Exchangers

BECHTEL
PROCESS
ENGINEERING DESIGN GUIDE FOR
SHELL AND TUBE EXCHANGERS
3DG B10 030, Rev. 00, 01/27/94
Prepared by: M. Green/R. Long
Approved by: R. F. Earhart
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No.
1.0
INTRODUCTION
2.0
THEORY
2.1
2.1.1
Terms and Definitions

Exchanger Description
6
6
2.2
Heat Transfer Mechanisms
2.3
2.3.1
2.3.2
Heat Transfer Coefficients

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
Film Coefficients
8
8
9
2.4
2.4.1
2.4.2
10
10
11
2.4.3
2.4.4
2.4.5
Temperature Difference
Flow Paths
Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference
(LMTD)
LMTD Correction Factor
Approach Temperature
Phase Changes
2.5
2.5.1
Pressure Drop
Tube Side
15
15
O:\WINWORD\3DG\B10\030-00.DOC
12
13
14
PAGE 1 OF 108
Page No.
2.5.2
2.5.3
Shell Side
Allowable Pressure Drop
16
17
2.6
Fluid Allocation
18
3.0
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF SHELL

AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS
19
3.1
Bundle Construction
19
3.1.1
3.1.2
3.1.3
3.1.4
19
20
20
21
3.1.5
3.1.6
3.1.7
3.1.8
3.1.9
3.1.10
Tube Layout
Tube Wall Thickness
Tube Lengths
Number of Tube Side Passes and Pass
Partition Lanes
Baffle Types
Baffle Cut Orientation
Baffle Spacing or Pitch
Alternative Baffle Designs
Bundle/Shell Entrance/Exit Areas
Tie-rods, Spacers and Sealing Strips
3.2
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.2.3
3.2.4
3.2.5
Equipment Selection
TEMA Classification
Front-end Type
Shell Type
Rear-end Head Type
Examples of TEMA Classification
23
23
24
25
25
26
4.0
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION AND

MECHANICAL DESIGN CONDITIONS
28
4.1
Materials of Construction
28
21
21
22
22
22
23
PAGE 2 OF108
Page No.
4.2
4.2.1
4.2.2
Mechanical Design Conditions

Design Pressure
Design Temperature
31
31
32
5.0
DESIGN PROCEDURES
32
5.1
5.2
5.3
Overall Area for Heat Transfer

Overall Design Heat Transfer Coefficient
Tube and Shell Pressure Drop
32
35
39
5.4
5.4.1
5.4.2
Design Optimization
Heat Transfer
Pressure Drop
43
43
44
5.5
5.5.1
5.5.2
5.5.3
5.5.4
5.5.5
5.5.6
Reboilers
Selection
Comparison of Reboiler Types
General Considerations of Reboiler Design
The Boiling Process
Horizontal Thermosyphon Calculation
Vertical Thermosyphon Calculation
44
44
45
47
48
49
53
6.0
PINCH TECHNOLOGY
56
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
Introduction
Composite Curves
Grand Composite
Retrofit
56
57
58
59
7.0
COMPUTER PROGRAMS
60
7.1
7.2
Pinch Technology
Exchanger Design
60
61
PAGE 3 OF108
Page No.
8.0
Abbreviations
Appendix 1
61
-
Tables and Figures
65
See attached Word Document
PAGE 4 OF108
1.0
INTRODUCTION
The procedures described in this document are to assist the process
engineer in the selection, design and specification of shell and tube heat
exchangers. The overriding objective is to achieve safe and reliable
operation under the most economic conditions. All final heat exchanger
designs must be reviewed by the heat transfer specialist.
Shell and tube heat exchangers can be used for most applications except
those involving heavy fouling and extremely corrosive fluids. They have
particular economic advantages where
both shell and tubes are of carbon steel,

high pressure applications (> 10bar or 150 psi), and
high temperature applications (>150 C or 300 F).
It should be noted that for small exchangers (<30m 2) double pipe units
may be more economical.
In its simplest form the shell and tube exchanger has a cylindrical shell
through which a tube bundle passes. The tubes are supported at either
end by a tube sheet which seals the shell. One of the fluids flows through
the shell while the other passes through the tubes. At either end of the
shell the heads distribute the fluid to the tubes and using pass partitions
multiple flow passes can be designed. On the shell side baffles divide up
the volume so that the fluid flows across the tubes several times along the
length. Both these design features increase the velocity of the flowing
fluids and improve heat transfer.
Information on the selection and design of Shell and Tube Heat
Exchangers can be found in the following documents.
GPSA Engineering Data Books, Vols I & II
HTFS Design Report, 'Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger with Single
Phase Flow', Butterworth D, Hewitt GF, and Moore MJC.
HTFS Design Report 'The Design of Vertical Thermosyphon
Reboilers', Butterworth D.
'Process Heat Transfer', Kern DQ.
PAGE 5 OF108
The following sections describe in detail the design theory, equipment

selection, design procedures and computer software available. Where
data or procedures are described, in most cases, they are given with both
metric and British units and these are indicated by use of [] for metric and
{} for British units. Instructions for the completion of Process Data Sheets
for shell and tube heat exchangers will be found in 3DG - B11 - 030.
2.0 THEORY
2.1
Terms and Definitions
2.1.1 Exchanger Description

a.
Chiller
The process stream is cooled by refrigerant. This

term is preferred over others when naming
refrigerant exchangers.
b.
Condenser
A vapor or vapor-liquid mixture is condensed,

either alone or in the presence of a noncondensable gas.
c.
Cooler
Cools liquids or gases with no phase change of

the major flow, usually by means of water or air.
d.
Intercooler
A cooler located between the top and bottom of a

column, between the inlet and outlet streams of
gas or vapor processing equipment or between
stages of a compressor.
e.
Exchanger
Heats one process stream while cooling another.
f.
Heater
Increases the enthalpy of a process stream by

absorbing heat from a utility stream e.g., steam or
heat transfer fluid.
g.
Preheater
Usually a heater on the feed stream to a column

or a flash drum.
h.
Superheater
The temperature of the outlet process stream is
PAGE 6 OF108
2.2
above the dew point at the operating pressure.

An exchanger which adds heat to the bottom of a
column.
i.
Reboiler
j.
Side reboiler
An exchanger which adds heat between the feed

and bottom of a column.
k.
Steam
generator
Removes heat from a hot stream by the

generation of steam.
l.
Vaporizer
A heater which vaporizes all or part of a liquid.
m.
Waste heat
boiler
An unfired steam generator or fluid heater, using a

hot flue gas heating medium.
Heat Transfer Mechanisms

There are three mechanisms by which heat is transferred from a source to
a sink.
i.
ii.
iii.
Conduction, heat transfer through a fixed material.

Convection, heat transfer between relatively hot and cold elements
of a fluid.
Radiation, heat transfer as a result of thermal energy emitted from a
hot surface and absorbed by cooler surface.
Heat transfer by radiation is only of significance where high temperatures

are present for example in fired heaters. For shell and tube exchangers it
is sufficient to consider conduction and convection to calculate exchanger
duty.
Both these mechanisms can be incorporated into Fourier's law which
forms the basis for evaluating most heat transfer problems. This law has
the form,
Q K p A Td
where,
Q = duty
[W]
A = area perpendicular to direction of transfer
{Btu/h}
[m2] { ft2}
PAGE 7 OF108
Td = temperature difference
[C] {F}
The constant of proportionality K p is defined as the overall heat transfer

coefficient, U [W/m2 C] {Btu/ft2F}, which is composed of,
h
K
=
=
film heat transfer coefficients

[W/m2 C] {Btu/ft2 F}
wall conductivity / wall thickness [W/m2 C] {Btu/ft2 F}
Film heat transfer coefficients are a function of exchanger geometry and

fluid physical properties.
Heat exchanger design and rating is normally performed using computer
programs such as HEXTRAN and/or the HTRI range of computer
programs. The following sections describe the basis for checking and
initializing heat exchanger design/rating.
2.3
Heat Transfer Coefficients
2.3.1 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

The rate of heat transfer from the hot to cold fluids is dependent upon the
resistance acting to oppose heat flow. Resistance is the reciprocal of
conductance which from Fourier's law (Section 2.2) is the constant of
proportionality.
There are three major resistances opposing heat transfer between the two
fluids in the shell and tube heat exchanger.
Resistance
Accounted for using
inner tube wall film

tube wall
outer tube wall film
inner wall film coefficient hi

wall transfer coefficient K/x
outer wall film coefficient ho
Each of these resistances to heat transfer is dependent upon the surface

area over which they act. Thus the inner tube wall film coefficient is the
heat transfer per unit area of the inner wall per degree. Likewise the tube
wall resistance is based on the mean tube wall thickness and the outer
PAGE 8 OF108
wall film coefficient on the outer wall area. To combine these resistances
together into an overall heat transfer coefficient it is necessary to refer to a
single tube area and this is usually based on the outer tube wall. The
overall clean heat transfer coefficient is calculated as follows:
d

di
1
h
2 x K
d x 1n
d x h
i
This overall transfer coefficient takes no account of fouling on the tube

walls which builds up in the form of dirt and scale deposits as the
exchanger is in service and forms an additional resistance to heat transfer.
These are accounted for by modifying the calculation of overall heat
transfer coefficient thus,
1 1

U U
where
( FFi do )
di
FFo
is the original clean walled coefficient calculated as shown above and FF i,

FFo are fouling factors for the inside and outside fluids.
2.3.2 Film Coefficients
The film coefficients are dependent upon the physical properties of the
fluid and the design of the exchanger. For preliminary rating calculations
either a value can be taken from the tables included with this guide or an
approximate value calculated from the method given in this guide or the
GPSA handbook.
The build up of dirt and scale on the tubes is dependent upon the fluids,
their condition (e.g., temperature), the flow velocities and the exchanger
design. For preliminary rating calculations a value can be taken from
tables included with this guide. If available operating data is the best
source of fouling data.
2.4
Temperature Difference
PAGE 9 OF108
The driving force for heat transfer is the temperature difference between
the hot and cold fluids. If the temperature profile of the two fluids is
parallel then this driving force is simply their temperature difference.
Commonly though this is not the case and the logarithmic mean
temperature difference should be used together with correction factors to
allow for exchanger configuration and fluid flow paths.
2.4.1 Flow Paths
Two types of flow arrangements are used in shell and tube heat
exchangers.
Counter-current
Co-current
shell and tube fluids flow in opposite

directions
shell and tube fluids flow in the same
direction
These are illustrated along with the schematic fluid temperature profiles
below.
Counter Current
Co-Current
Counter-current flow is usually preferred since the mean temperature

difference over the exchanger length is greater improving heat transfer.
PAGE 10 OF108
The co-current arrangement is sometimes used for applications where

there is a minimum temperature requirement e.g., cooling of high pour
point liquids.
In practice pure counter-current flow is not used. Heat transfer is
enhanced by forcing the fluid in the shell to flow over the tube
perpendicular to the tube flow. This is achieved by placing baffles across
the shell diameter covering about two-thirds of the flow area. Several
baffles are used in each shell forcing the fluid to flow across the tube
bundle over the exchanger length. While increasing the velocity of the
fluid in the shell and hence improving heat transfer, baffles also raise the
shell-side pressure drop. Also, multiple tube passes are used such that
the flow is counter-current in some passes and co-current in others. To
account for this more complex flow path a correction factor is applied to
the logarithmic mean temperature difference.
2.4.2 Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD)
For exchangers with one isothermal stream or where the flow path is
completely counter-current the LMTD is used as the driving force and this
is defined as,
LMTD
hi
t co t ho t ci
t hi t co
In
ho
[C]
t ci
{F}
where,
thi =
tho =
tci
tco =
hot inlet temperature

hot outlet temperature [C]
=
cold inlet temperature
cold outlet temperature[C]
[C] {F}
{F}
[C] {F}
{F}
Assumptions:
i)
The overall heat transfer coefficient is constant for the temperature

range present in the exchanger.
PAGE 11 OF108
ii)
iii)
iv)
The mass flow rate and specific heats of each fluid stream remain
constant across the exchanger.
There is no phase change in either fluid stream, except if a pure
component with no sensible heat effect.
Heat losses are negligible.
2.4.3 LMTD Correction Factor

Due to the use of multiple passes and baffles in exchangers the flow
pattern is not truly counter-current which causes variations in the shellside temperature. To account for this effect a correction factor is applied
to the LMTD.
The correction factor, Ft, is dependent upon the exchanger configuration
(number of shell and tube passes) and the temperature change of hot
and cold fluids over the unit. The correction factor is read off from tables
or graphs (Appendix 1) using the parameters,
Thermal Effectiveness
Heat Capactity Ratio
t co t ci
t hi t ci
t hi t ho
t co t ci
The minimum acceptable value of F t is 0.8. This is because below this

value a small change in operating conditions can cause a large change in
Ft calculated. In some cases a minimum value > 0.8 is advisable if the
slope of the curves is very steep at the calculated values of S and R.
Assumptions:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
Equal heat transfer areas in each pass.

Constant overall heat transfer coefficient in each pass.
Constant temperature in any shell-side pass.
No leakage of flow between shell passes.
2.4.4 Approach Temperatures
PAGE 12 OF108
The Approach Temperature is the minimum temperature

differential between the hot and cold streams. This normally
occurs either on entry to or exit from the exchanger. For efficient
operation there must be a finite differential and this is dependent
upon the duty being performed.
If the hot outlet temperature is equal to the cold outlet
temperature, a temperature meet is said to have occurred. If
the hot outlet temperature is below the cold outlet temperature a
temperature cross is said to have occurred. Under temperature
meet conditions the minimum Ft will be >0.8. A temperature
cross cannot be achieved in a single pass shell. Below are
some suggested minimum approaches for conservative designs
on single pass shells.
Duty
Gas compression
Cooling water cooling
Gas chill down
Cryogenic coil exchangers
Reboiler / Steam
Reboiler / hot oil
Condenser / cooling water
Condenser / air
Hydrocarbon product / cooling
water
Hydrocarbon product / air
Hydrocarbon / hydrocarbon
Approach temperature
C
F
10 - 15
18 - 27
6-8
11 - 14
6
11
3-5
5-9
17
31
22
40
10 - 15
18 - 27
15 - 20
27 - 36
15- 20
27 - 36
20 - 25
20 - 25
36 - 45
36 - 45
2.4.5 Phase Changes

The LMTD is dependent upon phase changes within the systems,
associated sensible heating and the fluid composition.
For a
multicomponent fluid undergoing a phase change with no sensible
PAGE 13 OF108
enthalpy effect a weighted LMTD can be used. In this case variations in

volatility of the components in the fluid result in a curved temperatureenthalpy (T-H) diagram. To evaluate the LMTD the curve is divided into
finite zones over which a straight line approximation is acceptable. The
LMTD and duty for each zone is then calculated and the weighted
average found as shown below.
LMTD
weighted
Qn
LMTDn
where,
Q
Qn
LMTDn
=
=
=
exchanger duty
zone n duty
logarithmic mean temperature difference for
zone n
If there is sensible heating involved with the change of phase the plot of
temperature versus enthalpy should be checked to confirm that the
approach temperature requirement is still valid. Particular points to check
are water and hydrocarbon dew points.
2.5
Pressure Drop
As the mass velocity of fluid flowing through the exchanger increases, the
film coefficients increase improving heat transfer and reducing the
physical size and cost of the exchanger. However increasing the fluid
mass velocity will also increase the pressure drop across the unit.
The following sections describe procedures for calculating the tube- and
shell-side pressure drops. Both require detailed information on process
conditions and exchanger dimensions and so these calculations are
normally completed when the exchanger dimensions are known.
2.5.1 Tube Side

The tube-side pressure drop is calculated as the sum of friction losses
(using Seider and Tate friction factors) and return losses due to the
change of fluid direction in the head.
PAGE 14 OF108
Tube losses,
p t
G t2 L n
2 10 d SG
f G L n
5.22 10 d SG
8
p t
2
t
[bar]
10
{psi}
Return losses,
pr 0. 02 n Vt 2 SG
[bar]
2
p r 4 n V t 62.5 SG / 2 144 g {psi}
where,
ft
Gt
L
n
di
S
G
=
=
=
=
Vt
g
Seider & Tate tube side

friction factor
Mass velocity on the tubeside
Tube length
Number of tube passes
Inside diameter of tube
Fluid specific gravity in the
tubes
Viscosity ratio
fluid velocity inside tubes
acceleration due to gravity
[m2/m2]
{ft2/in2}
[kg/s m2]
{lb/h ft2}
[m]
[-]
[m]
[-]
{ft}
{-}
{ft}
{-}
[-]
[m/s]
[m/s2}
{-}
{ft/s}
{ft/s2}
No account is taken of entry and exit losses.

Note: graphs for friction factors are provided in the appendices. The units
for this factor are ft2/in2. To obtain the friction factor in m2/m2, multiply the
factor obtained from the graph by 144.
2.5.2 Shell Side
The pressure drop through the shell of an exchanger is proportional to the
number of times the fluid crosses the bundle and the distance across the
PAGE 15 OF108
bundle. The pressure drop of the fluid in the shell can be calculated
using,
p s
G s2 Ds L
2 10 D SG B
f G D L
5.22 10 D SG B
e
p s
2
s
10
[bar]
{psi}
PAGE 16 OF108
where,
fs
Gs =
Ds =
L
=
De =
SG =
s
=
=
Friction factor for the shellside

Shell-side mass velocity
(see para. 5.3)
Internal shell diameter
Tube length
Equivalent diameter of shell
(see para. 5.3)
Fluid specific gravity in the
shell
Viscosity ratio
Baffle spacing
[m2/m2]
{ft2/in2}
[kg/s m2]
{lb/h ft2}
[m]
[m]
[m]
{ft}
{ft}
{ft}
[-]
{-}
[-]
[m]
{-}
{ft}
Note: graphs for friction factors are provided in the appendices. The units
for this factor are ft2/in2. To obtain the friction factor in m2/m2, multiply the
2.5.3 Allowable Pressure Drop
The following typical guidelines may be used as points for setting
requirements.
Liquids,
Viscosity [cP]
<
1.0
5.0
15.0
25.0
>
1.0
- 5.0
- 15.0
- 25.0
- 50.0
50.0
Allowable pressure drop

Shell-side
Tube-side
bar
psi
bar
psi
0.20
2.9
0.35
2.9
0.35
5.1
0.50
7.3
0.50
7.3
0.70
10.2
0.70
10.2
1.00
14.5
1.00
14.5
1.70
24.7
refer to exchanger rating specialist
PAGE 17 OF108
Gases and Vapors,

Pressure [bar]
Gas & Vapor >15 bar
Gas & Vapor 4.5 - 15 bar
Gas & Vapor < 4.5 bar
Sub atmospheric vapor
Vacuum tower condenser
Allowable pressure drop

bar
psi
0.35 - 0.70
5.1 - 10.2
0.14 - 0.35
2.0 - 5.1
0.04 - 0.14
0.58 - 2.0
< 0.04
< 0.6
0.4 - 1.6 kPa
3 - 12 mm Hg
Total nozzle pressure drops should be less than 15% of total pressure
drop.
2.6 Fluid Allocation
Specifying which of the two fluid streams should pass through the shell
and which through the tubes can have a significant effect on the cost of
the exchanger. It is difficult to specify clear cut guidelines on fluid
allocation since it depends on a number of factors including pumping
costs, maintenance and heat transfer. Below are some 'rules of thumb' on
fluid allocation. The fluid characteristic appearing highest on the list should
be placed on that side of the exchanger.
Tube-side fluids
MOST
CORROSIVE
STREAMS WITH The shell can then be designed for a lower

HIGHER
operating pressure.
ABSOLUTE
PRESSURE
MOST FOULING The fluid velocity can be better controlled

SERVICE
reducing fouling.
Straight tubes allow
mechanical cleaning without removing the tube
bundle. If used in the shell, accumulation can
occur in stagnant zones around baffles.
SALT AND
TEMPERED
This minimizes the use of costly alloys and

confines corrosion to the tube-side.
PAGE 18 OF108
WATER
CONDENSING
FLUID
Where refrigerant is being boiled / evaporated.
HIGH
TEMPERATURE
STREAMS
As for corrosive fluid this allocation requires

fewer special alloys.
Shell-Side Fluids
FLUIDS
UNDERGOING
PHASE CHANGE
This arrangement
condensate / vapor.
LARGEST FLOW
RATES
Where both fluids have similar properties.

This allows a flexible baffle design.
CLEAN, VISCOUS Providing flow is turbulent.

FLUID
FLUID WITH
LOWER
AVAILABLE
PRESSURE
DROP
facilitates
removal
of
3.0
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF SHELL AND TUBE HEAT

EXCHANGERS
3.1
Bundle Construction
3.1.1 Tube Layout

Tube layout patterns may be triangular (30), rotated square (45), rotated
triangular (60) or square (90). Except in reboilers triangular pitch is
usually preferred since the exchanger costs are less per square meter.
For laminar flow rotated square pitch is preferable since this layout
induces turbulence which produces a higher heat transfer coefficient.
Where the flow is turbulent and pressure drop is limiting square pitch is
PAGE 19 OF108
utilized. Square pitch (45 or 90) also facilitates mechanical cleaning of

the outside of the tubes. Square pitch should be used if shellside fouling
is 0.00035 m2C/W (0.002 hr ft2 F/Btu). Rotated triangular (60) is not
normally used as it provides no heat transfer or pressure drop advantage
over triangular (30).
Tube pitch Pt is the centre to centre distance between the tubes. The pitch
to tube outside diameter ratio is normally 1.25 or 1.33.
3.1.2 Tube Wall Thickness
Heat exchanger tubes are specified with standard wall thickness. The
most common standard is the Birmingham Wire Gauge (BWG). which has
the following equivalence.
BWG
10
12
14
16
18
Wall Thickness
mm
3.4
2.77
2.11
1.65
1.25
inch
0.134
0.109
0.083
0.065
0.049
The required tube wall thickness depends on the total corrosion rate
(shellside and tubeside) and the tube metallurgy.
3.1.3 Tube Lengths
Heat exchanger tubes are specified with standard lengths. Typical lengths
are:
Refinery service: 3.66m (12'), 4.88m (16'), 6.1m (20')
Chemical service: from 1.22m (4'), to 4.88m (16') and 6.1m (20')
Longer tube lengths are possible for special applications. For U-tubes the
length refers to the straight length of the tubes.
3.1.4 Number of Tube Side Passes and Pass Partition Lane
PAGE 20 OF108
The velocity of the tube side flow may be increased by increasing the
number of tube side passes. This increases the tube side heat transfer
coefficient at the expense of increased pressure drop. The number of tube
side passes may be increased by the addition of pass partition plates
inside the stationary and/or floating headers. The number of tube side
passes may be from 2 to 16 depending on shell diameter.
The addition of pass partition plates creates areas where tubes cannot be
located . This in turn causes open areas within the exchanger bundle
which may allow the shell side fluid to bypass the bundle. these areas are
normally blocked by seal rods which force the shell side flow back into the
bundle.
3.1.5 Baffle Types
Baffles are used to direct the flow of the shell side fluid in a sinusoidal
pattern over the tube bundle. The effect is to increase the heat transfer
coefficient at the expense of additional pressure drop. Two types of baffles
are in general use, single segmental and double segmental.
The portion of the baffle cut away to provide open flow area (window) is
called the baffle cut. As baffles provide support to the tubes the maximum
practical baffle cut is 48%. Typically single segmental baffles employ baffle
cuts of 15% to 35% (most common 20-25%). Double segmental baffles
are designed such that the central open area and the total outside window
areas are equivalent. Some overlap of the baffle edges is used in order to
support 2 or 3 rows of tubes.
3.1.6 Baffle Cut Orientation
Baffle cuts may be oriented vertically or horizontally. In some special
cases they are set on a 45 bias (e.g. some crude preheat trains). Vertical
baffle cuts are normally used in order to avoid the accumulation of vapor
and/or sediment. Horizontal baffle cuts may be used if the shell side fluid
passes through a wide temperature change (150C or 270F) in order to
avoid flow stratification.
3.1.7 Baffle Spacing or Pitch
PAGE 21 OF108
The longitudinal spacing between baffles is termed the baffle spacing or

baffle pitch. The minimum baffle pitch is 20% of the shell diameter. If the
shell side fluid does not undergo a phase change, then the maximum
baffle pitch should not exceed the shell inside diameter. This is because a
larger baffle spacing would encourage longitudinal flow along the length of
the bundle instead of across the bundle. For shellside fluids undergoing a
phase change the maximum baffle spacing depends on the maximum
unsupported length of the tubes and the vibration analysis of the bundle.
3.1.8 Alternative Baffle Designs
In some designs incorporating high shellside gas/vapor or two phase flow
rates a no-tube-in-window (NTIW) design may be used. This allows every
tube to be supported by all baffles and therefore protects against tube
vibration. This type of design is only possible with single segmental
baffles.
An alternative design which prevents vibration damage and minimizes
shellside pressure drop is a ROD baffle design. This is a licensed design
from Phillips Petroleum which uses baffles made from rods spaced at 6"
intervals instead of conventional baffles.
3.1.9 Bundle/Shell Entrance/Exit Areas
In order to protect the tube bundle from the incoming shell side fluid,
impingement baffles are placed over the tubes below the shell side
nozzle. TEMA require the use of impingement baffles, if:
Nozzle U2 values exceed 744 kg/m s2 ( 500 lb/ft s2)
For clean, non-corrosive, non-abrasive, single phase fluids nozzle

U2 values exceed 2230 kg/m s2 ( 1500 lb/ft s2)
Fluid is condensing or enters as a two-phase mixture
Fluid contains abrasive material
Fluid enters at a high velocity
TEMA also has guidelines on the required areas at the shell and bundle
entrance and exit areas. Combined with the need to install impingement
protection this may reduce the tube count for a given shell diameter.
3.1.10 Tie-rods, Spacers and Sealing Strips
PAGE 22 OF108
Tie rods and spacers are used to retain baffles in position and increase
bundle rigidity. They also provide sealing if placed in otherwise open areas
of the tube bundle. The number and size of tie-rods are specified by
TEMA.
Sealing strips are used longitudinally around the outside of the tube
bundle. In some types of shell and tube exchangers this leakage are is
significant (T-type, pull-through floating head units).
3.2 Equipment Selection
The selection of a shell and tube exchanger in preference to say an air
cooler, double pipe exchanger, plate exchanger etc., will depend upon
many factors including:
coolant costs / availability

process stream temperature
size and weight of unit
materials
maintenance requirements
Some of the above items relate directly to the capital or operating cost of
the unit. The total cost of a particular exchanger which fits the process
and project requirements will be the over-riding selection factor.
3.2.1 TEMA Classification
The Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association (TEMA) has classified
the different parts of the shell and tube heat exchanger using a three
letter code. The letters of the code represent the following:
1st letter -
Front end stationary head type
2nd letter-
Shell type
3rd letter -
Rear end type
PAGE 23 OF108
Figure 10, shows the various types of front end, shell and rear end head
types available. These are discussed in more detail below.
3.2.2 Front-end Type
Type
Notes
The channel is bolted to the shell with the tubesheet clamped in

between the two flanges. Used when frequent tube-side
cleaning is required.
Typically
specified
when
tubeside
[ 0.00035 m2C/W], { 0.002 hr ft2F/Btu}.
fouling
factor
Used when chemical cleaning or infrequent cleaning of the

tubeside is specified. Access to the tubes requires dismantling
of tube side pipework and removal of bonnet Cheaper than
Type A.
Typically
specified
when
tubeside
fouling
factor
[< 0.00035 m2C/W] { < 0.002 hr ft2F/Btu} or in services such
as LPG to reduce possible leakage areas.
C, N
Special applications using integral tubesheet and channel.

Cheaper than Type A at low pressures.
Special high pressure enclosure used when tube side pressure

[> 69.0 bar], {1000 psi}.
PAGE 24 OF108
3.2.3 Shell Type

Type
Notes
One pass shell. The most commonly used and suitable for a
wide range of services.
Two pass shell incorporating shellside baffle. Used to avoid a

large number of Type E shells in series. Flow may be perfect
counter current. Longitudinal baffle may suffer from thermal
and hydraulic leakage. Longitudinal baffle may be either seal
welded to shell or a spring-loaded longitudinal sealing strip is
employed.
G&H
Used when low shell side pressure drop is required e.g.

horizontal thermosyphon reboiler.
Used when shell side pressure drop is limiting in condensing

service or horizontal thermosyphon reboilers.
Kettle. Used for chiller / reboiler applications where shell side

vaporization occurs. Provides vapor/liquid separation.
Used for low pressure drop in condensing service or horizontal

thermosyphon reboilers.
3.2.4 Rear-end Head Type

Type
Notes
L,M & N Fixed tubesheet designs. Suitable for clean fluids on the shell
side and for low temperature changes [< 30 C], {86 F}. Type
M is the cheapest. Similar considerations to front end types
A,B,C.
P
Generally not used. Limited to low pressure applications.
Type
Notes
PAGE 25 OF108
Split backing ring. Floating tube sheet is clamped between

floating head cover and a backing ring which is split in two
halves. The rear head is a larger diameter than the shell.
Cover has to be removed and split backing ring device
dismantled before bundle may be pulled from the shell.
Pull through floating head. Floating head is bolted on to an

enlarged floating tubesheet. Bundle may be pulled directly
from shell. Expensive as larger shell diameter is required than
for S-rear head. Type T is preferred over type S when:
1) Frequent shellside cleaning required typically when
shellside fouling [ 0.00088 m2C/W] { 0.005 hr ft2F/Btu}
2) Large shell construction where split ring construction may
be problematic.
3) Congested areas where access to split ring is difficult.
U-tubes. Used when tubeside fouling is low

[ 0.00035 m2C/W] { 0.002 hr ft2F/Btu} or can be
chemically cleaned.
Generally not used. Limited to low pressure air, water or

lubricating oil services with design temperature below [190C]
{375F}.
Figure 10 in Appendix 1 illustrates the different units available and the

TEMA designation.
3.2.5 Examples of TEMA Classification
Examples of some types of shell and tube exchangers that are in use are
shown in figure 9, Appendix 1. Below is a brief description of the
applications and properties of each. Reference should also be made to
the GPSA handbook Chapter 9 figure 9-24.
a)
TEMA classification AES
INTERNAL FLOATING
HEAD
PAGE 26 OF108
EXCHANGER - used extensively in petroleum refineries. This

type of exchanger is suitable for use at high temperatures with
fouling fluids. The distance between the outer tubes and the shell
is appreciable and can lead to shell-side fluid by-pass. Leakage
from the floating head internal flange is also possible.
b)
TEMA classification BEM - FIXED TUBE SHEET EXCHANGER the most common type of exchanger . The tube bundle cannot be
removed for cleaning and without the provision for differential
expansion of the tubes, is limited to temperature changes of less
than [80 C], {176 F}. In low pressure shells [< 8 bar], {<
116 psi} expansion joints can be accommodated to allow for
limited expansion.
c)
TEMA classification AEP - OUTSIDE PACKED FLOATING HEAD

EXCHANGER - previously used in chemical industry. The
containment of the shell-side fluid by rings of packing limits the
shell-side pressure and it is advised that flammable and toxic
fluids are not used on the shell-side due to the risk of leakage.
d)
TEMA classification CFU - U-TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER

more economic than floating head devices, particularly suited to
high pressure applications, . Since the tubes cannot be easily
cleaned relatively clean fluids have to be used.
e)
TEMA classification AKT - PULL-THROUGH FLOATING HEAD

EXCHANGER.
f)
TEMA classification AJW

PACKED LANTERN RING
EXCHANGER - limited to water, air , lubricating oil service with
the design temperatures below 190 C {375 F}.
PAGE 27 OF108
4.0
MATERIALS OF
CONDITIONS
CONSTRUCTION AND
MECHANICAL
DESIGN
4.1 Materials Of Construction

The materials of construction are determined from the required corrosion
resistance, the strength, weld ability, ductility, economic factors and
additionally if particularly high or low temperatures are involved. The
strength, weld ability and ductility are usually the responsibility of the
mechanical specialist. This section gives general guidelines on the
considerations required for correct material specification.
All final
specifications must be reviewed by the MQ&S engineer.
a.
Temperature Range
The following table identifies suitable materials to use for specified
temperature ranges. These should be checked for suitability before
use and are applicable in services where specific corrosion
mechanisms are not present.
b.
Below -45 C
Use 9% nickel steel, austenitic steels,

titanium steels or aluminum alloys.
Below -29 C
Silicon or aluminum killed carbon

steels.
up to 540 C
Carbon steel, additional strength can

be achieved using carbon-molybdenum
(0.5%) alloy.
540 C to 650 C
1% chromium-0.5% molybdenum or
1.25% chromium-0.5% molybdenum0.75% silicon.
The silicon prevents graphitisation.
650 C to 815 C
Use austenitic stainless steel. Steam

reformers use high nickel steels.
Corrosion
PAGE 28 OF108
Some specific corrosion mechanisms are outlined below:

Organic Sulfides
(hydrogen free)
The metal surface is converted to a sulfide

which easily breaks away resulting in a
constant rate of corrosion. Corrosion rate
data is available from 'High Temperature
Sulfuric Corrosion in Hydrogen Free
Environment', H.F. McConomy, API 1963.
Commonly found in crude and vacuum units
where carbon steel can be used to 260 C.
For higher temperatures 5% chromium-0.5%
molybdenum steels are suitable.
Hydrogen Sulfide
(hydrogen rich)
The attack is as for organic sulfides.

Corrosion rates are available from 'Collection
and Correlation of High Temperature
Hydrogen Sulfide Corrosion Data', NACE
Report 56-7, 1956.
For temperatures in
excess of 260 C in hydrocrackers and
desulfurizers austenitic stainless steel is used,
chromium steel offers no better protection
than carbon steel.
Hydrogen
Atomic or nascent hydrogen which is

produced from molecular hydrogen at
temperatures in excess of 200 C attacks
steel resulting in blistering, embrittlement and
de carbonization. Nelson Charts (API-941)
identify which steels to use to resist hydrogen
attack.
Stress Corrosion
Carbon steel
Environments where stress corrosion cracking
is a problem requiring 'post weld heat
treatment' are:
nitrates
PAGE 29 OF108
sulfides
sodium / potassium hydroxide
cyanides
amines
ammoniated brine
liquid ammonia contaminated with air
carbon dioxide / monoxide solutions in
water
ferric chloride.
Heat treatment dependent on temperature

and concentration.
Austenitic Stainless steel
Transgranular stress corrosion is due to the

presence of chlorides and is not alleviated by
stress relief due to high thermal expansion.
Intergranular stress corrosion results from
carbide precipitation when exposed to water
in the presence of sulfides and air.
Galvanic
This is due to two different metals either

contacting or being exposed to a conductive
solution. The use of metals far apart in the
galvanic series should therefore be avoided.
Appendix 1 includes a table of the galvanic
series of metals and alloys.
Sea water
Ferric metals corrode to ferric sulfides which

are soluble. Titanium oxide is impervious to
chloride attack and is used to coat titanium.
4.2 Mechanical Design Conditions

The shell side and tube side of heat exchangers will generally have
different design conditions. Specification of design conditions follows the
same general guidelines as other pieces of equipment i.e.
PAGE 30 OF108
4.2.1 Design Pressure

Range of Maximum
Operating Pressures (MOP)
[barg]
{psig}
< 1.72
< 25.0
1.72 to 17.2
25.0 to
250.0
> 17.2
> 250.0
Vessels subject to pressures
below atmospheric
Design Pressure
[barg]
{psig}
3.45
50.0
MOP +
MOP + 25.0
1.72
MOP +10%
MOP + 10%
Full Vacuum
Additionally the following items should be considered

a)
If the design pressure of the low pressure side of the exchanger is at

least 2/3 of the design pressure of the high pressure side, then no
safety relief facilities are required.
b)
If the design pressure of the low pressure side of the exchanger is

less then 2/3 of the design pressure of the high pressure side then
consideration must be given to tube rupture. Safety facilities must be
provided to protect the low pressure side of the exchanger from the
flow through two tube orifices. The high pressure stream is assumed
to be at normal operating pressure and the low pressure stream at
150% of design pressure.
PAGE 31 OF108
4.2.2 Design Temperature
5.0
Maximum Design =
Maximum operating temperature + [28oC] {50oF}
Minimum Design =
conditions
minimum process temperature including upset
DESIGN PROCEDURES
The process engineer is responsible for initiating the heat exchanger
specification by completing the process duty and property section of the
data sheet (see Appendix 2).
This section outlines the minimum information required to calculate the
heat transfer area, overall heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop
through the tube- and shell-sides of the exchanger. This procedure is
provided to illustrate the considerations of exchanger design. It is
expected that the process engineer would normally use one of the
computer programs that are available for design and rating of heat
exchangers as described in section 7.0.
5.1
Overall Area for Heat Transfer

The following procedure is only applicable for single phase flow.
1. Calculate the overall heat balance.
Q W C ( t hi t ho ) w c t co t ci
where,
Q
W
w
C
=
=
=
=
tho, thi
Heat duty
Mass flow rate of hot fluid
Mass flow rate of cold fluid
Average specific heat
capacity of hot fluid
Average specific heat
capacity of cold fluid
Outlet, inlet temperatures of
[J/s]
[kg/s]
[kg/s]
[J/kg
C]
[J/kg
C]
[C]
{Btu/h}
{lb/h}
{lb/h}
{Btu/lb
F}
{Btu/lb
F}
{F}
PAGE 32 OF108
tco, tci
hot fluid
Outlet, inlet temperatures of
cold fluid
[C]
{F}
2. Calculate parameter R, heat capacity ratio.

R
t hi t ho
t co t ci
3. Calculate parameter S, thermal effectiveness.

S
t co t ci
t hi t ci
4. Using figures in Appendix 1 to determine the

mean temperature difference correction factor
Ft. If this factor is less than 0.8 use the
figures to determine the minimum number of
shell passes to increase Ft to 0.8 or above.
5. Calculate the log
difference LMTD.
LMTD
hi
mean
temperature
t co t ho t ci
t hi t co
ln
t ho t ci
[C]
{F}
[C]
{F}
6. Calculate the effective temperature difference.

Tlm LMTD Ft
7. From the tables in Appendix 1 choose a

suitable overall heat transfer coefficient U as [W/m2
an assumed value
C]
8. A
Q
U Tlm
[m2]
{Btu/h
ft2F}
{ft2}
PAGE 33 OF108
If the area is greater than 465 m2 {5000 ft2}

then it is advisable to consider splitting the
area into two or more shells in series or
parallel. If this is the case return to step 4
and recalculate Ft for each individual shell.
9. Select a suitable tube length, L, noting that
long tubes are more economical.
Also select a tube size, do, normally
0.019m (0.0625ft) or 0.0254m (0.083ft).
Initially assume a 2 tube pass unit, n=2.
10. Calculate the tube outside surface area per
unit length of tube.
at = do
[m2/m]
at = do
{ft2/ft}
11. Calculate the number of tubes required to

provide this heat exchange area.
Nt
A
a t L
[-]
{-}
12. Determine the shell diameter, from the

number of tubes and the Tables in Appendix
1 for a selected TEMA type.
PAGE 34 OF108
13. Finally calculate the actual heat transfer

area.
AA L N t a t
[m2]
{ft2}
This is the assumed area which may be used for computer program
initialization. The following steps provide a hand calculated design for the
exchanger.
5.2
Overall Design Heat Transfer Coefficient

14. Allocate the fluids to the shell and tubes
(section 2.6).
15. Calculate the mean temperature of the
fluids.
Hot fluid,
Tm
t hi t ho
2
[C]
{F}
[C]
{F}
[C]
{F}
[C]
{F}
Cold fluid,
tm
t ci t co
2
16. Calculate the tube wall temperature.

Tw
Tm t m
2
17. Calculate the film temperature.

Tf
Tw Tm
PAGE 35 OF108
18. Determine the tube-side properties at the mean

temperature, the shell-side properties at the film
temperature and the viscosity of the fluids at the
tube wall temperature.
Shell-side Tube-side
at film T
at mean T
Specific heat capacity
Cs
Ct
Viscosity
Thermal Conductivity
Ks
Kt
Viscosity at the tube

wall T
sw
tw
[J/kg
C]
[Ns/m
2]
[W/m
C]
[Ns/m
2]
{Btu/lb
F}
{lb/ft h}
{Btu/h ft
F}
{lb/ft h}
19. Calculate the tube side mass velocity from

the flow area per tube ax the total number
of tubes Nt the total tube flow area At and
the number of tube passes, n.
2 Nt
di
4
n
Wt
Gt
At
At
[kg/s
m 2]
{lb/h ft2}
20. Calculate the tube-side Reynold's number.

Re t
d i Gt
t
[-]
{-}
21. Calculate the film coefficient for the tubeside.
PAGE 36 OF108
for Ret < 2100,
hi d i
Kt
Re t C t t d i
186
.
Kt L
.0.33

t
tw
0.14

t
tw
0.14
[-]
{-}
[-]
{-}
Ret > 2100,
hi d i
C t
0.027 Re t
Kt
0.8
t
Kt
.0.33
22. Determine the tube-side film coefficient

based on the outside surface area.
hio
hi d i
do
[W/m2
C]
{Btu/h ft2
F}
23. Calculate the shell side flow area.

As
As
24.
Pt
[m2]
Ds B Y
Pt
Ws
As
[kg/s m2]
{lb/h ft2}
[m]
{ft}
[m]
{ft}
Calculate the shell-side equivalent diameter

for square pitch,
De
4 P
d o2 / 4
do
for triangular pitch,

De
26.
{ft2}
Calculate the shell-side mass velocity.

Gs
25.
D s Y B
4 0.86 P
d o2
do
Determine the shell-side Reynold's number.
PAGE 37 OF108
Re s
27.
De Gs
s
Calculate the shell-side film coefficient.

The following formula is valid for 2000 <
Res < 1000000
C s
ho De
0.36 Re 0s .55 s
Ks
Ks
28.
0.33
sw
0.14
Both the shell-side fouling factor, FFo and

the tube side factor FFi are taken from a
suitable reference. Typical values are
given in Appendix 1. The tube-side fouling
factor FFi is modified so that it refers to the
outer tube surface area.
do
di
FFio FFi
29.
[m2 C/W] {h ft2

F/Btu}
The overall design heat transfer coefficient

U is now calculated.
1
1
1
FFio FFo
U
hio ho
[m2 C/W] {h ft2

F/Btu}
Note this ignores the tube wall resistance which is usually negligible. If
this calculated value of U is not equal to the assumed U it is necessary to
repeat steps 1-29 (with a new geometry) until agreement is reached.
5.3
Tube and Shell Pressure Drop

a.
Shell-side
30.
For the shell-side pressure drop

calculate the cross-sectional flow area,
As
PAGE 38 OF108
As
Ds B Y
Pt
As
Ds B Y
Pt
[m2 ]
{ft2}
Here Y is the clearance between the

tubes, B the baffle spacing and Pt the
tube pitch.
31.
Calculate the shell-side mass velocity.

Gs
32.
Ws
As
[kg/s m2 ] {lb/h ft2}
Calculate the shell-side equivalent

diameter.
for square pitch,
De
4 P
d o2 4
do
For triangular pitch

De
4 0.86 P
d o2
do
[m]
{ft}
[m]
{ft}
PAGE 39 OF108
33.
Calculate the shell-side Reynold's

number.
Re s
34.
Gs De
s
[-]
{-}
Determine the shell-side friction factor

fs [m2/m2] {ft2/in2} from figure 12,
Appendix 1.
Note: graphs for friction factors are
provided in the appendices. The units
for this factor are ft2/in2. To obtain the
friction factor in m2/m2, multiply the
35.
Calculate the viscosity ratio

s s
sw
36.
0.14
Finally determine the shell-side

pressure drop.
Ps
f s Gs2 Ds L
2 108 De SG s B
Ps
f s Gs2 Ds L
5. 22 1010 De SG s B
[bar]
{psi}
If this shellside pressure drop is greater than allowable then the geometry
must be modified and the design re-calculated.
PAGE 40 OF108
b.
Tube-side
37.
38.
Calculate the total cross sectional area

of the tubes At and using this the tube
side mass velocity.
At
2 Nt
di
4
n
Gt
Wt
At
ft2
[kg/s
m 2]
{lb/h ft2}
[-]
{-}
[-]
{-}
[-]
{-}
Calculate the tube-side Reynold's

number.
Re t
39.
m2
d i Gt
t
Calculate the viscosity ratio.

For Ret > 2100,

t t
tw
0.14
For Ret < 2100.

t t
tw
0.25
40. Determine the tube side friction factor

from figure 13 in Appendix 1.
Note: graphs for friction factors are
provided in the appendices. The units
for this factor are ft2/in2. To obtain the
friction factor in m2/m2, multiply the
PAGE 41 OF108
factor obtained from the graph by

144.
41. Calculate the friction losses through
the tubes.
f t Gt2 L n
Pt
2 108 d i SG t
Pt
[bar]
f t Gt2 L n
5. 22 1010 d i SG t
{psi}
42. Calculate the velocity of the fluid

through the tubes.
Vt
Wt
At t
Vt
Wt
At t 3600
[m/s]
{ft/s}
43. Calculate the return loss.

Pr 0. 02 n Vt 2 SG
[bar]
Pr
4 n Vt 2 62. 5 SG
2 144 g
{psi}
PAGE 42 OF108
44. Calculate the total pressure drop

through the tubes.
Pt Pt Pr
[bar]
{psi}
If this tubeside pressure drop is greater than allowable then the geometry
must be modified and the design re-calculated.
5.4 Design Optimization
When optimizing an initial heat exchanger design by hand or computer
simulation the following should be considered.
5.4.1 Heat Transfer
The resistance to heat transfer should be reviewed in order to determine
the controlling resistance. In order to optimize a design it is necessary to
increase the controlling resistance (lowest heat transfer coefficient).
Tube side heat transfer coefficients may be increased by:
1.
2.
3.
Increase number of tube side passes

Decrease number of tubes
Use turbulence promoters such as HEATEX
Shell side heat transfer coefficients may be increased by:

1.
2.
3.
4.
Change of shell type. Shell side heat transfer coefficients are higher
for F shells than E shells which are higher than for J-shells
Use more baffles
Use single segmental baffles instead of double segmental
Use low-finned tubes
PAGE 43 OF108
5.4.2 Pressure Drop

Shell and tube heat exchangers are designed within constraints of
ressure drop (as indicated in section 2.5.3). Lower pressure drops result
in lower heat transfer coefficients.
Tube side pressure drop may be reduced by:
1.
2.
3.
Decreasing number of tube passes

Increasing number of tubes
Decrease length of tubes
Shell side pressure drop may be reduced by:

1.
2.
3.
Change of shell type. J-shells have lower pressure drop than Eshells
Use less baffles
Change from single segmental baffles to double segmental
5.5 Reboilers
5.5.1 Selection
The following reboiler types are commonly available.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
standard kettle
vertical thermosyphon with recirculation
vertical thermosyphon with once-through circulation
horizontal thermosyphon with recirculation
horizontal thermosyphon with once-through circulation
forced circulation
Forced circulation is generally the most costly, followed by kettle and then
thermosyphon design. For high viscosity or solids containing liquids
forced circulation is preferred. Fouling affects natural circulation reboilers
which tend to collect foreign material.
For selection of reboilers refer to chapter 9 of the GPSA handbook. An
example of a flow scheme for selection of reboiler type derived from 'No
PAGE 44 OF108
Hassle Reboiler selection', Hydrocarbon Processing, October 1992 is

shown below.
Computer programs available for the design and rating of reboilers are
given in section 7.2.
5.5.2 Comparison of Reboiler Types

a.
Kettle
Advantages
1. High vaporization capability
80% - normal
100% - clean feeds
Advantages
Disadvantages
1. Expensive
Disadvantages
PAGE 45 OF108
b.
c.
2. Simple column internals
2.
Low product hold-up
3. Equivalent to one theoretical

tray
3.
High process hold-up

(high fouling tendency)
4. Lowest tower elevation
4.
Collects dirt
5.
Large plot space
Vertical Thermosyphon - Recirculating

1. Cheapest
1.
2. Low plot space
2.
3. Easily supported
4. Low process hold-up
(low fouling tendency)
5. Good controllability
(line size butterfly valve in
inlet line)
3.
4.
Circulation requires elevated

tower
Requires fixed head of inlet
liquid
Limited to 30% vaporization
Less than theoretical tray
Vertical Thermosyphon - Once through

1. Cheapest
1.

tray
2.
Circulation requires elevated

tower
Possibility of excess
vaporization
PAGE 46 OF108
d.
Horizontal Thermosyphon - Recirculation

1. Heating side easily cleaned
1.
Larger plot space
2. Lower tower elevation than

vertical thermosyphon
2.
Complex vapor piping

(use 2 outlet nozzles with 16
20 ft bundles)
Limited to 50% vaporization
3. Low process hold-up

(low fouling tendency)
4. Good controllability
(line size butterfly valve in inlet
line)
e.
f.
&
3.
Horizontal Thermosyphon - Once through

1. Heating side easily cleaned
1.
Larger plot space

tray
2.
Possibility of excess
vaporization
Forced Circulation
1. Suitable for fouling and /or
viscous services
2. Control of wide range
circulation rates
3. Standard exchanger
construction
1. Pump costs
2. Tower elevation for pump
NPSH
5.5.3 General Considerations of Reboiler Design

Detailed reboiler design should be accomplished by the heat exchanger
expert using a program such as CST, RKH or RTF.
PAGE 47 OF108
5.5.4 The Boiling Process

A typical boiling curve is shown in figure 14. The graph indicates that as
the temperature driving force increases the heat transfer mechanism
passes from convective to nucleate boiling through transitional to film
boiling. The heat flux is a maximum at the end of the nucleate boiling
regime and reaches a lower and more unstable region in the film boiling
region. After the nucleate boiling maximum the heat flux decreases with
increasing temperature driving force until very high driving forces are
reached. This is due to vapor blanketing. For this reason reboilers are
normally designed to operate in the nucleate boiling region. To ensure
stable operation reboilers should be designed to operate below 70% of
maximum heat flux. Consideration should also be given to operation at
start-up when clean heat transfer coefficients can result in higher heat
fluxes. In general, the maximum flux decreases with increasing bundle
diameter at constant pitch and with decreasing pitch at constant bundle
diameter.
PAGE 48 OF108
5.5.5 Horizontal Thermosyphon Calculation

A typical horizontal thermosyphon reboiler layout is as shown below.
A simplified design procedure for calculating thermosyphon hydraulics is

given below (ref: ' Horizontal-thermosyphon reboiler design', Chem Eng.
July 19,1976, pp 149-152).
1.
Calculate the density of the vaporliquid mixture in the return line.

m
2.
100
wt .% vap wt.%liq
v
l
[kglm3]
{lb/ft3}
[kg/s]
{lb/h}
Calculate the amount of

hydrocarbon vaporized.
Vhc
PAGE 49 OF108
where,
Vhc is the hydrocarbon
vaporized
is the heat of
vaporization
Q
is the duty
3.
[J/kg]
{Btu/lb}
[W]
{Btu/h}
[kg/s]
{1b/h}
[-]
{-}
Calculate the reboiler circulation

rate.
Rcirc
Vhc
Av
where,
Rcirc is the reboiler
circulation rate
Av is the mass fraction of
vaporization
4.
Using the following equations

create a table of H2 vs P.
H1
15
. 102
. 10 4 P m H 2
l m
[m]
1. 5 144 P m H 2
H1
l m
{ft}
Hmax = H1 + H2
[m]
{ft}
where,
H1
is as defined in the figure
above
[m]
{ft}
PAGE 50 OF108
H2
is as defined above
Hmax is the maximum difference
in elevation
P
system pressure drop
l
liquid phase density
v
vapor phase density
1.5
safety factor (usually 1.2 to
2.0)
5.
Calculate the logarithmic mean

temperature difference (see section
2.4.2).
6.
Calculate the heat transfer area,

assume for first estimate that the
overall heat transfer coefficient is
570 W/m2C, 100 Btu/h ft2 F.
A
[m]
[m]
{ft}
{ft}
[bar]
{psi}
[kg /m3]
[kg /m3]
{lb/ft3}
{lb/ft3}
[m2]
{ft2}
Q
U Tlm
where,
Q
U
is the duty
[W]
{Btu/h}
is the overall heat
[W/m2C] {Btu/h ft2
transfer
F}
coefficient
Tlm is the log mean
[C]
{F}
temperature difference
7.
From considerations of capital cost and ease of installation the

area calculated above may have to be divided between a number
of shells. When the number of shells are known the flow to each
shell is found by dividing the reboiler circulation rate calculated in 3
above by the number of shells.
PAGE 51 OF108
8.
The liquid velocity to the reboiler is usually in the range of 0.61

m/s to 2.13 m/s or 2 to 7 ft/s. Assuming a liquid velocity of 1.52
m/s or 5 ft/s the size of the liquid line to the reboiler is calculated.
9.
Calculate the pressure drop Pf in the lines to the reboiler as a

result of frictional losses. Assume the geometry of the line from
the column to the reboiler is as illustrated above. Take into
account the line fittings and the division of the flow into two
branches. Include allowance for valve in liquid line, if provided.
This pressure drop should be 10 to 30% of the system total.
10. Calculate the maximum velocity of the vapor-liquid mixture return

to the column.
Vt
5955
m
Vt
4000
m
[m/s]
{ft/s}
where,
Vt is the maximum two
phase velocity
m is the mixture density
[m/s]
[ft/s]
[kg/m3]
{lb/ft3}
The two phase flow regime should be in the annular region.

11. Calculate the pipe diameter to give a lower velocity than V t,
calculated in step 10.
12. Using a suitable two phase pressure drop procedure determine
the pressure drop Pr in the line from the reboiler back to the
column. Take into account all line fittings and return distributor
pressure drop. Return line pressure drop should be less than
30% of the total system pressure drop.
13. Allowing 0.02 bar, 0.3 psi through each shell or using a value from
a computer simulation calculate the total system pressure drop.
PAGE 52 OF108
14.
P Pf Pr 0. 02
[bar]
P Pf Pr 0. 3
{psi}
Compare the tabulated values of pressure drop vs. elevation

difference calculated in 4 above with this figure and read off a
suitable height H2. Usually the minimum value of H 2 is 0.91m or
3 ft. Once H2 is known H1 can be found from the relation shown
in step 4. Typically H1 is in the range of 2 to 8 times the value
of H2.
5.5.6 Vertical Thermosyphon Calculation

The following procedure for vertical thermosyphon reboilers is derived
from 'Designing Vertical Thermosyphon Reboilers', Chem. Eng.,
September 3, 1973.
H3
H1
H2
BF
1.
From the tube-side and shell-side temperatures and critical

temperature data read from the heat flux. figure 11 in Appendix
1.
2.
Use this heat flux together with the total duty to calculate the
number of tubes, based on a suitable tube length and diameter.
PAGE 53 OF108
Typically 25.4mm, 1 in tubes are used, 2.44m, 8 ft long. For

vacuum service1.22m to 1.83m, 4 to 6 ft long tubes are used.
Although longer tube lengths are possible in both cases.
3.
Estimate reboiler inlet line size based on a velocity of 0.61m/s

to 2.1m/s, 2 -7 ft/s for above atmospheric pressures, 0.1 m/s 0.3 m/s, 0.3 to 1 ft/s for vacuum towers. Pressure drop should
be between 10% and 30% of total pressure drop and of the
order of 0.057 bar/100m, 0.25psi/100ft. (Pl)
4.
Calculate frictional pressure drop of the inlet line including

fittings and inlet valve if provided.
5.
Calculate the density of the vapor-liquid mixture in the return

line.
m
6.
100
wt .% vap wt.%liq
v
l
[kglm
3]
{lb/ft3}
Calculate maximum allowable reboiler outlet line velocity.

Vt
5955
m
Vt
4000
m
[m/s]
{ft/s}
Vt = maximum two phase velocity [m/s]

m = two phase density
{ft/s}
[kg/m3] {lb/ft3}
7.
Calculate outlet line diameter to give a two phase velocity lower

than Vt calculated in step 6. Pipe cross - sectional area should
be equal to total tube cross - sectional area.
Using a two phase pressure drop calculation, calculate the

outlet line pressure drop. Allow for line fittings and distributor
pipe pressure drop.
(Pr)
PAGE 54 OF108
Flow regime in outlet piping should be annular. Pressure drop

should be less than 30% of the total system pressure drop.
The line cross - sectional area should be approximately equal
to the total tube cross - section area.
9.
Obtain reboiler pressure drop from exchanger simulation or

assume 0.14 - 0.21 bar, 2.0 - 3.0 psi for approximate
calculation. (Pex)
10. Calculate exchanger static pressure drop from

SH ex
Lt g
l
ml
ln
5
m
1 10 ( l m )
[bar ]
SH ex
Lt ml
l
ln
144( l m )
m
{ psi}
Where Lt = Exchanger tube length

m = outlet two phase density
l= inlet liquid density,
[m]
[kg/m3]
[kg/m 3]
{ft}
{lb/ft3}
{lb/ft3}
11. Calculate outlet line static head if appropriate

SHop = H 3 mg / 1x105
H 3 m
SHop =
144
[bar]
{psi}
12. Calculate thermosyphon driving force

Df = H1 l g / 1x105
H l
Df = 1
144
[bar]
{psi}
13. Calculate total system pressure drop

PT = Pex + SHex + Pr + PL [bar]
PT = Pex + SHex + Pr + PL {psi}
If Df calculated in step 12 is greater than PT then

thermosyphon will be maintained. If not geometry must be
PAGE 55 OF108
changed and /or circulation rate decreased.

The GPSA handbook Page 19-19 (vol II) also describes the reboiler
arrangements and includes a calculation procedure for vertical
thermosyphon reboilers.
6.0 PINCH TECHNOLOGY
6.1 Introduction
This technique aims to integrate heat transfer across a process thereby
reducing utility consumption. If a single hot and cold stream are involved
the procedure is simple. The following figure illustrates this case and
identifies the minimum temperature difference, the possible heat recovery
and the requirements for utility heating and cooling.
For grassroots design, methods of application of heat integration

techniques have been developed. Retrofit projects have proved more
difficult with no clear methodology to ensure optimum project design.
The following sections describe the key elements involved in pinch
technology. Included is a separate section covering the application of the
technique to retrofit projects. Computer programs to help in the
application of the technology have been listed in section 7.0.
6.2 Composite Curves
PAGE 56 OF108
For multiple streams requiring heating and cooling the problem is more
complex and pinch technology procedures are employed. In this
technology hot streams are combined on a temperature-enthalpy
diagram. This shows for different temperature ranges the enthalpy
available in the process streams and is termed the 'hot composite curve'.
The procedure is repeated for the cold streams to provide the 'cold
composite curve'. The curves are arranged in a single diagram (see
below) and the minimum displacement of the lines on the temperature
axis is termed the pinch. This pinch represents the minimum allowable
approach temperature in the exchanger units.
In practice higher temperature enthalpy should not be transferred across

the pinch. If the design allows this to occur the utility targets will not be
achieved. Three basic rules to always observe in heat exchanger network
design are,
no cold utility above the pinch,

no hot utility below the pinch, and
no process heat recovery across the pinch.
Additionally the above diagram illustrates that beneficial process changes

result either in,
an increase of hot stream duty above the pinch,
PAGE 57 OF108
a decrease of cold stream duty below the pinch,

a decrease of hot steam duty below the pinch, and/or,
an increase of cold stream duty below the pinch.
Providing these rules are followed the process and heat exchanger
design should be performed either to benefit or optimize the heat
integration procedure.
6.3
Grand Composite
The composite curve provides information on the minimum utility
requirements. The process designer generally has available utilities at
different temperatures and here the 'grand composite curve' can provide a
procedure for determining where to use different utilities. The 'grand
composite curve' is constructed from the 'composite curves' as illustrated
below. For this curve the temperature plot is a shifted scale i.e.
T min
2
T min
Hot stream temps = Thot

Cold stream temps = Tcold
As can be seen from this figure the 'grand composite curve' is a profile of
the horizontal or enthalpy separation of the composite curves.
PAGE 58 OF108
6.4 Retrofit
For retrofit projects the maximum energy that can be recovered is initially
calculated for the installed surface area. Those exchangers currently
transferring heat across the pinch are identified and where possible are
eliminated. The remaining heat exchangers are now analyzed to
determine whether their area is being used to the optimum advantage. To
perform this analysis the difference between the temperatures on the hot
and cold temperature-enthalpy diagram are plotted against the cold
composite curve temperatures. This results in a diagram of the following
form.
PAGE 59 OF108
Two exchanger profiles are shown indicating where good and poor use is
being made of the driving forces. The aim would be to re-pipe or remove
those exchangers that form a poor match.
7.0 COMPUTER PROGRAMS
7.1 Pinch Technology
The following programs are available in order to assist the process
engineer in evaluating heat integration and exchanger networks.
ADVENT
HEXTRAN
SimSci
International
Stockport
Cheshire
This is a simulation program to assist in the analysis

and design of all types of heat transfer systems. The
programs performs rating and design for all TEMA types
of shell and tube exchangers. Optimization techniques
are also provided to perform pinch calculations based
on area minimization and flow split optimization.
PAGE 60 OF108
7.2 Exchanger Design

Design and rating of heat exchangers is performed using HTRI programs
running on PCs. The programs currently available are as follows.
ST
CST
RKH
RTF
8.0
Shell and Tube exchanger with single phase flow on tube

side and shell side.
Shell and Tube exchanger - with change of phase on either
shell side or tube side.
Kettle and horizontal thermosyphon reboiler
Vertical thermosyphon reboilers
ABBREVIATIONS
A
AA
As
At
Av
at
B
C
c
Cs
Ct
De
Ds
di
do
Ft
Heat transfer area

Actual heat transfer area
Shell-side flow area
Tube-side flow area
Degree of vaporization
(fractional)
Outside surface area of tube per
unit length
Baffle spacing
Average specific heat capacity of
hot fluid
Average specific heat capacity of
cold fluid
Shell-side specific heat capacity
Tube-side specific heat capacity
Equivalent diameter of shell
Shell diameter
Internal diameter of tube
Outside diameter of tube
LMTD correction factor
m2
m2
m2
m2
m2/m
ft2
ft2
ft2
ft2
ft2/ft
m
ft
J/kgCBtu/lb F
J/kgCBtu/lb F
J/kgCBtu/lb F
J/kgCBtu/lb F
m
ft
m
ft
m
ft
m
ft
-
Abbreviations (continued)
PAGE 61 OF108
FFi
Tube-side fouling factor
m2 C/W
FFo
Shell-side fouling factor
m2 C/W
FFio
Tube-side fouling factor

referenced to outer tube surface
area
Shell-side friction factor
Tube-side friction factor
Mass flow per unit area in the shell
Mass flow per unit area in the tube
acceleration due to gravity
film heat transfer coefficient
Inner tube wall film coeffiient
referenced to the inner tube wall
area
Outer tube wall film coefficient
referenced to the outer tube wall
area
Inner tube wall film coefficient
referenced to outer tube wall area
Liquid head above reboiler
Vertical displacement
Maximum elevation
Thermal conductivity of tube wall
Constant of proportionality
Thermal conductivity of shell-side
fluid
Thermal conductivity of tube-side
fluid
Tube length
No. of tubes
No. of tube passes
m2 C/W
fs
ft
Gs
Gt
g
h
hi
ho
hio
H1
H2
Hmax
K
Kp
Ks
Kt
L
Nt
n
hr ft2
F/Btu
hr ft2
F/Btu
hr ft2
F/Btu
m2 /m2 2/in2
m2 /m2 2/in2
kg/m2slb/hr ft2
kg/m2slb/hr ft2
m/s2
ft/s2
W/m2 C
Btu/hr ft2
W/m2Btu/hr
C ft2 F
W/m2Btu/hr
C ft2 F
W/m2 C
Btu/hr ft2
m
ft
m
ft
m
ft
W/mCBtu/hr ft
W/mCBtu/hr ft
W/mC
Btu/hr ft F
W/mC
Btu/hr ft F
m
-
ft
-
PAGE 62 OF108
Pt
Q
Qn
Rcirc
Re
Res
Ret
SG
Td
Tf
Tm
Tw
tci
tco
thi
tho
tm
U
Vhc
Vt
W
Ws
Wt
w
x
Y
Pf
Pr
Ps
Pt
Tube pitch
Duty
Duty of zone n
Reboiler circulation rate
Reynold's number
Shell-side Reynold's number
Tube-side Reynold's number
Specific gravity
Temperature difference
Film temperature
Mean temperature of the hot fluid
Tube wall temperature
Cold inlet temperature
Cold outlet temperature
Hot inlet temperature
Hot outlet temperature
Mean temperature of the cold fluid
Overall heat transfer coefficient
Amount of hydrocarbon vaporized
Fluid velocity inside tubes
Mass flow rate of hot fluid
Shell side mass velocity
Tube-side mass velocity
Mass flow rate of cold fluid
Wall thickness
Tube clearance
Frictional pressure drop in lines to
reboiler
Frictional pressure drop in lines
from reboiler
Shell-side pressure drop
Tube-side pressure drop
m
ft
W Btu/hr
W Btu/hr
kg/s lb/h
C
F
C
F
C
F
C
F
C
F
C
F
C
F
C
F
C
F
W/m2 C
Btu/hr ft2
kg/s lb/h
m/s
ft/s
kg/s lb/hr
kg/s
lb/hr
kg/s lb/hr
kg/s lb/hr
mm inch
m
ft
bar
psi
bar
psi
bar
bar
psi
psi
PAGE 63 OF108
s
t
s
t
sw
tw
l
m
t
v
Viscosity ratio of fluid in the shell

Viscosity ratio of fluid in the
tubes
Heat of vaporization
Viscosity of shell-side fluid
Viscosity of tube-side fluid
Viscosity of shell-side fluid at the
tube wall
Viscosity of tube-side fluid at the
tube wall
Liquid density
Mean vapor-liquid density
Density of fluid in the tubes
Vapor density
J/kg
Ns/m2
Ns/m2
Ns/m2
Btu/lb
lb/hr ft
lb/hr ft
lb/hr ft
Ns/m2
lb/hr ft
kg/m3
kg/m3
kg/m3
kg/m3
lb/ft3
lb/ft3
lb/ft3
lb/ft3
See Attached Word Document for continuation
PAGE 64 OF108

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BECHTEL

Terms and Definitions

Heat Transfer Mechanisms

Heat Transfer Coefficients

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF SHELL

MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION AND

Mechanical Design Conditions

Overall Area for Heat Transfer

Tables and Figures

See attached Word Document

both shell and tubes are of carbon steel,

The following sections describe in detail the design theory, equipment

Terms and Definitions

2.1.1 Exchanger Description

The process stream is cooled by refrigerant. This

A vapor or vapor-liquid mixture is condensed,

Cools liquids or gases with no phase change of

A cooler located between the top and bottom of a

Heats one process stream while cooling another.

Increases the enthalpy of a process stream by

Usually a heater on the feed stream to a column

The temperature of the outlet process stream is

above the dew point at the operating pressure.

An exchanger which adds heat between the feed

Removes heat from a hot stream by the

A heater which vaporizes all or part of a liquid.

An unfired steam generator or fluid heater, using a

Heat Transfer Mechanisms

Conduction, heat transfer through a fixed material.

Heat transfer by radiation is only of significance where high temperatures

The constant of proportionality K p is defined as the overall heat transfer

film heat transfer coefficients

Film heat transfer coefficients are a function of exchanger geometry and

Heat Transfer Coefficients

2.3.1 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

Accounted for using

inner tube wall film

inner wall film coefficient hi

Each of these resistances to heat transfer is dependent upon the surface

This overall transfer coefficient takes no account of fouling on the tube

is the original clean walled coefficient calculated as shown above and FF i,

shell and tube fluids flow in opposite

Counter-current flow is usually preferred since the mean temperature

The co-current arrangement is sometimes used for applications where

hot inlet temperature

The overall heat transfer coefficient is constant for the temperature

2.4.3 LMTD Correction Factor

Heat Capactity Ratio

The minimum acceptable value of F t is 0.8. This is because below this

Equal heat transfer areas in each pass.

2.4.4 Approach Temperatures

The Approach Temperature is the minimum temperature

2.4.5 Phase Changes

enthalpy effect a weighted LMTD can be used. In this case variations in

2.5.1 Tube Side

Seider & Tate tube side

No account is taken of entry and exit losses.

Friction factor for the shellside

Allowable pressure drop

Gases and Vapors,

Allowable pressure drop

STREAMS WITH The shell can then be designed for a lower

MOST FOULING The fluid velocity can be better controlled