AC Principles

Study Unit

Alternating Current
By

Robert L. Cecci

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Preview
This study unit covers the most common form of electric power used in homes, businesses, and
industry: AC current. AC current is used in industry to power computers, control systems, ovens,
motors, and there are many more applications.
Well begin with a study of the basic characteristics of alternating current and the values used to
describe AC cycles. Youll then be presented with information on single-, split-, and three-phase
AC current.
When you complete this study unit, youll be able to

Draw a graph of an AC voltage and describe how AC voltage is created

Explain what an AC cycle is using the terms alternation, peak, positive, and negative
Express the time period of an AC cycle in degrees
List the characteristic values of an AC cycle and describe the relationship between the values
Define phase angle and describe how it relates to reactive circuits
Calculate power for single-phase and three-phase circuits
Describe how a 220 VAC, single-phase circuit operates
Calculate the phase and line voltages of multiphase wave forms
Determine real power by reading a power factor meter
Describe delta-connected and wye-connected three-phase circuit connections

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Contents
INTRODUCTION TO ALTERNATING CURRENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Uses of Alternating Current

Alternating Current Versus Direct Current
Generation of Alternating Current
Elementary Alternator
Generation of Voltage Cycle
Sine Wave
A Cycle of Alternating Current
Frequency
Time Measured in Degrees

CHARACTERISTIC VALUES OF THE AC CYCLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Types of Characteristic Values
Instantaneous Values
Maximum and Peak-to-Peak Values
Average Value
Effective Value
Importance of Effective Value

SINGLE-PHASE ALTERNATING CURRENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Opposition to Alternating Current
Phase Angle
Phase Angle in Resistive AC Circuits
Phase Angle in Reactive AC Circuits
Power in Resistive AC Circuits
Power in Purely Reactive AC Circuits
Power in Partially Reactive AC Circuits
Apparent Power in an AC Circuit
Real Power in AC Circuits
Reactive Power in AC Circuits
Application of Power Formula
Power Factors in Industry

POLYPHASE ALTERNATING CURRENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Polyphase Systems
Single-Phase System
Three-Phase Circuits
Star- or Y-Connected Three-Phase Systems
Delta-Connected Three-Phase Systems
Power in Three-Phase Systems

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Contents

POWER CHECK ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

EXAMINATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Alternating Current
INTRODUCTION TO ALTERNATING CURRENT
Uses of Alternating Current
Our modern way of life depends on electricity: we use electrically operated machines and devices in our work and recreation, and nearly
all manufactured products are produced with the aid of electricity.
Most electric devices and machines are powered by alternating current
(AC). Alternating current is very different from direct current (DC). In a
DC circuit, theres a steady flow of electrons from the negative terminal
of the generator, power supply, or battery. These electrons flowing
through the circuit or load are attracted to the positive terminal of the
supply.
In an AC circuit, the flow of electrons reverses periodically. You may
have heard of 60 cycle current delivered by your local utility to your
plant or home. 60 cycles means the current begins as a positive cycle
and then reverses to a negative cycle 60 times per second.
AC is widely used to provide electricity for lighting, for the majority
of household appliances, and for most industrial motors, controllers,
ovens, and process systems. The sound in radio and television and
the TV picture itself are all produced by some form of alternating current. Because of the widespread use of AC electric energy, its something youll want to know about and be able to work with. Before you
study the applications of alternating current, though, you should be
familiar with its general characteristics.

Alternating Current Versus Direct Current

AC power can be produced and transmitted at a lower cost than DC
power. Also, AC can be distributed more conveniently than DC. For
these reasons, AC is a widely used choice.
An alternator, or AC generator, is a machine that produces or generates
AC voltage. It can be designed and built to produce higher voltages
and to have higher power capacity than any DC generator of the
same size. Also, the larger an alternator is, the more efficient it is.
Its relatively simple to generate a high alternating voltage and, using
transformers, step it up to a still higher voltage and, finally, transmit

Alternating Current

it through power lines over long distances to the place where it will
be used. For instance, electric power systems can generate voltage at
about 1300 volts (V); step this power up to 500,000 V or more for
transmission; and, finally, step it down to 440, 240, or 120 volts alternating current (VAC) at the points of industrial use. Very high voltage is desirable in a transmission line because it makes it possible to
reduce the power loss in that line.
A low current at a high voltage and a high current at a low voltage
transmit the same amount of power. During any power transmission,
losses occur mostly due to the heating of conductors due to the conductors resistance. Power lost due to the heating of conductors can
be determined by using the following formula:
P = I2R
In this formula, the letter P stands for the power loss in watts, the letter I stands for the current in amperes, and the letter R stands for the
resistance of the conductors in ohms.
Resistance in a transmission line is constant, but we can change the
current. As you can see in the formula, decreasing the current will
substantially lower the power loss. Therefore, the current in transmission lines should be kept as low as possible. Sending the desired
electric power through the line at very high voltage will lower the
current.
Because step-up transformers can easily raise the voltage in AC circuits
to high values, and in this way lower the power loss, AC is much
more economical than DC for transmission of electric power.
Transformers allow for the convenient distribution of alternating current within an industrial plant. The high transmission voltage is first
stepped down by transformers. Then, the transformed electric power is
applied wherever its needed, at a safer and more convenient low
voltage such as the common 440, 240, or 120 VAC used for generalpurpose industrial circuits.

Generation of Alternating Current

Most of the alternating current used in home and industry is generated
by alternators. Alternators operate on the principle of electromagnetic induction. The generating action of electromagnetic induction occurs
whenever theres a relative motion between a conductor and a magnetic
field. As the result of electromagnetic induction, a voltage is induced
in the conductor and, if the conductor is a part of a closed circuit, a
current will flow through the conductor.
The direction of the conventional current (current flow from positive
to negative) induced in a conductor by electromagnetic induction can
be found by Flemings right-hand, or generator, rule. Do you know

Alternating Current

that rule? Its illustrated in Figure 1. Heres how you can apply it.
First, using your right hand, aim your index, or pointing, finger in the
direction of the magnetic field. At the same time, aim your thumb in
the direction in which the conductor is moving through the magnetic
field. Your thumb and index finger will now be at a right angle to
each other. Now, point your middle finger so that its at a right angle
to both your thumb and your index finger. Look again at Figure 1 to
see how to hold your fingers. If you follow directions, your middle
finger will point in the direction of the voltage induced in the conductor. Thats the same direction as that of conventional current flow
through the conductor.
FIGURE 1The right-hand
rule is illustrated here. The
direction of the magnetic
field flowing from the north
pole (N) to the south pole
(S) is indicated by the
index finger. The upward
motion of the conductor is
indicated by the thumb.
The direction of the
conventional current is
toward you, as indicated
by the middle finger.

In an alternator, a group of conductors revolves in a magnetic field.

Because of the continuously changing position of the conductors relative to the lines of force, the induced voltage is continuously changing, or alternating, and the current output of the alternator is an
alternating current.
The value of the current at any instant is its instantaneous value. The
instantaneous values of any alternating current change in direction
and in magnitude at regular intervals. The current rises from zero to a
maximum value, maximum positive for example, then decreases to
zero. The current then increases again, but in the opposite direction,
to a maximum negative value, then returns to zero again. Consider
one set of such changes, or reversals, to be one change from zero to

Alternating Current

maximum positive to zero and another change from zero to maximum

negative to zero. This set of changes is a cycle.
In an AC circuit, the current doesnt stop at just one cycle. The cycles
are repeated over and over because theyre generated continually by
the alternator. Thus AC voltages and currents consist of many cycles.
One such cycle is shown in Figure 2. This picture, or graph, displays
not only AC current but also the resulting AC voltage.
FIGURE 2Heres one cycle
of AC power. Note that this
waveform reaches a
positive maximum then
crosses zero and reaches a
negative maximum then
returns to zero.

Elementary Alternator
Lets see how a cycle of an AC voltage is generated. To keep the discussion simple, well use an elementary alternator. This elementary
alternator has only one conductor coil and uses a permanent magnet
to provide the field poles. Commercial alternators have many coils
and use electromagnets, rather than permanent magnets, for the field.
In the elementary alternator shown in Figure 3A, the magnetic field is
provided by a stationary horseshoe magnet. The direction of the magnetic lines of force is indicated by vertical arrows, leading from the
north pole (N) of the magnet down to its south pole (S).
A one-turn coil is connected to two slip rings. The coil and the rings
are mounted on a shaft (not shown), which is made to rotate by an
outside source of mechanical power, such as a motor driven by gasoline or diesel fuel or by a turbine powered by water flow or steam. As
the shaft rotates, the sides of the coil cut the lines of force. The carbon
brushes are held stationary against the slip rings, connecting the outside circuit to the coil.

Alternating Current

FIGURE 3One revolution of the coil in the elementary alternator in 3A generates the varying voltage
shown in 3B. The wavy line in 3B represents the alternating voltage in the outside circuit.

Generation of Voltage Cycle

An illustration of how an AC voltage changes during one complete
cycle and an end view of the alternator are shown in Figure 3B. The
positions of the alternator conductor as it rotates are numbered from 0
to 11 at the left in Figure 3B. The lines of force are indicated by the
lines between N and S.
The instantaneous values of the voltage during one cycle are shown on
the time line, or axis, at the right in Figure 3B. The axis is divided into
the same number of points as the conductor has positions. This numbered axis0 through 11, and back to 0represents the time it takes
the conductor to complete one cycle. The vertical distances above and
below the time axis represent the values of the voltage or current induced at the corresponding positions of the conductor.
When the conductor is moving past position 0 in Figure 3B, its motion
is parallel to the lines of force, so no voltage or current is induced in
it, and voltage and current are zero at point 0 on the time axis. As the
conductor passes position 1, cutting a number of lines of force, a corresponding voltage and current are induced. A horizontal broken line
is drawn parallel to the time axis from conductor position 1. A vertical
line from point 1 on the time axis to the horizontal broken line represents the induced voltage and current at that instant. In position 2, the
conductor cuts more lines of force than in position 1. Therefore, the
vertical distance at point 2 on the time axis, representing the induced
voltage and current, is higher than at point 1.

Alternating Current

As the conductor passes position 3, its motion is at right angles to the

lines of force, and it cuts the largest number of lines. The induced voltage
and current shown at the positive peak, or 3, has, therefore, the maximum
possible value. At position 4, fewer lines are cut. The number of lines
is the same as at position 2. Therefore, the induced voltages and currents at points 2 and 4 are of the same value.
At position 5, theres a further decrease in lines cut, and the induced
voltage and current are the same as those generated at position 1.
When the conductor reaches position 6, no lines of force are cut, and
the induced voltage and current are zero as they were at the start of
the cycle. Voltages and currents in all positions from 0 through 6 are
generated in the same direction. All are represented by distances
above the time axis which means theyre positive.
After the conductor has passed position 6, the voltages and currents
induced are in the opposite direction. These voltages and currents are
represented by distances below the time axis which means theyre
negative. The voltages and currents have increasing negative values
as the conductor moves past positions 7 through 9. The maximum
negative voltage and current are reached at 9, as indicated by the
negative peak, or 9, shown below the time axis. The values then decrease through positions 10 and 11, until zero voltage and current are
induced at the end of one full revolution of the conductor.

Sine Wave
The wavy line, or curve, that connects all points reached by the voltage or the current during a given period of time is the sine wave. Its a
graph showing the changes in AC voltage or current. The sine wave is
very helpful in a discussion of alternating voltages and currents. In
Figure 3B, only one set of reversals is shown. Such a set is a cycle. The
sine wave, though, contains many cycles. They repeat themselves,
again and again, as long as the voltage or current is generated.
Both the voltage and the current in an AC circuit vary in the form of
sine waves. In Figure 3B, a voltage curve is shown, but the changes in
the current flow correspond to the changes in the voltage.

A Cycle of Alternating Current

A graph of one cycle of alternating current is shown in Figure 4. The
horizontal axis indicates the time in seconds. In this example, the duration of one cycle is 1 60 second (s). Thus, in one second there are 60
such cycles, which gives us the term 60 hertz (Hz). One hertz is one
complete cycle consisting of a positive and negative alternation. The
word hertz is used in honor of the scientist Heinrich R. Hertz whos
famous for experimenting with electricity in the nineteenth century.

Alternating Current

FIGURE 4One full cycle of

a 60 Hz sine wave takes 1 60
second (s). Try to imagine
just how fast the variations
are: 60 sets of changes
completed every second!

In Figure 4, observe that zero values of the current occur at the beginning of the cycle, or at point 0; then again 1120 second later, at point 1;
and finally, at the end of the cycle, at point 2. The amount of current
changes every instant. The consecutive values of current are represented by the distances between the points on the sine wave and the
horizontal time axis. The distances, measured in amperes (A), are
indicated on the vertical scale through the point 0. Values above the
horizontal axis are positive; values below are negative.
The current starts from point 0. At point 5, it has reached a value of 50 A
in the positive direction. The current reaches the highest point in the
positive direction (100 A) at point 3 which occurs 1 240 second after
the beginning of the cycle. After that point, the current starts to decrease
in value, until it reaches zero amperes at point 1. Here the current reverses its direction, and starts to increase in the opposite direction
until, at point 4, it reaches the maximum negative value (100 A negative). That occurs 3 240 second after the beginning of the cycle. In the
last fourth of the cycle, the current is still negative, but it decreases
gradually to zero amperes at point 2.
One half of a cycle, the change of current or voltage from one zero
point to the next, is an alternation. There are two alternations in one
cycle. The highest value a current or a voltage may reach in a cycle is
the maximum value, or peak value, of the cycle.

Alternating Current

Frequency
As previously mentioned, the direction of the flow of alternating current changes continually. One complete change of alternating current
is a cycle and the frequency is the number of cycles completed in one
second. Measurements of frequency are given in hertz.
A frequency of 60 Hz is used almost exclusively for lighting and power
applications in the United States and Canada. In South America and
Europe, AC power of 50 Hz is widely used.
Higher frequencies, such as 400 Hz, are being introduced for some
machinery and for more efficient operation of fluorescent lamps.
Also, 400 Hz power is used widely in aircraft electric systems.
Engineers now design most modern electrical equipmentsuch as
relays or contactors, transformers, and motorsto operate on 50 Hz
or 60 Hz, AC power. Some excess heating may result from operating
a transformer, relay, or motor on 60 Hz power if its designed for 50
Hz power. Also, motors that are designed for use on either speed will
rotate faster on 60 Hz power. Normally, the two speeds will be listed
on the motors nameplate.

Time Measured in Degrees

Changes in current or voltage happen in fractions of a second. However, the time within a cycle isnt usually measured in fractions of a
second, as it was in Figure 4. Instead, its much more practical to
measure the time in degrees, as shown in Figure 5.
FIGURE 5Each of the
twelve time intervals shown
in Figure 3B corresponds
to an interval of 30 shown
in this cycle. Thus, the time
of 360 in a full cycle
corresponds to one full
revolution of the coil.

Alternating Current

The time needed for completion of one cycle depends on the rate of
change, or frequency, if its measured in seconds. However, without
knowing the duration of one cycle in fractional parts of a second, its
convenient to represent the time interval in degrees. In Figure 5, the
sine wave of the voltage is drawn to a suitable scale, and the part of
the time axis between the beginning and the end of one cycle of the
sine wave is divided into 360 equal parts, or degrees. Dont confuse
these degrees with those that measure temperature. These degrees are
measuring time. How large the scale is, or how much time the interval actually represents, isnt important because 360 (degrees) always
represents the interval needed for one cycle.
One alternation takes 180 or half the time necessary for a complete
cycle. Zero values of voltage occur at 0, 180, and 360, as shown in
Figure 5. The positive maximum is reached at 90 and the negative
maximum at 270. For the value at any other instant, the corresponding number of degrees can be determined on the horizontal time axis.
Timing an AC cycle in degrees rather than fractions of a second is very
important in electrical and electronics work. As youll see as you
progress through this study unit, most AC-voltage or AC-current calculations deal with an AC signal expressed in degrees. Also, when
studying how semiconductor devices are triggered during the AC cycle, an understanding of AC cycles in degrees is important.
Now, take a few moments to review what youve learned by completing Power Check 1.

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Alternating Current

Power Check 1
At the end of each section of your Alternating Current text, youll be asked to check
your understanding of what youve just read by completing a Power Check. Writing the answers to these questions will help you review what youve learned so far.
Please complete Power Check 1 now.
1. Which of the following may be used as a backup source of AC voltage for emergency lighting in your plant?
a. Transformer

c. Motor

b. Alternator

d. Insulator

2. Which of the following may be used to lower or raise an AC voltage?

a. Transformer

c. Motor

b. Alternator

d. Insulator

3. Which one of these figures shows one cycle of an AC voltage?

a.

c.

b.

d.

(Continued)

Alternating Current

11

Power Check 1
4. Which one of these figures shows one alternation of an AC voltage?
a.

c.

b.

d.

5. If an AC-voltage sine wave started from 0 and reached the point P indicated on
the figure below, how many degrees has it completed?

6. Which of the following would be used to provide the magnetic field in a commercial alternator?
a. Electromagnet

c. Industrial transformers

b. Permanent magnet

d. Flemings generator

Check your answers with those on page 49.

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Alternating Current

CHARACTERISTIC VALUES OF THE AC CYCLE

Types of Characteristic Values
If a DC circuit carries 5 A, a current of 5 A is continually flowing
through the circuit, but thats not true of an AC circuit. The values of
AC current and AC voltage vary for every instant in time. Therefore,
its necessary to establish one characteristic amount of amperes and
volts to be used in most calculations on AC signals. Well identify that
one amount a little later in this study unit.
First, however, well take a look at the several characteristic values
of current and voltage to be identified in every AC cycle. These five
values are
1. Instantaneous values
2. Maximum, or peak, values
3. Peak-to-peak value
4. Average value
5. Effective, or rms, value
Each of these values for voltage will be discussed in greater detail
with the aid of the voltage cycle in Figure 6.

FIGURE 6Any point in the sine wave represents one instantaneous value of the voltage. Other
characteristic values are effective, or rms, value (Erms), maximum, or peak, value (Epk), average value (Ea),
and peak-to-peak value (Epk - pk).

Alternating Current

13

Assume the peak voltage (Epk) in Figure 6 is 1 V. The other characteristic

values are all relative to Epk. Thus, effective, or rms, voltage (Erms)
is 0.707 V, average voltage (Ea) is 0.636 V, and peak-to-peak voltage
(Epk-pk) is 2.0 V. The numerical relations of the values are
E rms = E pk 0.707 = E a 1.11
E pk = E rms 1.414 = E a 1. 572
E a = E pk 0.636 = E rms 0.9
E pk pk = E pk 2 .0

Instantaneous Values
The instantaneous value is the actual value of voltage or current at any
particular time. In the field of electronics, its sometimes necessary to
consider instantaneous values. In Figure 7, instantaneous values are
represented by vertical distances between the points of the sine wave
and the horizontal time axis. Theyre read from the scale on the vertical axis. Instantaneous values of an alternating current are different at
every instant. They arent used in the calculations in this lesson, although instantaneous values are used sometimes to help explain the
conditions in a circuit at a given instant.

FIGURE 7At points 0, 1, and 2, the instantaneous value of the current is zero amperes. At point 3, the
instantaneous value is the peak positive value (100 A); at point 4, its the peak negative value (also 100 A,
but in the opposite direction). The instantaneous values at points 5 and 6 are both 50 A.

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Alternating Current

Maximum and Peak-to-Peak Values

The maximum value, or peak value, is the highest instantaneous value of
voltage or current reached in either direction during one cycle. There
are two peak values in each cycle: a positive peak and a negative peak.
The peak current value in an AC circuit is important for determining the
size of conductor sufficient to carry the current. The peak voltage value in a
circuit should be considered when the conductor insulation is selected.
The peak-to-peak value is the change of voltage or current from the
positive peak value to the negative peak value, as indicated in Figure 8.
For example, if the peak current is 100 A, the peak-to-peak current
value is 200 A. For a sine-wave voltage or current, the peak-to-peak
value is twice the peak value. You may also find the peak-to-peak
value by adding the two peak values (ignoring that one is positive and
the other negative). The peak-to-peak value of a voltage wave can be
measured conveniently by using an instrument called an oscilloscope.
Many industrial engineers and electronic technicians deal continually
with peak-to-peak values.

FIGURE 8The two peak values of this wave are shown at points 3 and 4. The peak-to-peak value is the
total range between the two peak values, which are particular instantaneous values.

Average Value
The average value of an alternating current or voltage is obtained by
calculating the average of all instantaneous values during one alternation. The average isnt taken for the full cycle because the sum of all

Alternating Current

15

positive values cancels out the sum of all negative values, and we
would be left with an average of zero.
The calculation of average value results in the following two formulas:
Ia = 0.636 Ipk
Ea = 0.636 Epk
In the first formula, Ia stands for the average value of current and Ipk
stands for the peak value of current. Both values are expressed in amperes. In the second formula, Ea stands for the average value of voltage and Epk stands for the peak value of voltage. Both of these values
are expressed in volts.
For example, for the cycle in Figure 8, the peak value of the current (Ipk) is
shown as 100 A. The average value of the current (Ia) is 0.636 100, or
63.6 A. The average value isnt shown on the cycle because it isnt one
of the instantaneous values; its obtained by arithmetic.
Some electrical measuring instruments respond in proportion to the
average value, but theyre designed and calibrated, or adjusted to indicate rms value.

Effective Value
The effective, or rms value of an alternating current or voltage is the value
that will have the same heating effect as a known direct current or
voltage. For example, if an unknown alternating current has the same
heating effect as a direct current of 10 A, the alternating current is
known to have an rms value of 10 A.
If the peak value is known, the rms value can be determined by the following formulas:
Irms = 0.707 Ipk
Erms = 0.707 Epk
Use the first formula to find rms current (I). In this formula, Ipk stands
for the peak value of current and both I and Ipk are expressed in amperes. Use the second formula to find the rms value of voltage (Erms).
Epk stands for the peak value of voltage and both Erms and Epk are
expressed in volts.
Its the rms current thats used in the calculation of power. When the
heat loss in the transmission line discussed earlier was determined by
using the formula P = I2R, it was the rms value of the current that was
used.

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Alternating Current

The rms value wasnt shown in Figure 7 or 8, because it isnt one of

the instantaneous values. For the current shown in Figure 8, the rms
value is equal to 0.707 100, or 70.7 A which is about 70% of the peak
value. The rms value of the voltage in Figure 6 is 0.707 1, or 0.707 V.
When you already know the rms values of current and voltage, determine the peak values by using these formulas:
I pk =

I
= 1.414 I rms
0.707

E pk =

E
= 1.414 E rms
0.707

These formulas show that the peak values are 1.414 times the rms
values. The two illustrations shown in Figure 9 display the rms values
of current and voltage compared to the peak values.
FIGURE 9As shown in 9A,
an rms current of 70.7 A
will be produced by a
100 A, AC supply. In 9B,
an rms voltage of 0.707
volts is produced by a
1.0 VAC signal.

Alternating Current

17

Importance of Effective Value

When direct current is measured, a constant amount of current flows
through the measuring instrument. That amount is shown on the scale of
the meter. That method of measurement cant be applied to alternating
current. Since alternating current varies all the time, its amount cant
be measured directly; it can only be measured by its effects.
The most reliable effect is the heat produced by the current, because
the amount of heat depends on the amount of current and isnt influenced by the direction of flow. Therefore, if an alternating current
produces the same amount of heat as a given direct current, we know
that it has an rms value equal to that of the direct current.
Figure 10 shows a sine wave representing an alternating current with
a peak value of 20 A. The rms value of this current is 0.707 20, or
14.14 A. The alternating current in this circuit will produce the same
amount of heat in the conductor as the steady direct current of 14.14 A,
shown by the horizontal line. There are instants when the alternating
current is higher than 14.14 A, and other instants when no current is
flowing at all, but the overall heating effect of the changing current is
the same as that produced by the steady flow of direct current.

FIGURE 10A steady flow of direct current is represented by the horizontal line drawn at a distance of 14.14 A
from the time axis. This steady flow of direct current will cause the same heat as the alternating current,
represented by the figures sine wave, which has a peak value of 20 A.

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Alternating Current

The rms values of current and voltage are used in calculations concerning AC circuits. Its an accepted practice that, unless otherwise specified, rms values are meant when any values are mentioned in AC applications. For example, if an AC circuit is said to carry 20 A at 240 V,
we know that the current in the circuit has an rms value of 20 A and
that the voltage has an rms value of 240 V. Most AC measuring instruments, such as the popular volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM), are
designed so that they indicate the rms value of the electrical quantity
they measure.
Many instruments that measure AC voltages and currents will have
printed on their scale plates RMS VOLTAGE or RMS CURRENT. Remember that effective value equals rms value.
Here are some sample problems to give you practice in using the formulas for finding AC values. Read each problem carefully and study
the solution until you understand it thoroughly.
1. An alternating current has the peak value of 15 A. What is the
average value of the current?
Ia = 0.6361 Ipeak

Write the formula for average current.

Ia = 0.636 15 A

Substitute the value for Ipk.

Multiply (0.636 15 = 9.54 ).

Ia = 9.54 A

Answer: The average value of the current is

9.54 amperes.

2. The electric power supplied to an electric drill is usually at

110 V. What is the peak value of the AC voltage?
Epk = 1.414 Erms

Write the formula for peak voltage.

Epk = 1.414 110 V

Substitute the value for E. (The given voltage

is the rms voltage.)
Multiply (1414
.
110 = 155.54 ).

Epk = 155.54 V

Answer: The peak value of the AC voltage is

155.54 volts.

Alternating Current

19

3. An alternator provides an rms current of 10 A when connected

to a load of 10 (Greek letter omega symbolizing ohm). What is
the heating power delivered by the generator?
P = I2R
P = (10 A)2 (10 )
P = 10 10 10
P = 1000 watts (W)

Write the formula for power loss.

Substitute the rms value for I and the value
for R.
Multiply (10 10 10 = 1000).
Answer: The heating power delivered by the
generator is 1000 watts.

Now, take a few moments to review what youve learned by completing Power Check 2.

20

Alternating Current

Power Check 2
1. The instantaneous value is one of the characteristic values in an AC cycle. Name
the four other characteristic values.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. How many maximum, or peak, values are found in one AC cycle?
a. One

c. Three

b. Two

d. Four

3. True or False? The peak-to-peak sine-wave, or AC, value is equal to twice the peak
value.
4. If you read that an AC circuit carries 30 A at 230 V, what characteristic value of
the current can you assume is being measured by the 30 A?
a. Rms current

c. Peak-to-peak current

b. Average current

d. Instantaneous current

5. Which of the following characteristic AC values can be either positive or

negative?
a. Average value

c. Peak value

b. Peak-to-peak value

d. Rms value

Check your answers with those on page 49.

Alternating Current

21

SINGLE-PHASE ALTERNATING CURRENT

Opposition to Alternating Current
Simple AC circuits with one voltage are single-phase AC circuits. If two,
three, or more AC voltages are applied to interconnected circuits, the
system is a polyphase AC circuit. The prefix poly means many. Well discuss single-phase AC circuits first.
In DC circuits, the only opposition to the flow of current is the resistance. In AC circuits, however, in addition to resistance, theres another type of opposition to the current. This other type of opposition
is reactance. Reactance is either inductive or capacitive, depending
upon whether an inductor or a capacitor is in the circuit.
The total opposition to an alternating current is impedance. Impedance
represents the combined effect of the resistance, the inductive reactance
(if any), and the capacitive reactance (if any). The impedance of an AC
circuit may contain no reactances at all, only one kind of reactance, or
both kinds.
In practice, theres always some resistance present in any AC circuit.
However, if a circuit, in addition to resistance, contains any reactances
at all, its called a reactive circuit.

Phase Angle
In every AC circuit, the current waveform, the voltage waveform, and
their relation to each other must be considered. It very seldom happens that the voltage and the current go through their maximum
positive, zero, and maximum negative values at the same point in
time. If both the voltage and the current rise and fall together at the
same time throughout an AC cycle, the voltage and current are in
phase with each other. However, it seldom happens that the voltage
wave is in phase with the current wave. Theres usually a delay of either the voltage wave or the current wave due to conditions in the circuit. When such a delay exists, the voltage and current are out of phase.
In Figure 11A, the current wave is shown leading the voltage wave
in the circuit. The distance between their zero points is measured in
degrees. This distance represents their phase difference, or phase angle.
The usual symbol for the phase angle is (Greek letter theta). The phase
angle in Figure 11A is 90, leading.

22

FIGURE 11The voltage

wave in 11A starts at the
maximum point of the
current wave, which
means the current wave
leads the voltage. The
voltage wave in 11B is
already at its maximum
point when the current
wave starts, which means
the current wave lags the
voltage.

Alternating Current

Alternating Current

23

Lets examine one cycle of the current wave shown in Figure 11A. At
0, the current starts to rise. It reaches its maximum positive value at
90 when the voltage wave has a zero value. At 180, the current has
dropped to its zero value and the voltage wave has reached its maximum value. At 270, the current has reached its maximum negative
value and the voltage has zero value. At 360, the current has reached
its zero value, completing its cycle, and the voltage has reached its
maximum negative value. This sequence continues, with the current
wave in this circuit always leading the voltage wave by 90, or one
fourth of a cycle.
The waves shown in Figure 11B represent the opposite situation, with
the current wave lagging 90 behind the voltage wave. Thus, the phase
angle , which equals 90, is lagging. The current wave starts when
the voltage wave has already reached its maximum positive value.
The phase angle in actual circuits is usually very small; the phase angles
in Figures 11A and B represent extreme phase differences.
The phase angle plays a very important part in calculating the power
of a circuit. It determines the power factor of the circuit. The greater the
phase angle, the lower the power factor which governs the active
power produced by the circuit. This relationship will be explained
later in the study unit.

Phase Angle in Resistive AC Circuits

When an AC circuit contains only a resistive load, such as an incandescent lamp, a heater, or a resistor, the only opposition to the current
is the resistance. The circuit has no reactances. Such a circuit is called a
resistive circuit. The current, the voltage, and the resistance of an AC
circuit are related to one another by Ohms law in exactly the same
way as in a DC circuit. Ohms law states E = I R. Voltage is equal to
current times resistance.
In a purely resistive load, the current and voltage waves are in phase,
as shown in Figure 12.
Both waves start from zero, reach their maximum positive values at the
same time, pass through zero together, reach their maximum negative
values at the same time, and return to zero together. The two waves
are therefore exactly in phase. There is no phase difference between the
voltage and the current waves in a purely resistive circuit.

24

Alternating Current

FIGURE 12Since the voltage and current waves of a resistive circuit are in phase, the difference in phase,
or phase angle , equals zero.

Phase Angle in Reactive AC Circuits

Youre already familiar with the principle of electromagnetic induction. Electric devices that work on the induction principle are inductors. Electric devices designed to accumulate and hold a charge of
electricity are capacitors. Circuits using inductors are inductive circuits
and those using capacitors are capacitive circuits. Both capacitors and
inductors offer opposition to alternating current.
The opposition from a capacitor is the capacitive reactance and the opposition from an inductor is the inductive reactance. Any AC circuit
containing reactance is a reactive circuit. Some AC circuits contain resistance plus reactance from a capacitor or an inductor or both. This
combination of resistance and reactance is impedance.
For now, well learn a little more about the effects of reactance on
AC voltage and current waves. Therell be more on inductance and
capacitance in other study units.
In a reactive circuit, phase differences between voltage and current are
caused by inductance or capacitance or a combination of both. The
current in an AC circuit lags the voltage if the circuit contains mostly
inductive reactance; the current leads the voltage if the circuit contains
mostly capacitive reactance. Either way, the current and voltage in a
reactive circuit are always out of phase.

Alternating Current

25

The sine waves in Figure 11A represent the phase conditions found in
a capacitive circuit, while the sine waves in Figure 11B represent the
phase conditions found in an inductive circuit.
In a capacitive circuit, the current leads the voltage and thus the voltage lags the current. In an inductive circuit, the current lags the voltage and the voltage leads the current.
While you may find this confusing at first, you can easily remember
these relations by using the following phrase:
ELI the ICE man
In this phrase, E represents the voltage and I represents the current.
The type of circuit is shown by the middle letters. L represents inductance or an inductive circuit and C represents capacitance or a capacitive circuit.
For example, the letter E is at the beginning of the symbol ELI and the
letter I is at the end. Therefore, I follows E. That is, the current I lags
the voltage E in an inductive circuit L. In the same way, the letter I is
at the beginning of the symbol ICE. Therefore, the current I leads the
voltage E in a capacitive circuit C.
In practice, we usually say what the current is doing, leading or lagging, with regard to the voltage. Sometimes the voltage and current
arent even mentioned. For example, if its said that the phase angle is
45 leading, you can understand this to mean that the current is leading
the voltage by 45.

Power in Resistive AC Circuits

The same basic method for calculating power is used for an AC circuit as
for a DC circuit. But for AC circuits, voltages and currents vary and
sometimes arent in phase with each other. You should take these
varying conditions and phase relations into account when calculating
AC power.
Lets briefly review how to calculate power in a DC circuit. Power
delivered to a DC circuit is equal to the applied voltage multiplied
by the total current flowing into the circuit.
This relationship is described in the following formula:
P=EI
In this formula, P stands for the power delivered to the circuit in watts, E
stands for the applied voltage in volts, and I stands for the total current in
amperes.

26

Alternating Current

In the typical DC circuit, voltage and current have steady values,

therefore the power in a DC circuit will also have a steady value.
In an AC circuit, the power is also equal to the applied voltage multiplied by the total current flowing into the circuit. However, in an AC
circuit, the voltage and current are changing continually and, therefore, the power changes from one instant to the next. The instantaneous power, at any point in time, is equal to the instantaneous voltage
multiplied by the instantaneous current all measured at the same point
in time. In Figure 13, you see a sine wave of voltage with a positive
peak value of +3 V and a sine wave of current with a positive peak
value of +2 A. Because the voltage is in phase with the current, this
can be recognized as a resistive circuit.
The drawing of the instantaneous power wave shows graphically how
the power in this circuit will vary with time. The maximum value of
the instantaneous power wave is 6 W (3 V 2 A) and the minimum
value of the instantaneous power wave is 0 W. Note that all of the instantaneous power curve is above the horizontal line. Although the
power varies, its instantaneous value measured at any point in time
will always be positive. We say that all power delivered to this circuit
can produce work and cause heat, or is real power. Figure 13 shows
that all power is real power in a purely resistive circuit.
To find the value of the real power in a purely resistive AC circuit,
multiply the rms values of the voltage and current. Use the same formula as was used for calculating the power in a DC circuit except
now well let E and I stand for rms values:
Preal = Erms Irms
For the purely resistive circuit, which produces waveforms like those
in Figure 13, you can find the real power by following these three steps:
1. Find the rms value of the voltage.
Erms = 0.707 Epk
Erms = 0.707 3
Erms = 2.121 V

Write the formula for calculating the rms

value of the voltage.
Substitute the positive value for Epk in volts.
Multiply. Answer: The rms value of the voltage is
2.121 volts.

Alternating Current

27

FIGURE 13The instantaneous power wave in a resistive circuit is in phase with both the voltage and current
waves. Because the instantaneous power wave has only positive values, all of the power is active, or real,
power.

28

Alternating Current

2. Find the rms value of the current.

Irms = 0.707 Ipk
Irms = 0.707 2.0
Irms = 1.414 A

Write the formula for calculating the rms

value of the current.
Substitute the value for Ipk in amperes.
Multiply. Answer: The rms value of the
current is 1.414 amperes (rounded).

3. Calculate the real power.

Preal = Erms Irms

Write the formula for calculating the real

power in a resistive circuit.

Preal = 2.121 1.414

Substitute the values for Erms and Irms.

Preal = 2.999 W

Multiply. Answer: The real power in this

resistive circuit is 3 watts (rounded).

Another method for finding the real power in an AC circuit is to find

the average value of the instantaneous power using a graph of the power
wave. We can find this average value for the circuit producing the
power wave in Figure 13. All we have to do is mentally shift the
instantaneous power wave down the vertical axis until the horizontal
axis is exactly between the power waves positive and negative peaks.
Youll have to shift the power wave down 3 increments along the
vertical axis to position the peaks equally distant from the horizontal
axis. If you really had shifted each point of the wave down by 3 increments, the newly positioned wave would have a positive peak value
of +3 W and a negative peak value of 3 W. The number of increments that you would shift the power wave down is the average
value of the instantaneous power and, expressed as watts, is equivalent to the real power of the circuit.
Thus, we can see by the amount of shift required that the real power
in this circuit is 3 W. This is the same amount we had previously calculated using the rms values of the voltage and current.

Alternating Current

29

Power in Purely Reactive AC Circuits

Because every circuit contains at least a small amount of resistance,
theres no such thing as a purely reactive circuit. However, in order
to discuss reactance, it helps to assume that such circuits exist. The
waveforms that would exist in a purely reactive circuit are shown in
Figure 14.
Figure 14s waveforms resemble what would be found in an inductive
circuit in that the current lags the voltage by 90. The voltage and current
waves, like those in Figure 13, have positive peak values of +3 V and
+2 A respectively, but the currents 90 lag keeps the voltage and current out of phase. The instantaneous power still equals the instantaneous voltage multiplied by the instantaneous current at every point in
time. Note that not all of the instantaneous power is above the zero
line as it was in a purely resistive AC circuit.
We found the real power in a purely resistive AC circuit by multiplying the rms voltage by the rms current. In any reactive circuit, which
would be any circuit containing an inductor or a capacitor, we need a
third factor to find the real power. This third factor is the power factor
and will be described later in the study unit.
However, we can also find the real power for a purely reactive circuit
as we did before with the waveform from a purely resistive circuit by
finding the average value of the instantaneous power. The average
value of the instantaneous power is the amount of vertical shift required
to make the waves positive and negative peaks equally distant from
the horizontal axis. In Figure 14, we can see that the instantaneous
power wave has a positive peak value of +3 W and a negative peak
value of 3 W. Because both instantaneous power peaks are already
equally distant from the horizontal axis, no shift is required and the
real power is thus 0 W.
Remember that, in practice, theres no such thing as a purely reactive
circuit. Theres always some resistance. If a purely reactive circuit did
exist, however, its real power would be 0 W. No work can be done
nor can any heat be generated with a purely reactive AC circuit.

30

Alternating Current

FIGURE 14The current wave lags the voltage wave by 90 in what would be a purely reactive circuit. Note
that the instantaneous power wave is positive half of the time and negative half of the time.

Power in Partially Reactive AC Circuits

Figure 15 shows the relation of instantaneous voltage, current, and
power waves in a partially reactive AC circuit. The phase shift between
the current and the voltage of such a circuit would be less than 90. For
the circuit current that produced the waves depicted in Figure 15, the
current leads the voltage by 45. This is the phase shift for a capacitive
circuit with the capacitive reactance equal to the resistance. As in
Figures 13 and 14, the voltage and current waves also have positive
peak values of +3 V and +2 A respectively. The 45 phase shift between
the voltage and current waves can be clearly seen. The instantaneous
power is still equal to the instantaneous voltage multiplied by the
instantaneous current at every point in time. Again, note that not all
of the instantaneous power is above the zero line as it was in a purely
resistive AC circuit.

Alternating Current

31

FIGURE 15The voltage and current waves are shifted 45 out of phase in this partially reactive circuit.
Some of the instantaneous power is positive and some is negative.

When shifting the instantaneous power wave in Figure 15 to find the

average value of the instantaneous power, the real power will also be
revealed. The peak positive value of the instantaneous power is +5.12
W while its peak negative value is 0.88 W. If you shift each point of the
instantaneous power wave down the vertical axis by 2.12 increments,
the positive peak value for the repositioned wave will be +3 W while

32

Alternating Current

the negative peak value will be 3 watts. Therefore, the real power in
this circuit is 2.12 W.

Apparent Power in an AC Circuit

Multiplying the rms voltage by the rms current in an AC circuit wont
always give you the real power. The product of the applied rms voltage and the total rms current in a circuit is the apparent power.
Apparent power in an AC circuit is measured not in watts but in
volt-amperes. To find this value, use the following formula:
Papparent = Erms Irms
In this formula, Papparent stands for the apparent power in volt-amperes
(VA), Erms stands for the rms voltage in volts, and Irms stands for the rms
current in amperes. Note that this formula is the same as the real power
formula for a purely resistive circuit. Therefore, for a purely resistive
circuit, the real power in watts is equal to the apparent power in voltamperes.
Only the real power, measured in watts, performs useful work. As
shown in Figures 13, 14 and 15, the real power may never be greater
than the apparent power in an AC circuit. Apparent power must be
considered, however, when determining conductor sizes and insulation requirements. Reactive power is power in the circuit that doesnt
contribute useful electrical work. Reactive power is measured in voltamperes reactive (VAR).
Apparent power in volt-amperes (VA), real power in watts (W), and
reactive power in volt-amperes reactive (VAR) are related as shown
in the following equation:
Apparent power = (real power

+ reactive power 2 )

In terms of the units of measurement:

VA = W 2 + VAR 2
The symbol (

) means you take the square root of whatever quantity

is enclosed by the symbol. For example, 36 means take the square

root of 36 which is 6 because 6 6 is 36.
Lets find the apparent power for the circuit in Figure 15. Assume that
the reactive power is 2.12 VAR.
VA = W 2 + VAR 2
VA = 2 .12 2 + 2 .12 2

Write the formula for apparent power.

Substitute the values for real power and
reactive power.

Alternating Current

33

Now lets use the scientific calculator to solve the equation:

VA = 2 .12 2 + 2 .12 2
Keystrokes

Display

Description

2.12 [x2]

4.4944

Calculate the value of the

real power squared.

[+] 2.12 [x2] [=]

8.9888

Add the value of the reactive power squared.

[ x]

2.998132752

Calculate the square root.

Answer: Apparent power
equals 3.00 volt-amperes
(rounded).

In the circuits in a plant, its common to use larger power units. For
example, kilovolts and kilowatts may be used instead of volts and watts.
Kilo- means 1000 so 1 kilowatt (kW) = 1000 watts (W); 1 kilovolt-ampere
(kVA) = 1000 volt-amperes (VA); and 1 kilovolt-ampere reactive
(kVAR) = 1000 volt-amperes reactive (VAR).
A form of Kilovar meter is shown in Figure 16. Analog meters are also
available.
FIGURE 16Shown here is
one type of kilovar meter
used in industry. (Photo
Courtesy of Arga Controls, Inc.)

Real Power in AC Circuits

To determine the real power in AC circuits, you wont have to plot
out the instantaneous power wave as was done in Figures 13, 14 and
15. The real power delivered to any AC circuit can be found by using
the formula for apparent power and multiplying it by a power factor:

34

Alternating Current

Preal = Erms Irms PF

In this formula Preal is the real power in watts, Erms is the rms value of the
voltage, Irms is the rms value of the current and PF is the power factor
of the circuit.
The power factor is a number between 0 and 1, such as 0.1, 0.25, 0.7 or
0.85.
Normally youll simply read the power factor for an AC circuit or system from a power factor meter as shown in Figure 17. If a meter isnt
readily available, you may also find the value of your power factor on
a table or in a chart. To understand how the power factor is related to
the circuits phase shift and that its actually a trigonometric function,
you should practice calculating it.
FIGURE 17This digital
power meter can display
volts, amps, and watts. The
end display on the right
can also indicate VAR, VA,
PF, and Hz. (Photo Courtesy of Yokogawa Corporation of America)

The power factor is equal to the cosine of the angle theta (cos ). The
angle is the angle by which the current lags or leads the voltage. The
cosine for any angle can easily be looked up on a table or computed
using a calculator. For a phase angle of 0, the power factor (cos 0) is 1.
For a phase angle of 45, the power factor (cos 45) is 0.707. For a phase
angle of 90, the power factor (cos 90) is 0. If you know the phase
angle, the following would be a practical expression of the formula
for real power:
Preal = Erms Irms (cos )
The value of the power factor can also be calculated as a ratio of the
resistance (R), to the impedance (Z):
PF =

R
Z

Alternating Current

35

Another way to express the power factor is

PF =

real power
apparent power

Do you recall that impedance is made up of combined resistance and

reactance? Thus, if a circuit contains any reactance at all, impedance
must be larger than resistance, so the power factor must be a decimal
between 0 and 1. Similarly, because in a practical AC system apparent
power is always greater than real power, their ratio, which is the
power factor, must always be less than 1. The power factor may equal 1
and the reactive power would be 0 only if, as in a resistive circuit, the
impedance equals the resistance.

Reactive Power in AC Circuits

The reactive power in an AC circuit can be calculated using a formula
similar to the one used to calculate real power. Instead of the trigonometric term, cos , the formula for reactive power uses the sine of the
angle theta (sin ):
Preactive = Erms Irms (sin )
The values of sin for the three angles of phase shift depicted in
Figures 13, 14 and 15 are sin 0 = 0, sin 45 = 0.707, and sin 90 = 1.

Application of Power Formula

As you just learned, real power can be found by using the formula
Preal = Erms Irms PF. To use the formula, you only need to determine
the cosine of the phase angle and multiply. Here are some examples
that apply to the conditions in Figures 13, 14, and 15.
In Figure 13, Erms = 2.1213 V, and Irms = 1.4142 A. The phase angle is
0. Whats the real power in the circuit?
Preal = Erms Irms PF
PF = Cos

Write the formula for real power.

Write the formula for the power factor.

Lets use the scientific calculator to calculate the power factor.

Keystrokes

Display

Description

Enter the value of the

phase angle.

[cos]

1.

Press the cosine button to

determine the cosine of 0.
Answer: The power factor
is 1.

36

Alternating Current

Preal = 2.121 1.414 1

Preal = 2.999 1
Preal = 2.999

Substitute the rms values of the voltage and

current and the value of the power factor in
the formula.
Multiply 2.121 by 1.414.
Answer: The real power is 3 watts (rounded).

This is the value that, before we knew the term power factor, we had
found by shifting the instantaneous power down the vertical axis on
the graph shown in Figure 13.
What would be the reactive power? Reactive power is determined by
the formula Preactive = Erms Irms (sin ).
Preactive = Erms Irms (sin )

Write the formula for reactive power

Use the scientific calculator to determine the sine of .

Keystroke

Display

Description

Enter the value of the

phase angle .

[sin]

0.

Calculate the sine of 0.

Answer: The sine of is 0.

Because the sine of is 0, youll be multiplying by 0 in the equation. You

know that any value multiplied by 0 equals 0. So, for the wave form
shown in Figure 13, the reactive power is 0 VAR.
In Figure 14, the values of the voltage and current are the same as in
Figure 13, but the angle of phase shift, , between the voltage and current is 90. The power factor, cos , is 0 and, when multiplied through
the formula for real power, it gives the purely reactive circuit a value
of 0 for real power. Once more, we had confirmed this value for the
real power when we tried to shift the instantaneous power wave
down the vertical axis on the graph.
The reactive power for a purely reactive circuit is given by the formula
Preactive = Erms Irms (sin ). For a 90 phase angle, the sine of is 1.
Therefore, reactive power will simply be a product of the rms values
for current and voltage: 2.121 1.414 = 3 VAR (rounded). This is the
result you would expect because, in a purely reactive circuit, all
power would be reactive power.
In Figure 15, the voltage and current again have the same values as
before, but this time they have a phase shift angle of only 45. What is
the real power displayed in Figure 15?

Alternating Current

37

Preal = Erms Irms PF

PF = cos

Write the formula for real power.

Write the formula for the power factor.

Using a scientific calculator, determine the power factor.

Keystroke

Display

Description

45

45

Enter the value of the

phase angle .

[cos]

0.707106781

Press the cosine button to

determine the cosine of 45.
Answer: The power
factor is 0.707 (rounded).

Preal = 2.121 3 1.414 0.707

Preal = 2.999094 0.707

Preal = 2.120 (rounded)

Substitute the rms values of the voltage and

current and the value of the power factor in
the formula.
Multiply 2.121 by 1.414.
Multiply 2.999094 by 0.707. Answer: The real
power is 2.120 watts (rounded).

We had found this same value when we shifted the instantaneous

power down the vertical axis on the graph.
The sine of 45 is also 0.707. Thus, the reactive power in the circuitPreactive = Erms Irms sin is 2.121 1.414 0.707, or 2.12
VAR.
Be careful. Just because the sine of 45 and the cosine of 45 both equal
.707, dont assume that for partially reactive circuits, the reactive
power and real power will always be the same. For example, if the
phase angle in Figure 15 were 60 instead of 45, what would the
real power be?
Keystroke

Display

Description

60

60

Enter the value of the

phase angle .

[cos]

0.5

Press the cosine button to

determine the cosine of 60.
Answer: The power factor
is 0.5.

Preal = 2.121 1.414 0.5

Preal = 2.9999 0.5

Preal = 1.4999

Substitute the rms values of the voltage and

current and the value of the power factor in
the formula.
Multiply 2.121 by 1.414.
Multiply 2.9999 by 0.5. Answer: The real power
is 1.5 watts (rounded).

38

Alternating Current

Now find the reactive power.

Preactive = Erms I rms sin

Write the formula for reactive power.

Use a scientific calculator to determine the sine of the phase angle.

Keystroke

Display

Description

60

60

Enter the value of the

phase angle .

[sin]

0.866025404

Press the sine button to

determine the sine of 60.

Preactive = 2.121 1.414 .866

Preactive = 2.999 .866
Preactive = 2.597

Substitute the rms values of the voltage and

current and the value of the sine of (rounded).
Multiply 2.121 by 1.414.
Multiply 2.999 by .866. Answer: The reactive
power is 2.60 volt-ampere reactive (rounded).

So, by changing the phase angle by 15 in the partially reactive circuit, the
real power decreased to 1.5 W and the reactive power increased to 2.6 W.
In any AC circuit, the power factor is the ratio of the real power to
the apparent power. This is the same ratio as the resistance to the
impedance of the circuit. The greater the phase difference between the
voltage and current, the smaller the power factor.
The power factor is also very often expressed as a percentage. For
example, a 0.707 power factor may be expressed as a power factor
of 70.7% (percent). A 1.0 power factor is the same as a power factor
of 100%.
Whether the current lags or leads the voltage doesnt affect the value
of the power factor or the value of the real power. However, if the
current lags the voltage, as shown in Figure 14, we call the power factor a lagging power factor. A circuit with a lagging power factor would
be primarily inductive. If the current in the circuit leads the voltage,
as shown in Figure 15, its power factor is a leading power factor and it
would be primarily capacitive.
In addition to the size of the phase angle, the value of the power factor depends on the frequency of the applied voltage and the resulting
current. No matter what the frequency, though, the formula used to
calculate the power factor would stay the same.
In summary, here are the most common terms used to describe power:

Alternating Current

39

Instantaneous powerThe product of the instantaneous values

of the voltage and current measured at any one instant in time.
Its units are watts (W).

Apparent powerThe product of the rms, or effective, values of

the voltage and current. Its units are volt-amperes (VA) or kilovolt amperes (kVA).

Real powerThe apparent power multiplied by the power factor.

Its units are watts (W). Other names for real power are average
power, true power, and active power.

Reactive powerThe apparent power multiplied by the sine of

where is the phase angle between the voltage and current. Its
units are volt-amperes reactive (VAR).

Power factorThe cosine of where is the phase angle between

the voltage and current. It may also be calculated as the ratio

resulting from dividing the resistance by the impedance. The
power factor is always between 0 and 1 although its frequently expressed as a percentage between 0 and 100%. Because its only a
ratio between two values, it has no units of measurement.

Power Factors in Industry

When the current and voltage are in phase in a circuit, all the current
is effective in producing work or heat, the phase angle is 0, the power
factor is 1, and all of the apparent power is real power. In a typical
industrial system, however, a power factor of 1 would be rare. In an
industrial system, the wide use of motors, transformers, and other inductive loads will prevent a circuit from being purely resistive.
If the current and voltage were 90 out of phase, there would be only
reactance in the circuit. The power factor would then be 0 and all
apparent power would be reactive power. A power factor of 0 and
purely reactive circuits arent possible in practice.
The power factors of commercial power distribution circuits commonly range from 0.75 to 1, or 75% to 100% lagging. Values as low as
0.5 are sometimes found, but a value below that is rare in commercial
settings. Low power factors are not desirable. The lower the power
factor, the greater the current needed to transmit a given amount of
power. The capacitance of long transmission and distribution lines
can cause a leading power factor, which can cancel the lagging power
factor caused by the inductive reactance of the loads.
The extra reactance in a circuit with a low power factor merely increases
the losses of the circuit and requires larger conductors to carry the
necessary increase in current.

40

Alternating Current

The useful power of alternators and of the lines they serve may often
be increased by connecting to the lines certain devices that correct the
power factor. These devices make adjustments to bring the power factor closer to 1, or unity. If the line has many motors causing inductive
reactance, the power factor can be corrected by connecting capacitors
to the line. If the power factor in a system is leading, shunt reactors can
be used to correct the power factor.
Now, take a few moments to review what youve learned by completing Power Check 3.

Alternating Current

41

Power Check 3
1. In AC circuits, the current wave is usually either leading or lagging the voltage
wave. Because of this, the current and voltage are considered out of _______.
2. In the circuit shown below, the current wave reaches its maximum value at 90,
and the voltage wave reaches its maximum value at 135. What is the phase
angle?

a. 45, leading

c. 90, leading

b. 45, lagging

d. 90, lagging

3. The phrase ELI the ICE man helps you to remember that the current (I) leads the
voltage (E) in _______ circuits. (inductive or capacitive)
4. True or False? All power in a purely resistive circuit is active power.
5. In a partially reactive AC circuit, some power is positive and some negative. What
is the difference between the positive and negative power?
a. The apparent power

c. The phase power

b. The reactive power

d. The active power

6. Suppose youre working on a circuit with capacitive reactance. The phase shift is
45, the power factor is 0.707, the rms current is 0.707 A, and the rms voltage is
1.414 V. What is the real power?
a. 0 W

c. 1.414 W

b. 0.707 W

d. 4.0 W

7. Which of the following will always have a decimal value between 0 and 1?
a. The rms voltage

c. The impedance

b. The total circuit current

d. The power factor

Check your answers with those on page 49.

42

Alternating Current

POLYPHASE ALTERNATING CURRENT

Polyphase Systems
Alternating voltages and currents that are out of phase with each other
must be considered in polyphase AC systems. In the electrical field,
any system of more than one phase is considered a polyphase system.
A two-phase system uses, at the same time, two circuits connected to a
two-phase alternator. Likewise, a three-phase system utilizes three circuits produced by a three-phase alternator. Its very likely that in your
work as a plant maintenance electrician or electronic technician youll
be working on equipment requiring multiphase power.
A two-phase alternator, as shown in Figure 18A, has two groups of
coils, 1 and 2. Each coil group generates an alternating voltage and
current. Since the two groups of coils are physically arranged at an
angle of 90, the two generated voltages are not in phase but are 90
out of phase with each other. That means that the phase angle (Greek
letter phi) between the two voltages is 90. That phase relation is also
shown in Figure 18A: the two voltages have the same frequency and
the same maximum value, but their maximum and minimum and other
corresponding instantaneous values dont occur at the same time.
A three-phase alternator has three groups of coils (1, 2, and 3) arranged
120 apart, as shown in Figure 18B. In this alternator, three separate
alternating voltages are generated, and the phase difference ()120,
as shown.

Single-Phase System
Single-phase, or split-phase, systems use an AC power that is similar to
the output of the simple alternator such as in Figure 3. Typically, with
an AC voltmeter, youll measure either 220 VAC or 480 VAC across
the terminals in a single-phase system.
In our homes, single-phase, 220 VAC is used to power our electric heat,
electric clothes dryers, and electric water heaters. This voltage is used
to lower the current drawn by these high current appliances. In industry, single-phase circuits are much less common. However, electric heaters, some smaller machinery, and some smaller motors may
be powered by 220 VAC, split-phase power. This split-phase power is
normally developed by using two of the three power feeds from a
three-phase circuit.

Alternating Current

43

FIGURE 18The coils of a two-phase alternator are at right angles, so their waves are 90 apart. The
three-phase alternator coils, spaced equally apart from each other, produce waves 120 apart.

Three-Phase Circuits
The most commonly used polyphase system in industry is a three-phase
system. A three-phase system or circuit receives three simultaneous
voltages from a three-phase alternator. The voltages are generated in
phase windings connected internally. The windings may be connected in
a star, or Y (wye) shape, or in a (Greek letter delta) shape. The three
generated voltages in the system differ in phase by 120. Since the
maximum values of the three voltages occur at different times, the
voltages overlap and so provide a smoother output power than singlephase, or split-phase, systems.
The current is carried to the load by line wires. Three-phase systems
are classified as three-wire or four-wire systems according to the
number of line wires.
The load on a system is the total current drawn by the individual loads
connected to the system. These loads, such as motors, are generally
designed for a three-phase supply of current. However, there may
also be individual single-phase loads connected to the lines in such a

44

Alternating Current

way that the load on the lines is evenly distributed, or balanced. When
we discuss three-phase systems, we usually assume that the system is
a balanced system, with equal voltages, currents, and power factors in
all the lines. Unbalanced loads are uneconomical and should be
avoided.

Star- or Y-Connected Three-Phase Systems

The name star-connected is given to a three-phase system because of
the starlike connection of the phase windings, as shown in Figures
19A and B. This connection also resembles the letter Y (wye), which
accounts for the name Y-connected, the one more commonly used. The
three alternator phase windings (1, 2, and 3) in Figure 19A are connected to a common star point (0). Each phase winding has an end, or
terminal. The terminals (a, b, and c) are connected to the line wires (A, B,
and C). The loads (4, 5, and 6) are symmetrically connected, or evenly
distributed, between the lines.
The voltage across any phase winding is the phase voltage. The voltage
across any two wires in a circuit, such as across A and B or B and C or
A and C, is the line voltage for those two wires. The line voltages for the
pairs of wires in Figure 19A would be referred to as Eab, Ebc, and Eca.
The following are two rules for a balanced Y-connected system. The
first rule is the line voltage equals 1.732 times the phase voltage of a single
alternator winding. The second rule is the line current equals the phase
current. The currents are equal because each line wire is in series with
a phase winding.
The system shown in Figure 19A is a three-wire system. In a fourwire Y-connected system, such as the one shown in Figure 19B, a
fourth wire (N) is connected to the common star point (0). Threephase loads, such as the three-phase motors (7 and 8) can be connected to the three line wires (A, B, and C) in the same way as in
three-wire systems. In addition, its possible to connect single-phase
loads, such as the lamps (9, 10, and 11) between one line wire and the
neutral wire. The voltages between A and N, B and N, and C and N
are each equal to the phase voltages of the system.
If, for example, the line voltage in the system in Figure 19B is 208 V,
then three-phase motors rated at 208 V can be connected to the line
208
, or 120 V (rounded) . Therefore,
wires. The phase voltage is
1.732
single-phase loads such as lamps designed for 120 V operation may
be connected between the neutral wire and any line wire.

Alternating Current

45

FIGURE 19Two three-phase Y-connected systems are shown here. If the line voltages of the two systems
are 208 V, then loads 4, 5, and 6 are 208 V single-phase loads; loads 7 and 8 are 208 V three-phase loads;
and loads 9, 10, and 11 are 120 V single-phase loads.

Delta-Connected Three-Phase Systems

The three-phase windings of a delta system are connected in a closed
loop, similar to (Greek letter delta), which gives the system its name.
In Figures 20A and B, the phase windings (1, 2, and 3) dont have a
common point. Their terminals (a, b, and c) are connected to lines (A,
B, and C). Here are two rules for delta-connected systems. Rule one is the
line voltage equals the phase voltage. Rule two is the line current equals
1.732 times the current in any phase winding (1, 2, or 3).
In the three-wire system in Figure 20A, the loads, or load phases, are
numbered 4, 5, and 6. They are connected symmetrically and in to
the lines (A, B, and C). Each voltage across 4, 5, and 6 is the same as
the line voltage. If the current in each load phase is 50 A, each line
current in A, B, and C is 1.732 50, or 86.6 A.
If a lower voltage is desired from a system, a fourth wire (N) is connected to the center tap (0) of winding 1, as shown in Figure 20B. In
such a four-wire delta system, the voltage between N and A, and between N and B, is one half of the line voltage. Therefore, single-phase
loads, such as 9 and 10, may be connected to the system. If the line voltage
is 240 V, loads 9 and 10 may be designed to operate safely at 120 V. Care
should be taken not to connect a single-phase 120 V load, such as 11,
between lines N and C. The voltage across N and C is 208 V and could
damage the device so connected.

46

Alternating Current

FIGURE 20If the line voltage of two three-phase delta-connected systems is 240 V, then loads 4, 5, and 6
are 240 V single phase loads; loads 7 and 8 are 240 V three-phase loads; and loads 9 and 10 are 120 V
single-phase loads. Load 11 should not be used because the voltage would be 208 V which is higher than
120 V, the maximum safe voltage.

Power in Three-Phase Systems

For a balanced three-phase system, in either a Y or a shape, the total
real power is found by using the following equation:
Preal = 1.732 Erms Irms PF
In this formula, Preal stands for the total real power, Erms stands for
rms value of the line voltage, Irms stands for the rms value of line current, and PF stands for the power factor for the system.
Here is a sample problem to give you practice in using this formula.
A balanced Y-connected three-phase system has each phase voltage
equal to 7970 V, and each line carries a current of 500 A. Whats the total
real power delivered by the system if it operates at a power factor of 0.8?
Line voltage (Erms) = 1.732 7970 V = 13,804.04 V

Preal = 1.732 Erms Irms PF

First find the rms value of line voltage. For a

balanced Y system, line voltage is equal to
1.732 times the phase voltage.
Next, write the formula for real power.

Preal = 1.732 13,800 V (rounded) 500 A 0.8

Substitute the values for Erms, Irms, and PF.

You can round off the value of Erms to the
nearest tens place.

Preal = 9,560,000 W

Multiply. Answer: The real power is 9,560,000

watts (rounded).

9,560,640 W 1000 = 9560 kW

Divide this answer by 1000 to express it in

kilowatts. Answer: The total real power
delivered by the system is 9560 kilowatts.

Now, take a few moments to review what youve learned by completing Power Check 4.

Alternating Current

47

Power Check 4
1. The two voltages shown in the figure below would be generated by which one of
the following?

a. Single-phase alternator

c. Three-phase alternator

b. Two-phase alternator

d. Six-phase alternator

2. If youre examining a three-phase alternator, you can expect to find _______

groups of coils arranged _______ apart.
3. In order for a three-phase system to be operated economically, the load on the
three lines must be _______.
4. Which one of the following represents a Y-, or star-connected, four-wire system?
a.

c.

b.

d.

5. In a balanced Y-connected system, if the phase voltage of a single winding is 240

V, what is the rms value of the line voltage?
a. 120 V

c. 240 V

b. 208 V

d. 416 V

6. True or False? In a Y-connected four-wire three-phase system, its possible to

connect single-phase loads between the neutral wire and any line wire.
Check your answers with those on page 49.

48

Alternating Current

NOTES

49

Power Check Answers

1. b

1. phase

2. a

2. a

3. c

3. capacitive

4. d

4. True

5. 270

5. d

6. a

6. b
7. d

2
4

1. The four values are maximum, or peak,

values; peak-to-peak value; average value;
and effective, or rms, value.

1. b

2. b

2. three, 120

3. True

3. balanced (or evenly distributed)

4. a

4. c

5. c

5. d
6. True

50

Power Check Answers

NOTES

Examination

51

925 Oak Street

Scranton, Pennsylvania 18515-0001

Alternating Current
EXAMINATION NUMBER:

08600701
Whichever method you use in submitting your exam
answers to the school, you must use the number above.
For the quickest test results, go to
http://www.takeexamsonline.com

When you feel confident that you have mastered the material in this study unit, complete the following examination. Then submit only your answers to the school for grading, using one of the
examination answer options described in your Test Materials envelope. Send your answers for
this examination as soon as you complete it. Do not wait until another examination is ready.
Questions 120: Select the one best answer to each question.
1. When electric power is transmitted over long distances, line losses can be reduced by generating AC
rather than DC voltage, and by transmitting
A.
B.
C.
D.

high voltage and low current.

low voltage and high current.
high voltage and high current.
low voltage and low current.

2. In a certain balanced three-phase system, each line current is 5 A and each line voltage is 220 V.
What is the approximate real power, if the power factor is 0.7?
A. 154 W
B. 1100 W

C. 1334 W
D. 1770 W

3. A technician uses an oscilloscope to measure the peak value of an AC wave. He tells you that the
voltage has a peak value of 100 V. What is the rms value of the voltage?
A. 10 V
B. 70.7 V

C. 100 V
D. 707 V

52

Examination

4. When youre using the right-hand, or generator, rule your middle finger indicates the direction of
what?
A. Coil movement
B. Magnetic field

C. Electron current flow

D. Conventional current flow

5. The four-wire, three-phase, 220 V, delta system shown here includes a center tap of winding 1. A
single-phase 120 V load may be safely connected between which two wires?

A. A and B
B. A and N

C. B and C
D. C and N

6. If someone told you that a certain AC circuit was a capacitive circuit, you would know that in that
circuit the current
A.
B.
C.
D.

leads the voltage.

lags the voltage.
and voltage are in phase.
and voltage are zero.

7. In a modern industrial plant, the most likely polyphase power system in use is a
A. one-phase system.
B. two-phase system.

C. three-phase system.
D. four-phase system.

8. An alternator provides 20 A of Peak current at 100 Volts Peak AC to a resistive electric heater. How
much heating power is delivered to the load?
A. 5 W
B. 20 W

C. 500 W
D. 1000 W

9. What is the typical frequency of AC power in North America?

A. 50 Hz
B. 60 Hz

C. 120 Hz
D. 400 Hz

10. What is the phase angle of the voltage with respect to the current in a resistive circuit?
A. 0
B. 45 lagging

C. 45 leading
D. 9 leading

11. Another name for the Y- or wye-connected system of polyphase power is the
A. star system.
B. split-phase system.

C. delta system.
D. balanced system.

Examination

53

12. If an AC current begins rising positive at 0 degrees, when will it reach its negative maximum current?
A. 90
B. 180

C. 270
D. 360

13. In order to reduce inductive reactance, what devices are normally placed on transmission or distribution lines?
A. Semiconductors
B. Capacitors

C. Shunt reactors
D. Resistors

14. What is the real power if Erms = 100 V, Irms = 2 A, and the circuit has a power factor of 0.8?
A. 40 W
B. 80 W

C. 160 W
D. 250 W

15. In a three-phase power system, the phases of each voltage are normally separated by how many
time degrees?
A. 60
B. 90

C. 120
D. 180

16. If a motor designed for 50 or 60 cycle operation is connected to 60 Hz current, the motor will
A. overheat and fail.
B. produce less torque.

C. stall easily.
D. turn faster.

17. Which one of the following values exactly matches the rms value of an AC signal?
A. Effective
B. Average

C. Peak-to-peak
D. Peak

18. What is the average value of an AC voltage that has a maximum peak voltage of 80 VAC?
A. 38.31 VAC
B. 50.88 VAC

C. 56.56 VAC
D. 160 VAC

19. How long does it take one cycle of 60 Hz current to complete one positive and one negative
alternation?
A.
B.

60

1
120

second
second

C.
D.

second
360 second

1
180
1

20. Which one of the following statements is true concerning an AC circuit that contains both resistance
and inductance?
A.
B.
C.
D.

The current and voltage will be in phase.

The current will lead the voltage.
The current will lag the voltage.
The voltage will lag the current.