1 | Jeanne Moroa | BioSci Lec | 2DPH

CHAPTER 6
SKELETAL SYSTEM: BONES AND
JOINTS
INTRODUCTION
Skeletal System
- Consists
of
bones
&
their
connective
tissues
(cartilages,
tendons, ligaments)
- Consists of dynamic, living tissues
that are able to grow, detect pain
stimuli, adapt to stress, and
undergo repair after injury
Skeleton
- Gk word
- dried
Joint
- Articulation
- A place where two bones come
together
- Movable, limited movement, no
apparent movement
- Structure = degree of movement
Three types of joints/articulations
Will be explained further later in the
handout
1. Synarthrosis (Fibrous Joints)
- Immovable joints
- Tightly joined
- Separated by a thin layer of
fibrous connective tissues
e.g.
skull
(except
the
mandible)
- Suture
Immovable joints
Resemble stitches
a. Serrate
Jagged
interlocking
articulations
b. Lap
Edge of one bone
overlap
another
articulating bone
e.g.
squamous
suture
(temporal
and parietal)
c. Plane
Edges
are
fairly
smooth
e.g.
median
palatine
(where
maxillae
articulate
to form hard palate)

2. Amphiarthrosis
(Cartilagenous
Joints)
- Slightly movable joints
- Separated by a layer of
cartilage
or
fibrous
connective tissue
e.g.
intervertebral
discs,
symphysis pubis, sacroiliac
joints
3. Diarthrosis (Synovial Joints)
- Freely movable joints
- Articular capsule
Where the ends of the
bones forming these
joints
are
bound
together
Formed
out
of
ligaments
- Synovial membrane
Lines the interior of the
capsule
- Synovial fluid
Lubricates the joint
~~~
FUNCTIONS
1. Support
Rigid, strong bone = bearing
weight + major supporting
tissue
Cartilage firm yet flexible
support
w/in
certain
structures (nose, external
ear, thoracic cage, trachea)
Ligament strong bands of
fibrous connective tissue that
attack to bones and hold
them together
2. Protection
Hard and protects the organs
it surrounds
Ex. Skull for brain; vertebrae
for spinal cord; rib cage for
heart, lungs and other organs
of the thorax
3. Movement
Tendon strong bands of
connective tissue; muscles to
bones
Contraction moves bones
for movement
Joints allow movement
Smooth cartilage covers
ends of bones w/n some
joints,
allowing
free
movement

2 | Jeanne Moroa | BioSci Lec | 2DPH

Ligament allow some

movement bet. bones but
prevent excessive movement
4. Storage
Calcium and Phosphorus
Minerals are released from
the bone into the blood if
blood levels of these minerals
into the blood
Adipose tissue stored w/in
bone cavities
Lipids released into the
blood; used by other tissues
as source of energy
5. Blood Cell Production
Red Bone Marrow blood cells &
platelets
~~~
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
Collagen
Tough, rope-like protein
Ground substance
o Proteoglycans

large
molecules
consisting
of
polysaccharides attached to
core proteins
o ANALOGY:
Proteoglycans whole
pine tree
Polysaccharide

needles (reason for

attracting and retaining
large amts of water)
Other organic molecules
Water
Minerals
Connective tissues of the skeletal
system
1. Bone
Collagen
Flexible strength to the
bone
Minerals (Calcium + Phosphate)
Bone
compression
strength
Hydroxyapatite

Calcium
Phosphate
crystal in the bone
2. Cartilage
Collagen
Tough
Proteoglycans
Smooth and resilient

Relatively rigid
Springs back to original shape
after being bent or slightly
compressed
Excellent shock absorber

3. Tendons
4. Ligaments
~~~
GENERAL FEATURES OF B
ONE
Four Categories
1. Long
- Longer than they are wide
Ex. Upper and lower limbs
2. Short
- Approximately as wide as they
are long
Ex. Wrist and ankle
3. Flat
- Relatively thin, flattened shape
Ex. Ribs, scapulae, and sternum
4. Irregular
- Shapes that do not fit readily
into the other three categories
Ex. Vertebrae and facial bones
~~~
S T R U C T U R E OF A L O N G B
ONE
Long bone useful model for illustrating
the parts of a typical bone
Figure 6.2 @ page 112
Diaphysis
- Central shaft
Epiphysis
- Two ends of the bone
Articular cartilage
- Covers
the
ends
of
the
epiphyses where the bone
articulates (joins) w/ other bones
Epiphyseal plate
- Growth plate
- Where the bone grows in length
- Cartilage
between
each
epiphysis and the diaphysis
Epiphyseal line
- Bone growth stops
- Replaces epiphyseal plate
Bones contain cavities
o Medullary cavity
Located in the diaphysis
o Smaller
cavities
in
the
epiphyses of long bones

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o Interior of other bones

Marrow
- Small tissues that fill the
cavities/spaces
- Myeloid tissue
Yellow marrow
- Found in adults
- Adipose tissues
Red marrow
- Found in children
- Blood-forming cells
- Only site of blood formation in
adults
- In adults:
1. Central axis of the body
2. Most proximal epiphyses of
the limbs
Childrens
bones
have
proportionately more red marrow
than do adult bones
Old age = red marrow is mostly
replaced by yellow marrow
Periosteum
- Dense connective tissue
- Covers the outer surface of bone
- Consists of 2 layers
- Contains blood vessels and
nerves
Endosteum
- Thinner
connective
tissue
membrane
- Lines the medullary cavity
~~~
HISTOLOGY OF BONE
Osteoblasts
- What periosteum + endosteum
contains
- Fxns in the formation of the
bone
- Repairs and remodels the bone
Osteocytes
- When
osteoblasts
become
surrounded by matrix
- Located in lacunae between the
lamellae of each osteon
- Connected to one another by
cell processes in canaliculi
Osteoclasts
- Contributes to bone repair and
remodeling

Removes existing bone

Figure 6.3 @ page 113

Lamellae
- Thin sheets
matrix

of

extracellular

Lacunae
- Where osteocytes are found
- Between the lamellae w/in
spaces
Canaliculi
- Extracellular matrix of
lamellae w/in tiny canals
- Gives
the
osteon
appearance of having
cracks w/in lamellae

the
the
tiny

Two types of bone tissues:

1. Compact
- Solid matrix and cells
- Forms most of the diaphysis of a
long bone + thinner surfaces of
all other bones
- Osteons
Units that are repeating in a
predictable pattern
- Central canal
Haversian canal
Have concentric rings of
lamellae
Where blood vessels run
parallel to the long axis of
the bone
Nutrients = leave blood vessels
of central canals and diffuse to
osteocytes thru canaliculi
Waste products = diffuse in the
opposite direction
Blood vessels in central canals
-> connected to blood vessels in
the periosteum + endosteum
2. Spongy
- Cancellous bone
- Lacy network of bone w/ many
small, marrow-filled spaces
- No spaces
- Located in epiphyses of long
bones
- Forms the interior of all other
bones
- Trabeculae
Delicate interconnecting rods
of plates
Resemble
beams
or
scaffolding of a building

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Add strength to a bone w/o

the added weight that would
be present if the bone were
solid mineralized matrix
No blood vessels + no
central canals

Spaces between the trabeculae

= marrow
Each
trabecula
=
several
lamellae w/ osteocytes bet.
them
Nutrients = exit vessels in the
marrow + pass by diffusion thru
canaliculi to the osteocytes of
trabeculae
~~~
BONE OSSIFICATION
Figure 6.5 @ page 114
Ossification
- Formation of the bone
osteoblast

by

Osteoblast
is
completely
surrounded by bone matrix =
mature bone cell (osteocyte)
Two fetal bone processes
Each involves formation of bone
matrix on preexisting connective
tissue
Both results in compact and spongy
bone
1. Intramembranous ossification
Occurs w/in connective tissue
membranes
- Osteoblasts begin to produce
bone
in
connective
tissue
membranes
- Occurs primarily in the bones of
the skull
- Osteoblasts line up on the
surface of connective tissue
fibers
- Begins depositing bone matrix
to form trabeculae
- Ossification centers
Where the process begins
Where trabeculae radiate
out
o 2 or more ossification
centers exist in each flat
skull bone

o Skull bones result from

fusion of these centers as
they enlarge
o Trabeculae = constantly
remolded
after
initial
formation + enlarge/be
replaced by compact bone
2. Endochondral ossification
Figure 6.6 @ page 115
Occurs inside cartilage
Bones at the base of the skull
and most of the remaining
skeletal system
- Cartilage models = general
shape of mature bone
- Chondrocytes
Cartilage cells
Increases
in
number,
enlarge, and die
- Cartilage matrix calcifies
- Blood vessels accumulate in the
perichondrium
- Presence of blood vessels in the
outer surface of future bone =
some
of
the
unspecified
connective tissue cells on the
surface to become osteoblasts
- Osteoblasts produces a collar of
the bone around part of the
outer surface of the diaphysis
- Perichondrium
becomes
periosteum in the area
- Blood vessels = grow into the
center of the diaphysis, bringing
in osteoblasts and stimulating
ossification
- Primary ossification center
Center
part
of
the
diaphysis
Bone
first
begins
to
appear
- Osteoblasts invade spaces in
the center of the bone left by
the dying cartilage cells
- Calcified cartilage matrix =
removed by osteoclasts
- Osteoblasts line up on the
remaining calcified matrix +
begin to form bone trabeculae
- Bone develops = constantly
changes
- Medullary cavity forms in the
center of the diaphysis =
osteoclasts remove bone and
calcified cartilage (replaced by
bone marrow)

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Secondary
ossification
centers
Forms in the epiphyses
~~~

BONE GROWTH
Occurs by the deposition of new
bone lamellae onto existing
bone or other connective tissue
- Appositional Growth
Thru
endochondral
ossification
Figure 6.7 @ page 116
Osteoblasts deposit new
bone
matrix
on
the
surface of bones bet.
periosteum
&
existing
bone matrix
Bone increases in width or
diameter
- Growth in the length of a bone
(major source of increased
height)
=
occurs
in
the
epiphyseal plate
- Chondrocytes
increase
in
number on the epiphyseal sides
of the epiphyseal plate
line up in columns
parallel to the long axis
of the bone (elongation
of bones)
- Chondrocytes enlarge and die
- Cartilage
matrix
become
calcified
- Cartilage that forms around the
enlarged cells = removed by
osteoclasts
- Dying chondrocytes = replaced
by osteoblasts
- Osteoblasts
formation
=
depositing bone lamellae on the
surface of the calcified cartilage
- Produces
bone
on
the
diaphyseal
side
of
the
epiphyseal plate
~~~
BONE REMODELING
Involves the removal of existing
bone by osteoclasts
Deposition of new bone by
osteoblasts
Occurs in all bones
- Remodeling
Responsible for:
1. changes in bone shape

2. adjustment of bone to
stress
3. bone repair
4. calcium ion regulation
in body fluids
involved in bone growth
when
newly
formed
spongy
bone
in
the
epiphyseal plate forms
compact bone
Long bone increases in length
and diameter = new bone is
deposited on the outer surface
and growth occurs at the
epiphyseal plate
Bone is removed from the inner,
medullary surface of the bone
Bone diameter increases =
thickness of compact bone
remain fairly constant (relative
to medullary cavity)
Increased bone size but no
increase in medullary cavity size
= compact bone of diaphysis
becomes thick and very heavy
Bone
Major storage site for
calcium in the body
Bone remodeling
Important
to
maintain
blood calcium levels w/in
normal limits
Calcium
Removed
from
bones
when blood calcium levels
decrease
Deposited when dietary
calcium is adequate
Removal + deposition =
under hormonal control
Too much bone deposited =
thick; develops abnormal spurs
or lumps that can interfere w/
normal fxn
Too little bone formation/too
much bone removal = weakens
the
bones;
susceptible
to
fracture (osteoporosis)
~~~

BONE REPAIR
Figure 6.8 @ page 117
- Bone is broken and needs to be
repaired
- Blood vessels in the bone are
also damaged

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Vessels
bleed
+
a
clot
(hematoma) forms in the
damaged area
- 2-3 days after injury: blood
vessels
and
cells
from
surrounding tissues begin to
invade the clot
produce
a
fibrous
network of connective
tissue bet. the broken
bones w/c holds the
bone
fragments
together + fills the gap
bet. them
- Callus
Network of fibers and
islets of cartilage bet. 2
bone fragments
- Osteoblasts enter callus and
begin forming spongy bone (4-6
wks after injury)
- Immobilization of the bone =
critical up to this time
movement
can
refracture the delicate
new matrix
- Spongy
bone
is
slowly
remodeled to form compact and
spongy bone + repair is
complete
- Complete immobilization is
not good for the bone, the
muscles, or the joints
- Immobilized for as little as 2
weeks = muscles associated w/
that bone may lose as much as
half their strength
- Bone is completely immobilized
= not subjected to normal
mechanical stresses that help it
form
- Bone matrix = reabsorbed;
Strength decreases
- Complete immobilization of the
animals back for 1 month =
threefold decrease in vertebral
compression strength
- Modern therapy
Tries to balance bone
immobilization w/ enough
exercise to keep muscle
and bone from decreasing
in size and strength
To maintain joint mobility
o Achieved by:
1) limiting the amount of
time a cast is left on the
patient
2) walking casts

Allow some stress

on the bone & some
movement
Total healing of the fracture =
several months
Bone heals properly = healed
region can be even stronger
than the adjacent bone

~~~
BONE AND CALCIUM HOME
OSTASIS
Figure 6.9 @ page 118
Bone major storage site for
calcium in the body
Movement of calcium into and out
of bone helps determine blood
calcium levels
critical for normal muscle and
nervous system fxn
Calcium moves into bone as
osteoblasts build new home and
out of bone as osteoclasts break
done bone
Osteoblast and osteoclast activity
is balanced = movement of Ca2+
are equal
Blood calcium levels are too low
= osteoclast activity decreases
= osteoclasts release calcium from
bone into blood
= blood calcium level increases
Blood calcium levels are too high
= osteoclast activity increases
= osteoclast remove calcium from
the blood to produce new bone
= blood calcium level decreases
Hormones in Calcium homeostasis:
1. Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Parathyroid
Secreted when blood calcium
levels are too low
Causes blood calcium levels
to increase (to maintain
homestatic lvls)
2. Vitamin D
Skin or diet
Secreted when blood calcium
levels are too low
Causes blood calcium levels
to increase (to maintain
homestatic lvls)
3. Calcitonin
Thyroid gland
Secreted when blood calcium
levels are too high

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Decrease blood calcium lvls

by
inhibiting
osteoclast
activity
Maintains homeostatic blood
calcium lvls by decreasing
calcium levels that are too
high

Absence of osteoclast activity

= osteoblast activity continues
Removing Ca2+ from the
blood
Deposit into the bone
These three work together to
keep blood calcium levels w/in
the homeostatic range
Three Simultaneous Mechanisms of
PTH to increase blood calcium
levels:
1. Indirectly stimulates osteoclasts to
break down bone, w/c releases
stored calcium into the blood
2. Stimulates the kidney to take up
calcium from the urine and return it
to the blood
3. Stimulates the formation of active
vitamin D, w/c, in turn, promotes
increased Ca2+ absorption from the
small intestine
Hypocalcemia calcium deficiency
Decreasing blood calcium lvls =
stimulate PTH secretion
~~~
GENERAL CONSIDERATIO
NS OF THE BONE ANATOM
Y
206 BONES
Table 6.1 @ page 119
- May vary from person to person
- Decreases w/ age as some
bones fuse
Table 6.2 @ page 120
Foramen
- A hole in a bone
- Where nerves or blood vessels
pass thru
Canal
Fossa

Meatus
Elongated into a tunnel-like
passage thru the bone

Depression in a bone

Tuberosity
- Tubercle
- Lump on a bone
- Most are sites of muscle
attachment
o Increased
muscle
pull
=
increase tubercle size (e.g.
weight lifts)
Process
- Projection from a bone
Condyle
- Smooth rounded end of a bone
where it forms a joint w/ another
bone
Suture
- Joint uniting bones of the skull
~~~
AXIAL SKELETON
Skull, vertebral column, thoracic
cage
SKULL
- 22 bones
- More relevant to think of the
skull (except mandible) as a
single unit
- Brain case & face
a. Brain case
Encloses the cranial cavity
8 bones
b. Facial bones
Forms the structure of the
face
14 bones
13: solidly connected to
form the bulk of the face
Mandible: freely movable
joint w/ the rest of the
skull
c. Auditory ossicles
3 bones in each middle ear
[LATERAL VIEW OF THE SKULL]
Figure 6.11 @ page 122
Full discussion: p. 120
Bones
1. Parietal bones
2. Temporal bones
3. Frontal bone

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4. Occipital bone
5. External auditory canal*
6. Mastoid process
7. Sphenoid bone
8. Zygomatic arch
9. Maxilla
10.
Mandible
Sutures
1. Squamous suture
2. Coronal suture
3. Lambdoid suture
[FRONTAL VIEW OF THE SKULL]
Figure 6.12 @ page 123
Full discussion: pp. 120-123
Bones/Fossae
1. Frontal bone
2. Zygomatic bones
3. Maxillae
4. Mandible
5. Orbits
6. Nasal canal
7. Superior and inferior orbital fissures
8. Optic foramen
9. Nasolacrimal canal
10.
Lacrimal bone
11.
Nasal septum
12.
Vomer
13.
Perpendicular plate of the
ethmoid bone
14.
Nasal bones
15.
Nasal conchae
16.
Paranasal sinuses
- Frontal
- Maxillary
- Ethmoidal
- Sphenoidal
17.
Mastoid air cells
18.
Auditory tube
[INFERIOR OF THE CRANIAL CAVITY]
Figure 6.14 @ page 124
Full discussion: pp. 123-124
Bones/Foramina
1. Frontal bone
2. Ethmoid bone
3. Sphenoid bone
4. Temporal bone
5. Occipital bone
6. Foramen spinosum
7. Carotid canal
8. Jugular foramen
9. Foramen magnum
10.
Sella turica
[BASE OF SKULL VIEW FROM BELOW]

Figure 6.15 @ page 125

Full discussion: p. 124
Bones/Other stuff in the skull
1. Occipital condyles
2. Styloid processes
3. Mandibular fossa
4. Hard palate
5. Palatine bones
6. Soft palate
HYOID BONE
Figure 6.16 @ page 125
- Unpaired, U-shaped bone
- Not part of the skull
- No direct bony attachment to
the skull
- Provides an attachment for
some tongue muscles
- Attachment point for impt neck
muscles that elevate the larynx
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
- Central axis of the skeleton
- Base of the skull to slightly past
the end of the pelvis
- 26 individual bones for adults
5 Regions
1. 7 cervical bones
2. 12 thoracic bones
3. 5 lumbar bones
4. 1 sacral bone (fused to 5 ind.
bones)
5. 1 coccyx bone (fused to 3-4 ind.
bones)
4 Curvatures
1. Cervical: anterior
2. Thoracic: posterior
3. Lumbar: anterior
4. Sacral & Coccygeal: posterior
Kyphosis
- Abnormal posterior curvature of
the spine
- Upper thoracic region
- Hunchback condition
Lordosis
- Abnormal
anterior
articular
facets of the lumbar vertebrae
face medially and the inferior
articular facets face laterally
- Lock
adjacent
lumbar
vertebrae together
- Gives more strength to lumbar
region

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Articular facets -> more open

position for more rotational
movement but less stability in
lumbar region

Sacrum
Figure 6.20 @ page 128
- Five sacral vertebrae fused into
1
o Median sacral crest
Spinous process of the first
four sacral vertebrae
o Sacral hiatus
Spinous process of the fifth
sacral vertebrae
Site of caudal anesthetic
injections given just before
childbirth
o Sacral promontory
Anterior edge of the body
of the first sacral vertebra
Can be felt during a
vaginal examination
A
reference
point
to
determine if the pelvic
openings are large enough
to allow for normal vaginal
delivery
Coccyx
- Tailbone
- Four
more-or-less
fused
vertebrae
- Consists of extremely reduced
vertebral bodies (w/o foramina
or processes) usu. fused into a
single bone
- Easily broken when a person
falls by sitting down hard on a
solid surface or in women during
childbirth
RIB CAGE
Figure 6.21 @ page 129
- Protects the vital organs w/in
the thorax
- Prevents the collapse of the
thorax during respiration
- Thoracic vertebrae, ribs w/
their associated cartilages,
sternum
[Ribs and Costal Cartilages]
- 12 pairs of ribs
- True and false ribs
1. True ribs
2. False ribs

3. Floating ribs
[Sternum]
Full discussion: pp. 128-129
- Breastbone
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Manubrium
Body
Xiphoid process (CYPHER eue)
Jugular notch
Sternal angle
~~~

APPENDICULAR SKELETO
N
Upper and lower limbs, and the
girdles
PECTORAL GIRDLE
Figure 6.23 @ page 131 for scapula and
clavicle
Full discussion: pp. 129
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Scapula
Glenoid cavity
Spine
Acromion process
Clavicle
Coracoid process

UPPER LIMB
Figure 6.22 @ page 130
Full discussion: pp. 130-133
[ARM]
Figure 6.25 @ page 132
Full discussion: p. 130
1. Humerus
Head
Anatomical neck
Surgical neck
Greater tubercle
Lesser tubercle
Deltoid tuberosity
Epicondyles
[FOREARM]
Figure 6.26 @ page 133
Full discussion: p. 130
1. Ulna
Trochlear notch
Olecranon process
Coronoid process
Styloid process
2. Radius

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Radial tuberosity

[WRIST]
Figure 6.27 @ page 133
Full discussion: p. 130
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Scaphoid
Lunate (please save me tonight-)
Triquetrum
Pisiform
Hamate
Capitate
Trapezoid
Trapezium

Mnemonics: (lateral to medial sa top,

medial to lateral sa baba)
- So Long Top Part, Here Comes
The Thumb
[HAND]
Figure 6.27 @ page 133
Full discussion: p. 130
1. Metacarpal bones
2. Digits
3. Phalanges
Proximal
Middle
Distal
PELVIC GIRDLE
Figure 6.29 @ page 134
Figure 6.30 @ page 134 for pelvis
Table 6.3 @ page 134 + Figure 6.32 @
page 135 for differences bet. male and
female pelvic girdles
Full discussion: pp. 133-134
1. Coxal bones
2. Sacrum
3. Pelvis (PRESLEY)
4. Ilium
5. Ischium
6. Pubis
7. Anterior superior iliar spine
8. Pubic symphysis
9. Sacroiliac joints
10.
Acetabulum
11.
Obturator foramen
12.
Pelvic inlet
Pelvic brim
Sacral promontory
13.
Pelvic outlet
Ischial spines
Pubic symphysis
Coccyx

LOWER LIMB
Figure 6.29 @ page 134
-

Thigh, leg, ankle, foot

[THIGH]
Figure 6.33 @ page 136
Full discussion: pp. 134-136
1. Femur
Head
Condyles
Epicondyles
Trochanters
2. Patella
[LEG]
Figure 6.34 @ page 136
Full discussion: p. 136
1. Tibia
Tibial tuberosity
Medial malleolus
2. Fibula
Lateral malleolus
[ANKLE]
Figure 6.35 @ page 137
Full discussion: p. 136
1. Seven tarsal bones
Talus
Calcaneus
Cuboid
Navicular (NAVI IS REAL)
Cuneiforms
Medial
Intermediate
Lateral
Mnemonics:
- MILC (Medial, Intermediate,
Lateral Cuneiforms + Cuboid)
- No Thanks Cow (Navicular,
Talus, Calcaneus)
[FOOT]
Figure 6.35 @ page 137
Full discussion: p. 137
1. Arches
2. The parts are the same as the hand
~~~
JOINTS
See page 1 of this handout for crash
course on this
Full discussion: pp. 138-139

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Figure 6.37 @ page 138 for fontanels

Articulation
Two bones come together
Movable,
limited
movement,
immovable
Categories:
A. Functional
1. Synarthrosis
2. Amphiarthrosis
3. Diarthrosis

Figure 6.38 @ page 139

Full discussion: pp. 139
- Freely movable joints
- Contain fluid in a cavity
surrounding
the
ends
of
articulating bones
o Articular cartilage
Covers articular surfaces
of bones w/in synovial
joints
Provide smooth surface
where bones meet

B. Structural
1. Fibrous
2. Cartilaginous
3. Synovial

o Joint cavity
Filled w/ fluid
---

FIBROUS JOINTS
- Two bones united by fibrous
tissues
- Exhibit little or no movement
1. Sutures
Fibrous joints bet. bones of
skull
o Fontanels
Soft spots
In newborns
Allow flexibility in the skull
during birth process
Growth of head after birth
2. Syndesmoses
Fibrous joints in w/c bones
are separated by some
distance
Held together by ligaments
3. Gomphoses
Pegs fitted into sockets
Held in place by ligaments
--CART
-

ILAGINOUS JOINTS
Two bones united by cartilage
Slight movements
May be reinforced by additional
collagen fibers
o Fibrocartilage
Forms joints such as
intervertebral disks
---

SYNOVIAL JOINTS

o Joint capsule
Helps hold the bones
together
Allows movement
Encloses the cavity
o Synovial membrane
Lines the joint
everywhere
articular cavity

cavity
except

o Synovial fluid
Complex
mixture
of
polysaccharides, proteins,
lipids, and cells
Thin,
lubricating
film
covering the surfaces of
the joint
o Bursa
Extended
synovial
membrane
A pocket or sac
Located bet. structures
that rub together
Bursitis inflammation of
bursa
o Tendon sheath
Extended
synovial
membrane
Along
some
tendons
associated w/ joints
===
TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOIN
TS
Figure 6.38 @ page 139
Figure 6.39 @ page 140 for types

12 | Jeanne Moroa | BioSci Lec | 2DPH

Figure 6.40 @ page 141 for examples

Full discussion: pp. 139
1. Plane
- Two opposed flat surfaces that
glide over each other
2. Saddle
- Two saddle-shaped articulating
surfaces oriented at right angles
to each other
- Movement in 2 planes
3. Hinge
- Movement in one plane only
- Convex cylinder of one bone
applied to a corresponding
concavity of the other bone
o Menisci
Concave surface by shockabsorbing fibrocartilage

b. Plantar flexion
Movement of foot towards
the plantar surface
2. Extension
- To straighten
- Bones of a particular joint are
moved farther apart
- Arranged from end to end
3. Abduction
- Movement
away
from
the
median or midsagittal plane
4. Adduction
- Movement towards the median
plane
5. Pronation (elbow as an example)
- Rotation of the forearm so that
the palm is down

4. Pivot
- Restrict movement to rotation
around a single axis
- Cylindrical bony process that
rotates w/in a ring composed
partly of bone and partly of
ligament

6. Supination
- Rotation of the forearm so that
the palm is up

5. Ball-and-socket
- Ball (head) at the end of one
bone and a socket in an
adjacent bone into w/c a portion
of the bone fits
- Allows wide range of movement
in almost any direction

8. Inversion
- Turning the foot so that the
plantar surface faces medially

6. Ellipsoid
- Condyloid
- Elongated ball-and-socket joints
- Limits range of movement
nearly to that of a hinge motion,
but in 2 planes

10.
-

Circumduction
The arm moves so that it traces
a cone where the shoulder joint
is at the cones apex

11.
-

Protraction
Movement in w/c a structure
glides anteriorly

12.
-

Retraction
Structure glides posteriorly

13.
-

Elevation
Movement of structure
superior direction

in

14.
-

Depression
Movement of structure
superior direction

in

7. Eversion
- Turning the foot so that the
plantar surface faces laterally

9. Rotation
- Turning of a structure around its
long axis

~~~
TYPES OF MOVEMENT
Figure 6.41 @ page 142
Full discussion: pp. 141-143
Related to structure of joint
1. Flexion
- Bones of a particular joint are
moved closer together
- To bend
a. Dorsiflexion
Movement of foot towards
the shin

15.

Excursion

13 | Jeanne Moroa | BioSci Lec | 2DPH

Movement of a structure to one

side

16.
-

Opposition
Tips of the thumb and little
finger are brought towards each
other across the palm of the
hand

17.
-

Reposition
Returns the digits
anatomical position

to

the

o Sprain
Bones of a joint are
forcefully pulled apart
Ligaments are pulled or
torn
o Separation
Bones remain apart after
injury to a joint
o Dislocation
End of one bone is pulled
out of the socket in a balland-socket, ellipsoid, or
pivot joint
o Hyperextension
Abnormal,
forced
extension
of
a
joint
beyond its normal range of
motion

Normal movement of a
structure into the space
posterior
to
the
anatomical position
~~~
EFFECTS OF AGING ON TH
E SKELETAL SYSTEM AND
JOINTS
See Disease and Disorders table @
page 146
Full discussion: pp. 144-146
Affects the joints, as well as the
quality and quantity of bone matrix
Decreased collagen production
Loss of bone = fractures
Changes in synovial joints in elderly
ppl
Cartilage
covering
articular
surfaces can wear down
Production rate of lubricating
synovial fluid also declines
Many older ppl are less physically
active = results in less flexible
bones and decreases their range of
motion
Effective preventive measure:
- Increasing physical activity
- Intake of dietary calcium and vit.
D supplements
- Intensive exercise reverse the
loss of bone matrix