conductor is coiled is called
the core.
When current is applied to the magnetic coil, the core becomes magnetized and develops a north and south pole. Figure 23 shows a
straight conductor that has been formed into a single coil. A piece of
23
magnetic material has been placed inside the loop of wire. When current is applied to the loop, the core centers itself with respect to the
lines of force (that is, with its north pole downward) creating a bar
magnet. The larger arrows indicate the direction of the current flow.
The smaller arrows indicate the direction of the lines of force.

shows the construction
of a basic electromagnet. A piece of magnetic material is inserted
into a magnetic coil.
FIGURE 23Notice how the lines of force add together at the center of the
coil creating a bar magnet with north and south poles.
Note that the right-hand rule for the direction of the lines of force still
applies in this situation. If you imagine that youre grasping the conductor with your thumb facing in the direction of the current flow,
the curled fingers of your right hand will point in the direction of the
lines of force.
In general, an electromagnet is stronger than a magnetic coil of similar size. This is because the iron core in an electromagnet increases the
attractive force of the magnetic coil due to the flux density at the ends
of the core. The flux density in an electromagnet is much greater than
that in an empty magnetic coil. Thus, the addition of an iron core to a
magnetic coil intensifies the strength of the magnetic field.
24
FIGURE 24If the wire on the right-hand side of the horseshoe magnet is wound in the opposite direction,
the magnetic flux from each coil will flow in opposite directions in the iron bar, and theyll cancel each
other out.
A number of factors affect the strength of the magnetic field around

an electromagnet. The three main factors are the following:
1. The number of turns in the coil. The more wire turns a coil
contains, the stronger the magnetic field.
2. The strength of the current. The greater the current flow through
a magnetic coil, the stronger the magnetic field.
3. The core material. A coil containing a magnetic core is stronger
than a similar coil with a nonmagnetic core.
A horseshoe electromagnet is shown in Figure 24. It consists of an
iron bar bent into a horseshoe shape. Two magnetizing coils are
placed on the straight ends.
Now look at the end view of the horseshoe electromagnet (Figure 24B).
Note that the current circulates around one end of the electromagnet
in one direction, and around the other end in the opposite direction.
If the current were to circulate around both cores in the same direction, the lines of force produced in the two cores would oppose one
another. The curved bar would then exhibit no magnetic force.
Electromagnetic Relays
An electromagnetic relay is a device that operates one or more switches
or contact sets when current flows through its coil. A relay acts like a
switch, opening or closing other circuits that are electrically separate
from the circuit that activates the relay. The construction of a simple
electromagnetic relay is shown in Figure 25.
25
A relays main parts are an electromagnet and an armature. A spring

holds the armature away from the electromagnet and against the
stationary normally closed (NC) contact. When the electromagnet is
energized, the armature is attracted to the magnetic field of the
electromagnet, and therefore moves to the stationary normally open
(NO) contact. The contact spring thats attached to the armature is the
movable contact. It makes connections between the two stationary
contacts. The pigtail connection from the armature to the common
terminal is part of the switching system. The electromagnet is part of
the control circuit. The switching system (the contacts) is part of the
controlled circuit.
When control-circuit power is applied, the electromagnet attracts
the armature. The contact spring moves down, away from the NC
contact, and makes connection with the NO contact. Thus the controlled circuit is closed, or completed, through the common terminal
and the NO contact. The control-circuit terminals are the terminals
of the electromagnet coil. The controlled-circuit terminal is the common terminal which is connected to the pigtail and the NO and NC
contacts.
The control circuit that energizes a relays coil can be a low-voltage circuit, with a supplied voltage of 12 or 24 VDC. However, the controlled
circuit may be a high-voltage or high-current circuit that contains a
large load such as a motor. Very large relays called contactors use
low voltage coils but can have high voltages (as much as 440 VAC)
connected to their many contacts.
FIGURE 25Electromagnetic
relays act like switches to
open and close circuits. The
circuits can be energized
by a different power source
than that which energizes
the relay.
26
Alarm Bells or Buzzers

The alarm bell or buzzer is one of the simplest electric devices to work
by electromagnetism. A typical alarm bell or buzzer and its circuit
are shown in Figure 26. Figure 26A shows an external view of the
alarm unit. Figure 26B shows the operating circuit inside the alarm.
The operating circuit consists of the bell mechanism, a battery, a push
button, and the necessary wiring. The bell mechanism contains a
U-shaped electromagnet, an armature, and a spring attached to the
armature. The armature spring rests against a fixed contact screw.
The armature is pivoted at its lower end and has a small clapper or
hammer at its upper end.
When the push button is pressed, current flows from the battery
through the electromagnet, the spring, the contact, and the push
button, and then back to the battery. The armature is attracted to the
poles of the electromagnet. As the armature makes contact with the
electromagnet, the clapper at its upper end strikes the alarm bell. The
armature spring moves with the armature, breaking away from the
fixed contact screw it rests against.
As soon as the spring moves away from the contact screw, the circuit
is opened and the magnet is de-energized. The armature then springs
back to make contact, and the circuit is closed again. The magnet is
then re-energized, and the armature is attracted to the magnet again.
This process repeats rapidly, over and over, as long as the push button completes the circuit. The repeated striking of the clapper on the
alarm bell creates the alarm bell sound with which were all familiar.
FIGURE 26Figure 26A

shows an external view of
a simple alarm unit. Figure
26B shows the operating
circuit of the alarm. From
this sketch and the information given in the text, you
should be able to find the
source of trouble in an
alarm unit if a problem
develops.
27

shows a stepping switch
and its parts.
Electromagnetic Stepping Switches

The stepping switch or stepper is a relay that can make connections,
step-by-step, to a large number of circuits. One type of stepping
switch is shown in Figure 27. The bank of fixed contacts is wired to
circuits to which connections are to be made. The electromagnet
drives the movable wipers to the desired set of contacts in the bank of
fixed contacts.
A pulse of current in the electromagnet attracts the armature.
The movement of the armature pushes a lever against the ratchet
mounted on the wiper shaft. The wipers are thereby moved to the
next set of contacts. In order to move the wipers to a desired set of
contacts, the required number of pulses must be passed through the
electromagnet.
Some stepping switches are automatically reset to the starting
position after operation; others require some form of resetting. Stepping switches were often used in sequence controllers in industry.
Although theyve largely been replaced by electronic controllers, you
may still find them in older pieces of equipment.
28
FIGURE 28Here is a cross

sectional view of a typical
industrial solenoid. In 28A,
the coil is de-energized. In
28B, the coil is energized
and the plunger has moved
upward into the coil.
Solenoids
Earlier in this text, we used the term solenoid to refer to a magnetic
coil. However, the term solenoid is also used to refer to a special
electromagnet that has a moveable iron core.
Industrial solenoids contain magnetic coils made up of hundreds of
turns of fine wire. Often these coils are encased in plastic or phenolic
material. Inside the coil is a moveable round metal core called a
plunger. In most cases, when the solenoid coil is magnetized by a flow
of current, the plunger moves upwards into the coil. When the flow
of current stops, a spring above the plunger presses the plunger back
to its original position. Figure 28 shows a cross section of a basic solenoid and plunger.
Figure 29 shows the magnetic forces in a typical solenoid. If an
energized solenoid coil and a piece of iron are placed in the position
shown in the figure, the iron will be attracted to the solenoid. A
magnetic field exerts a force on a movable plunger in a direction that
minimizes the reluctance in the magnetic circuit. The iron plunger has
a much lower reluctance to a magnetic field than to the air inside the
coil. That is, the magnetic field would much rather flow through the
plunger than through the air.
When the plunger is in the position shown in Figure 29, some of the
magnetic flux doesnt flow in the plunger because the plunger is too
far away from the coil. Because this situation isnt a condition for
minimum reluctance, a force acts on the plunger and causes it to
29
move into the coil. This condition occurs when the plunger moves
into the coil. As the plunger moves into the center of the coil, all of
the magnetic flux flows in the plunger. The reluctance of the magnetic
circuit is then at a minimum and the force on the plunger is zero.
If the plunger tries to continue moving away from the center of the
coil, the reluctance of the magnetic circuit increases. A restoring force
is then applied to the plunger, moving it back to the center of the coil.
If a solenoid is completely encased in a magnetic shield, its magnetizing effect is greatly increased. When current flows, the plunger is
drawn up more forcibly than it would be in an open coil. Because of
the force with which the core plunges into the solenoid, the combination of solenoid and plunger can be made to perform certain mechanical operations, such as turning electricity, water, oil, or air flow on
and off.
In industry, solenoids are widely used to control the motion of objects or
the flow of liquids, vacuums, or air pressure. Many industrial conveyors
use air solenoids to control the stops or brakes on the conveyor. The
brakes are used to control product flow on the conveyor. Many industrial
robots are controlled by solenoid valves. These valves control the flow of
pressurized air or oil into cylinders or motors.
FIGURE 29The magnetic

field of a solenoid coil
produces a force on the
iron plunger, moving it into
a position of minimum reluctance (the center of the
coil). Solenoids such as this
one are used to control
valves, such as hot and
cold water mixing valves.
30
DC Motors
Although AC polyphase motors are the type most widely used in
industry, DC motors are also found in industrial plants. DC motors
offer the advantages of precise speed control and higher starting
torque than AC motors of similar size. DC motors are also used on
special control systems called servo systems. Servo systems use feedback devices that allow a controller to precisely position the motors
shaft and precisely control the speed of the motor.
A simplified drawing of a DC motor is shown in Figure 30. Note the
field magnets to the left and right of the motor. The field magnets are
horseshoe-shaped magnets positioned with their opposite magnetic
poles across from each other. A rotating armature located at the center of the motor is made from a soft metal bar. Two coils are wound
on this bar in opposite directions.
The two wires that lead from the armature coil are connected to a
device known as a commutator. The commutator is made of two
copper bars to which the armature wires are attached. A set of spring
copper or carbon brushes are used to connect the power supply to the
commutator segments, and therefore to the armature coil. The commutator in this example motor is split to reverse the flow of current
through the armature coils.
FIGURE 30Here is a simplified illustration of a DC

motor.
31
Current flowing to the armature creates a magnetic field around the

armatures coils. The armatures iron bar is then centered in a magnetic field, with one magnetic pole on each end of the iron bar. The
field around the iron bar is both attracted to and opposed by the poles
on the field magnets.
When the north pole of the armature faces the north pole of the field
pole, the like poles repel. Since the armature is mounted on a shaft
and able to rotate, the armature turns. The armature turns until its
south pole is aligned with the north pole of the field magnet.
Now, unless the direction of current flow is changed, the armature remains stationary. However, in this motor, the commutator is split into
two sections. As the armature moves, the commutator acts as an electric switch. So, when the north pole of the armature reaches the south
pole of the field pole, the current direction is reversed, reversing the
field on the armature coils. This results in a reversal of the poles of the
armatures iron bar. The armature then rotates again to align itself
with the poles of the field magnet.
In this simple example motor, weve only described the movement of
one armature pole and one field magnet. Note that the same action
occurs on the opposite side of the motor. Thus, the armature continually rotates as current is applied to it and reversed.
The motor in our example is a simple motor with permanent magnet
field magnets. In a typical DC-powered permanent magnet motor, at
least four very strong magnets are used for the field magnets. Also,
the armature contains many segments with their associated field
windings. Wound-field DC motors are also available and are widely
used in industry. In a wound-field DC motor, windings on metal bars or
poles provide a magnetic field outside of the rotor.
Now, take a few moments to review what youve learned by completing Power Check 2.
32
Power Check 2
Fill in the blanks in each of the following statements.
1. The south pole of a compass pointer is attracted to the _______ pole of an
electromagnet.
2. An electromagnetic device that makes connections, step-by-step, to a large
number of circuits is a _______.
3. An electromagnetic device that uses a movable core to do mechanical work is
called a _______.
4. Inside a solenoid coil is a moveable round metal core called a _______.
5. If you looked at a conductor in which the current flow was away from you, the
magnetic lines of force would move around the conductor in a _______ direction.
6. By forming a conductor into several loops and applying current to it, you make
whats known as a _______.
7. A _______ is a device that operates one or more switches or contact sets when
current flows through its coil.
8. According to the conventional theory of current flow, a charge of electricity flows
from the _______ terminal of the power source to the _______ terminal.
33
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Magnetic Field, Voltage, and
Conductor Movement
Youll recall that current flowing through a conductor produces a
magnetic field. Its also true that if a conductor moves through a
magnetic field, a voltage is generated on the conductor. This effect is
called electromagnetic induction. In order for electromagnetic induction
to occur, you must have a magnetic field and a moving conductor.
Electromagnetic induction can also be observed when two conductors
are placed near each other in a parallel formation. When the current
in one of the two parallel conductors is varied (without physical
movement of the energized conductor), a voltage is induced in the
other conductor. This type of electromagnetic induction is called
mutual inductance.
In this section of the text, well examine two important effects produced by electromagnetic induction: generator action and motor
action. Both of these principles have many practical applications in
industrial devices.
Generator Action of Electromagnetic Induction

The generator action of electromagnetic induction is illustrated in
Figure 31. A conductor is placed between the poles of a magnet. Note
that the magnetic lines of force are moving from right to left. If the
conductor is moved upward, a voltage will be induced on the conductor and conventional current will flow through the conductor in
the direction shown. The galvanometer connected to the conductor in
FIGURE 31In this example, the magnetic lines

of force move from right
to left, and the conductor is being moved upward. The generator action of electromagnetic
induction produces a
current that flows
through the conductor in
the direction shown by
the arrows.
34
the circuit indicates the presence and movement of small amounts of

current in the conductor.
When speaking of electromagnetic induction, its more common to
refer to induced voltage than to induced current. The strength of the
voltage induced in a conductor thats moving in a magnetic field depends on the following factors:
1. The strength of the magnetic field through which the conductor
is moving
2. The speed at which the conductor is moving
3. The length of the conductor (or the number of coils it contains)
4. The angle that the conductor makes with the magnetic field
The stronger the magnetic field and the faster the movement of the
conductor, the greater the induced voltage. Also, a coiled conductor
(that is, a longer conductor) produces a higher induced voltage. The
more turns of wire, the higher the induced voltage. A conductor
thats placed perpendicular to a magnetic field and that moves in a
direction perpendicular to the wire and the field produces the greatest induced voltage.
Note that the current caused by an induced voltage flows only if the
moving conductor is a part of a closed circuit. If an electrical load or
apparatus is connected to the moving conductor, the induced voltage
will energize the apparatus. In practice, induced voltage is obtained
from generators, which provide most of the electric power for homes
and industries.
A definite relationship exists between the direction of the motion of a
conductor, the direction of the magnetic lines of force, and the direction of current flow in the conductor. If the directions of two of these
quantities are known, the direction of the third can be determined by
applying Flemings right-hand rule or generator rule.
Flemings Right-Hand Rule: Position the thumb, forefinger, and middle

finger of your right hand as shown in Figure 32. Point your thumb in the
direction of the conductor motion. Point your forefinger in the direction of the magnetic lines of force. Your middle finger now points in
the direction of the induced voltage. The induced current flows in the
same direction as the induced voltage.
Figure 32 shows you how to apply Flemings right-hand rule. Note

that the conductor is moving upward as indicated by the thumb; the
magnetic lines of force are moving from right to left, as indicated by
the forefinger; and the flow of current is toward the observer, as indicated by the middle finger.
35
FIGURE 32This illustration

shows you how to apply
Flemings right-hand rule to
he generator action of
electromagnetic induction.
Note that if we reverse either the direction of the magnetic field or the
direction of the conductor motion, the direction of the induced voltage and the resulting current will also reverse.
Motor Action of Electromagnetic Induction

You know that when a conductor moves through a magnetic field, a
voltage is induced in the conductor. Now, suppose that a currentcarrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field. What happens?
Well, the interaction between the magnetic field and the moving electrons in the conductor causes a force to be applied to the conductor.
If the conductor is free to move, the force will move the conductor as
long as the conductor current and the magnetic field are maintained.
This process is called the motor action of electromagnetic induction
(Figure 33).
Flemings Left-Hand Rule: Position the thumb, forefinger, and middle

finger of your left hand as shown in Figure 34. Point your forefinger in
the direction of the magnetic lines of force. Point your middle finger in
the direction of current flow through the conductor. Your thumb now
points in the direction in which the conductor will move.
To determine the direction in which the conductor moves, you can

use Flemings left-hand rule or motor rule (Figure 34).
The motor action of electromagnetic induction is applied mainly in
electric motors and in other devices where movement is produced
electrically.
36
FIGURE 33Because
the current-carrying
conductor is in a magnetic field, electromagnetic induction causes
it to move.

shows you how to apply
Flemings left-hand rule to
the motor action of electromagnetic induction.
Mutual Inductance and Transformers

Earlier in this section of the text, we mentioned that when two conductors are placed close together, and one of the conductors carries a fluctuating current, a voltage will be induced on the other conductor. The
closer the two conductors are, the stronger the induced voltage will be.
If the two conductors are formed into coils and placed near each other
(such as around a core) and a current is applied to the first coil, the
magnetic field produced in the first coil induces a voltage in the second coil. In such an arrangement, the first coil is called the primary coil
and the second coil is called the secondary coil.
37
The principle of mutual inductance is used to operate transformers.

A basic transformer is shown in Figure 35. The transformer consists of
two coils or windings wound around an iron core. The primary coil is
connected to a battery through a switch and a resistor; a voltmeter
(V) is connected across the secondary coil. When the switch is open
(as shown), no current flows through the primary coil, no magnetic
field is produced, and no voltage is induced in the secondary coil.
However, when the switch is closed, current flows through the primary coil, setting up a magnetic field around the coil. The magnetic
lines of the field spread outward and cut across the turns of the secondary coil, inducing a voltage in it. The voltage can be read on the
voltmeter.
FIGURE 35A basic

transformer is illustrated
here. A change in voltage in the primary coil
induces a voltage in the
secondary coil.
The current from the battery is a direct current (DC). This current produces a change in flux only when the switch is first opened or closed.
Thus, a voltage is induced in the secondary coil only during the short
time when the primary coil circuit is first opened or closed. At the instant the switch is closed, the momentary voltage induced in the secondary coil has one polarity, or direction: its increasing. When the
switch is opened, the voltage induced in the primary coil has the
opposite polarity: its decreasing. When the current in the primary
winding continuously varies (as in an alternating current or AC transformer), the voltage induced in the secondary coil is present as long
as the primary current varies. The voltage in the secondary coil is an
alternating voltage.
Take a few moments to review what youve learned by completing
Power Check 3.
38
Power Check 3
Answer each of the following questions in your own words.
1. What two elements are essential for electromagnetic induction?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. When a transformer is placed in a DC circuit, will the secondary coil continue to
produce voltage?
________________________________________________________________________
3. What rule can be used to demonstrate the motor action of electromagnetic
induction?
________________________________________________________________________
4. When a conductor moves through a magnetic field, what form of electromagnetic induction occurs?
________________________________________________________________________
39
Power Check Answers
3
1. A magnetic field and a moving conductor
1. north, south
2. magnetic
3. compound
2. No, it will stop shortly after the

primary coil is energized.
4. opposite
3. Flemings left-hand rule or motor rule
5. maxwell
4. The generator action of electromagnetic

induction
6. gauss
7. ampere-turns
8. Coercive force
9. Hysteresis loop
10. Reluctance
2
1. north
2. stepping switch
3. solenoid
4. plunger
5. clockwise
6. magnetic coil or solenoid
7. relay
8. positive, negative
40
Power Check Answers
NOTES
Examination
41
EXAMINATION NUMBER:
08600400
Whichever method you use in submitting your exam
answers to the school, you must use the number above.
For the quickest test results, go to
http://www.takeexamsonline.com
When you feel confident that you have mastered the material in this study unit, complete the
following examination. Then submit only your answers to the school for grading, using one of
the examination answer options described in your Test Materials envelope. Send your answers
for this examination as soon as you complete it. Do not wait until another examination is ready.
Questions 125: Select the one best answer to each question.
1. Magnetic flux is pushed through a magnetic path by
A. reluctance.
B. hysteresis.
C. electromotive force.
D. magnetomotive force.
2. Which of the following units is used to measure magnetic flux density?

A. Gauss
B. Maxwell
C. Weber
D. Watt
3. Which of the following is an electromagnetic device that can operate a switch when current flows
through its coil?
A. A bar magnet
B. A horseshoe magnet
C. A relay
D. A core
4. The area inside the hysteresis loop represents

A. residual magnetism.
B. magnetic saturation.
C. energy.
D. permeability.
42
Examination
5. If you dip a bar magnet into iron filings, the filings will stick to
A.
B.
C.
D.
both poles of the magnet.

the whole magnet.
only the north pole of the magnet.
only the south pole of the magnet.
6. How do lines of magnetic force travel?

A.
B.
C.
D.
From the magnets south pole to its north pole

From the magnets north pole to its south pole
From the magnets neutral line to its poles
From the magnets poles to its neutral line
7. Which of the following is a magnetic material?

A. Glass
B. Paper
C. Wood
D. Iron
8. Which of the following illustrations shows a closed magnetic circuit?

A.
C.
B.
D.
9. In the following figure, a conductor is connected to a battery and placed between two compasses.
An electric current is then passed through the conductor. In what direction do the north poles of the
compasses point?
A.
B.
C.
D.
In the same direction as the magnetic lines of force

In the opposite direction from the magnetic lines of force
In the same direction as the flow of current through the conductor
In the opposite direction from the flow of current through the conductor
Examination
43
10. What theory of current flow says that electric current flows from the positive side of the source,
through the load, to the negative side of the source?
A. Electron theory
B. Conventional theory
C. Static theory
D. Magnetic theory
11. An artificial magnet made by pressing magnetic powder together under high pressure and temperature is called a
A. powder core magnet.
B. rare earth magnet.
C. polyform magnet.
D. semisteel magnet.
12. If a current of 5 amperes flows through a coil made up of 40 turns of wire, the amount of MMF generated is
A. 8 ampere-turns.
B. 35 ampere-turns.
C. 45 ampere-turns.
D. 200 ampere-turns.
13. Which of the following are used to connect a DC power supply to the armature of a DC motor?
A. Field poles
B. Armature poles
C. Carbon brushes
D. Plungers
14. The opposition to magnetic flux as it flows through a magnetic circuit is

A. reluctance.
B. hysteresis.
C. permeability.
D. resistance.
15. What happens to a magnetic material when further application of MMF brings only a slight change in
magnetism in the material?
A.
B.
C.
D.
The material begins to heat rather than absorb more magnetism.

The material begins to lose its magnetic properties.
The material is termed saturated.
The material is said to have low hysteresis.
16. When using Flemings right-hand rule for generator action of electromagnetic induction, the forefinger
points in the direction of the
A. current flow.
B. conductor motion.
C. coils windings.
D. magnetic flux.
17. What part of a relay is used to support the major components of the relay?
A. Armature
B. Frame
C. Contact spring
D. Contact set
18. When a voltage is induced on a moving conductor in a magnetic field, current will only flow if the
conductor is
A. formed into a coil.
B. moving slowly.
C. part of a closed circuit.

D. large enough in diameter.
44
Examination
19. In a solenoid, where is the magnetic field strongest?

A. Outside the coil
B. Inside the coil
C. At the north pole

D. At the south pole
20. What is a typical coil voltage for a low-voltage relay circuit?

A. 2 VDC
B. 5 VDC
C. 12 VDC
D. 120 VDC
21. Electromagnetic stepping switches operate by

A.
B.
C.
D.
pulsing current to the electromagnet.

energizing a set and then reset coil.
placing 24 VDC on the coil and letting the switch cycle automatically.
placing a control voltage on the contacts of the switch.
22. The center of a bar magnet where no magnetic force is present is called the
A. pole.
B. neutral line.
C. axis.
D. keeper.
23. If you double the distance an object is away from a source of magnetism, how much loss will there be
in magnetic flux?
A.
B.
C.
D.
The flux will be one-half as strong.

The flux will be one-quarter as strong.
The flux will be one-fifth as strong.
The flux will be one-eighth as strong.
24. What is the amount of MMF generated by a 50-turn electromagnetic coil supplied by 12 VDC at a
current of one ampere?
A. 12 ampere-turns
B. 38 ampere-turns
C. 50 ampere-turns
D. 600 ampere-turns
25. Which of the following relative permeability values describes a vacuum?

A. 1
B. 50
C. 100
D. 1,000

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DC Principles

Use the right-hand rule to locate the poles of a solenoid

POWER CHECK ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Magnetism and Electromagnetism

Magnetism and Electromagnetism

small relays. Larger, much stronger electromagnets are used in large

FIGURE 1This figure

A permanent magnet always has a north pole and a south pole. In a

Magnetism and Electromagnetism

FIGURE 3The simple magnetic compass in 3A can be

Magnets or electromagnets always attract ferrous metals (metals that

Magnetism and Electromagnetism

FIGURE 4Iron filings

Identifying Magnetic Poles

Attraction and Repulsion of Magnetic Poles

Magnetism and Electromagnetism

FIGURE 5The earth has

Magnetic Fields and Lines of Force

FIGURE 6The lines of

Magnetism and Electromagnetism

FIGURE 7Iron filings are

Magnetism and Electromagnetism

north pole again. The magnetic circuit of a bar magnet is shown in

Magnetic and Nonmagnetic Materials

Magnetism and Electromagnetism

FIGURE 9In this illustration,

Magnetism and Electromagnetism

iron is in the field of the permanent magnet, the iron becomes a

FIGURE 10In the simple

Magnetism and Electromagnetism

FIGURE 11Any kind of

A compound magnetic circuit is a circuit in which the lines of force pass

Magnetic Units and Terms

Magnetism and Electromagnetism

Magnetism and Electromagnetism

Magnetism and Electromagnetism

FIGURE 13This figure illustrates a magnetization

Magnetism and Electromagnetism

Magnetism and Electromagnetism

Magnetism and Electromagnetism

Magnetism and Electromagnetism

Suppose that a current-carrying conductor is run through the center

FIGURE 15In this figure, a conductor is run through a piece of cardboard,

Magnetism and Electromagnetism

FIGURE 17If you look at a

Magnetism and Electromagnetism

Right-Hand Rule: Imagine that youre grasping a current-carrying wire

FIGURE 18You would

Magnetic Forces Between Parallel Conductors

Magnetism and Electromagnetism

From these observations, we can state the following rules:

Magnetism and Electromagnetism

FIGURE 20This figure

Magnetism and Electromagnetism

FIGURE 21In Figure

If you already know the direction of current flow through a magnetic

Magnetism and Electromagnetism

FIGURE 22This figure

Magnetism and Electromagnetism

A number of factors affect the strength of the magnetic field around

Magnetism and Electromagnetism

A relays main parts are an electromagnet and an armature. A spring

Magnetism and Electromagnetism