Similarities and Differences between First and Second Language

Similarities:
In both first and second language acquisition, universal grammar may influence learning. In
second language learning, universal grammar may influence learning either independently
or through the first language.
In both first and second language acquisition, there are predictable stages, and particular
structures are acquired in a set order. Individuals may move more slowly or quickly through
these stages, but they cannot skip ahead.
In both first and second language acquisition, making errors is a part of learning. Learners
need to make and test hypotheses about language to build an internal representation of the
language. In the initial stages of learning, learners may use chunks of language without
breaking them down or processing them as independent units. In later stages, they may
make new errors as they begin to process the parts of each chunk according to the rules of
their language system. For example, a learner may start out using the correct form of an
irregular verb as part of a language chunk, but later overgeneralize and place a regular affix
on that same verb.
In both first and second language acquisition, the learner uses context clues, prior
knowledge, and interaction to comprehend language.
In both first and second language acquisition, age is an important variable affecting
proficiency.
In both first and second language acquisition, learners can often comprehend more complex
language than they are able to produce. In the initial stages of learning, learners go
through a silent period.
In both first and second language acquisition, a learner's proficiency can vary across
situations.
In both first and second language acquisition, learners may overgeneralize vocabulary or
rules, using them in contexts broader than those in which they should be used.
In both first and second language acquisition, learners need comprehensible input
and opportunities to learn language in context in order to increase their proficiency.

Differences:
In first language acquisition, the basis for learning is universal grammar alone. In second
language acquisition, knowledge of the first language also serves as a basis for learning the
second language. There may be both positive and negative transfer between languages in
second language learning.

In first language acquisition, children spend several years listening to language, babbling,
and using telegraphic speech before they can form sentences. In second language
acquisition in older learners, learning is more rapid and people are able to form sentences
within a shorter period of time.
In formal second language learning in older learners, learners are able to use more
metacognitive processes in their learning. They can consciously analyze and manipulate
grammatical structures, and they can explicitly describe how language works. This can
speed the learning process.
In second language learning in older learners, learners bring more life experience and
background knowledge to their learning. They have more schemata and more learning
strategies to help them learn the second language.
In second language learning in older learners, there may be less access to universal
grammar, and sensitivity to phonological distinctions not present in the native language will
be reduced. Students learning in a classroom setting may also have fewer opportunities to
learn language authentically. These factors may reduce the likelihood that second language
learners will attain native-like proficiency. First-language learners always attain native
proficiency, unless they have a disability that affects language learning.
In first language acquistion, learners have many chances to practice with native speakers
(especially caregivers). In second language acquisition, learners may or may not have the
opportunity to practice extensively with native speakers.
Almost everyone acquires a first language, but not everyone acquires a second language.
Acquiring a first language happens naturally, while acquiring a second language often
requires conscious effort on the part of the learner.

Top factors that influence second language acquisition

Motivation
Regular practice
Emotional involvement
Playfulness and willingness to make mistakes
Humble approach The basic first
Grammar is secondary to practice, theory is secondary to practice.

1. Motivation
Turns out that the more you are motivated toward learning the faster and better you will
learn. This seems obvious but the crucial point is that to be motivated you have actually to
believe that you can learn the language, and that you can learn it pretty quickly.

2. Regular practice

It is better to practice the language every day 20-30 minutes than 2 hours 2 times a week.
Regular practice it is very much linked to other factors such as time management and
motivation.

3. Emotional involvement
Our memory can retain much better information that is associated with strong emotions and
more than one sense. For example, associating the sound of a word with images and smell
could be more effective than just reading the word on a dictionary. One important factor is
that a person memory may have preference for one of the senses. Therefore, discovering
what is your favourite sense for memory retention can be highly useful to decide how to
learn languages.

4. Playfulness and willingness to make mistakes

When we are bored we do not learn. When we are having fun we are more receptive. This is
one of the reason why boring language school is usually very ineffective. I think that is also
important to not worry about sounding a bit ridiculous during the first months speaking a
foreign language. Willingness to make mistakes allows you to improve by getting feedback
on what are you doing wrong and how to fix it. A playful approach to language learning can
be highly rewarding because allows you to say anything and without having to worry too
much about it.

5. Humble approach Starting from the basic

We learn better when we interiorize very well some small knowledge chuncks or principles
before adding new ones. Therefore, a beginner that start by an humble approach, and
recognize that is better to learn very good very few things at the beginning before learning
a lot of advanced rules will actually learn faster. In other words, I think that the secret to
learn fast is actually to learn slowly (gradually).

6. Grammar is secondary to practice.

Generally speaking I believe that second language acquisition is more successful when it
imitates children language acquisition. Children do not learn grammar first and then how to
speak, they learn how to speak by a trial and error process which involve constant engaging
with their environment. Children do not learn reading by starting to read literature. They
learn to read by starting to read simple single words, and then simple single sentences.

Grammar should be taught very sparingly and sparingly used to check the sentences that
one has already pronounced instead than the opposite.

The Audiolingual Method

The Audio-Lingual method of teaching had its origins during World War II when it became
known as the Army Method. It is also called the Aural oral approach. It is based on the
structural view of language and the behaviorist theory of language learning.
The Audiolingual Approach to language teaching has a lot of similarities with the Direct
Method. Both were considered as a reaction against the shortcomings of the Grammar
Translation method, both reject the use of the mother tongue and both stress that speaking
and listening competences preceded reading and writing competences. But there are also
some differences. The direct method highlighted the teaching of vocabulary while the
audiolingual approach focus on grammar drills
Structuralism
The structural view to language is the view behind the audio-lingual method. This approach
focused on examining how the elements of language related to each other in the present,
that is, synchronically rather than diachronically. It was also argued that
linguistic signs were composed of two parts, a signifier (the sound pattern of a word) and
a signified (the concept or meaning of the word). The study of language aims at describing
the performance ,theparole as it is the only observable part of language.
Behaviorism
Behaviorism is a philosophy of psychology based on the proposition that all things which
organisms do including acting, thinking and feelingcan and should be regarded as
behaviors. It contends that leaning occurs through associations, habit formation and
reinforcement. When the learner produces the desired behavior and is reinforced positively,
it is likely that behavior be emitted again.
The Audiolingual method
The objective of the audiolingual method is accurate pronunciation and grammar, the ability
to respond quickly and accurately in speech situations and knowledge of sufficient
vocabulary to use with grammar patterns. Particular emphasis was laid on mastering the
building blocks of language and learning the rules for combining them. It was believed that

learning structure, or grammar was the starting point for the student. Here are some
characteristics of the method:

language learning is habit-formation,

mistakes are bad and should be avoided, as they are considered bad habits,

language skills are learned more effectively if they are presented orally first, then in
written form,

analogy is a better foundation for language learning than analysis,

the meanings of words can be learned only in a linguistic and cultural context.

The main activities include reading aloud dialogues, repetitions of model sentences, and
drilling. Key structures from the dialogue serve as the basis for pattern drills of different
kinds. Lessons in the classroom focus on the correct imitation of the teacher by the
students. Not only are the students expected to produce the correct output, but attention is
also paid to correct pronunciation. Although correct grammar is expected in usage, no
explicit grammatical instruction is given. It is taught inductively. Furthermore, the target
language is the only language to be used in the classroom.
Advantages

It aims at developing listening and speaking skills which is a step away from the
Grammar translation method

The use of visual aids has proven its effectiveness in vocabulary teaching.
Disadvantages

The method is based on false assumptions about language. The study of language
doesnt amount to studying the parole, the observable data. Mastering a language
relies on acquiring the rules underlying language performance. That is, the linguistic,
sociolinguistic, and discourse competences.

The behaviorist approach to learning is now discredited. Many scholars have proven
its weakness. Noam Chomsky ( Chomsky, Noam (1959). A Review of B. F. Skinners
Verbal behavior) has written a strong criticism of the principles of the theory.

Methodology
Typically, the audio-lingual method includes drills and pattern repetition. There are four
parts to this method.
Repetition the students repeat what the teacher says. Example: Teacher I walk to
school. Students I walk to school.

Inflection the teacher says a word, the students say another form of one of the words
back to the teacher. Example: Teacher I walk to school. Students I walked to school.
Replacement the teacher says a sentence and the students replace on of the words for a
different word. Example: Teacher I walk to school. Students I run to school.
Restatement the teacher says a sentence and the students rephrase the sentence.
Example: Teacher Tell me to walk to school. Students Walk to school.

Communicative Language Teaching (The Communicative Approach)

As the language theories underlying the Audiolingual method and the Sitiuational Language
Teaching method were questioned by prominent linguists like Chomsky (1957) during the
1960s, a new trend of language teaching paved its way into classrooms. Communicative
Language Teaching(CLT) Which is an approach to the teaching of second and foreign
languages, emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a
language. It is also referred to as Communicative Approach. Historically, CLT has been
seen as a response to the Audio-Lingual Method (ALM), and as an extension or development
of the Notional-Functional Syllabus. Task-based language learning, a more recent refinement
of CLT, has gained considerably in popularity.
Shortcomings of structuralism and behaviorism
The theories underlying the audiolingual method and the situational language teaching
were widely criticized during the 1960s. Noam Chomsky, for instance, rejected the
structuralist view of language and demonstrated that there is a distinction between
performance and competence. The goal of the linguist is to study the linguistic competence
native speakers are endowed with. He also showed, rightly, that structuralism and
behaviorism were unable to account for one fundamental aspect of language, namely the
creativity and uniqueness of individual sentences. A child is able to produce an infinite
number of sentences that s/he has never encountered. This makes the factors of imitation,
repetition and habit formation weak arguments to account for any language learning theory.

A shift towards communicative proficiency

The increasing interdependency between the European countries necessitated a need for a
greater effort to teach adults the principal languages of the continent. New goals were set
in language teaching profession:

The paramount importance of communication aspects of language.

The increasing interest in meaningful learning.

The growing centrality of the learner in teaching processes.

The subordinate importance of structural teaching of language.

Notional / functional dimension of language
Applied linguists and philosophers addressed another fundamental dimension of language:
the functional and communicative potential of language. The speech act theory showed
that we do something when we speak a language. We use language ( cf Halliday 1975)

to get things,

to control behavior,

to create interaction with others,

to express personal feelings,

to learn,

to create a world of imagination,

to communicate information.

Besides applied linguists emphasized a teaching of language based on communicative

proficiency rather than mastery of structures. instead of describing the core of language
through traditional concepts of grammar and vocabulary, they (Van Ek & Alexander, 1975;
Wilkins, 1976) attempted to show the systems of meaning underlying the communicative
use of language. They described two kinds of meanings.

Notional categories: concepts such as time, sequence; quantity, location, frequency.

Functional categories: requests offers, complaints, invitation

In other words, a notion is a particular context in which people communicate. A function

is a specific purpose for a speaker in a given context. For example, the notion,
of shopping requires numerous language functions, such as asking about prices or
features of a product and bargaining.

One language competence or numerous competences?

For Chomsky the focus of linguistics was to describe the linguistic competence that enables
speakers to produce grammatically correct sentences. Dell Hymes held, however, that such
a view of linguistic theory was sterile and that it failed to picture all the aspects of
language. He advocated the need of a theory that incorporate communication competence.
It must be a definition of what a speaker needs to know in order to be communicatively
competent in a speech community.
Later Canale and Swaine (1980) described four dimensions of communicative competence.

Grammatical competence: refers to what Chomsky calls linguistic competence.

Sociolinguistic competence: refers to an understanding of the social context in which

communication takes place (role relationships, shared beliefs and information between
participants )

Discourse competence: refers to the interpretation of individual messsage elements in

terms of their interconnectedness and how meaning is represented in relationship to the
entire discourse or text.

Strategic competence: refers to the coping strategies that participants use to initiate

terminate, maintain, repair and redirect communication

Learning theory
According to the the communicative approach, in order for learning to take place, emphasis
must be put on the importance of these variables:

Communication: activities that involve real communication promote learning.

Tasks: activities in which language is used to carry out meaningful tasks supports the
learning process.

Meaning: language that is meaningful and authentic to the learner boosts learning.
Acquiring or learning?
Stephen Krashen later advocated in his language learning theory that there should be a
distinction between learning and acquiring. He sees acquisition as the basic process
involved in developing language proficiency and distinguishes this process from learning.
Acquisition is an unconscious process that involves the naturalistic development of
language proficiency while learning is the conscious internalisation of the rules of language.
It results in explicit knowledge about the forms of language and the ability to verbalize this
knowledge. Learning according to Krashen can not lead to acquisition.

Syllabus
Communicative language teaching syllabus organizes the teaching according to the
notional and functional categories of language rather than according to its structures.It
concentrates on the following:

Interactions: using language to communicate,

Tasks: using language to perform meaningful tasks

Learner: puting the learners interesets, needs in the forefront.

Merits of CLT
There are many advantages in teaching according to the communicative approach:

CLT is a holistic appraoch. It doesnt focus only on the traditional structural syllabus. It
takes into consideration communicative dimension of language.

CLT provides vitality and motivation within the classroom.

CLT is a learner centered approach. It capitalizes on the interests and needs of the
learner.

In a world where communication of information and information technology have

broken new considerable ground, CLT can play an important role in education.
Criticism

Notional syllabus was criticized as merely replacing one kind of list, namely a list of
grammatical structures, with another list of notions and functions.

The various categories of language functions are overlapping and not systematically
graded like the structures of the language.

The communicative approach focuses on the use of language in everyday situations,

or the functional aspects of language, and less on the formal structures. There must be
a certain balance between the two.It gives priority to meanings and rules of use rather
than to grammar and rules of structure. Such concentration on language behavior may
result in negative consequences in the sense that important structures and rules would
be left out.

The approach relies extensively on the functional-notational syllabus which places

heavy demands on the learners.

A major principle underlying this approach is its emphasis on learners needs and
interests. This implies that every teacher should modify the syllabus to fit the needs of
the learners.

The requirements are difficult. Not all classrooms can allow for group work activities
and for teaching aids and materials.

In spite of its critics, CLT has gained widespread acceptance in the world of language study.
CLT can succeed, as long as teachers dont completely reject the need for the structure
provided by grammar. Teachers must strive for moderation and shouldnt neglect the merits
of other methods. CLT, in the hands of a balanced teacher, can bring new life and joy to the
classroom. Its vitality makes it an important contributor to language learning approaches

Classroom Management
Elements of classroom management vary. In researching this topic, it is clear that a common understanding for the
term management might be useful. For this purpose, management refers to issues of supervision, refereeing, facilitating, and even
academic discipline. Not all student behaviors require intervention or confrontation while some are serious enough in nature to warrant
formal disciplinary action. Rest assured that while there are current studies in higher education literature that suggest a growing trend
of rudeness and even overt animosity towards faculty by students, the vast majority of classroom experiences are not dramatic.
Since many professors teach for years without encountering some of the management instances we discuss here, our intent
is to move beyond identification of classroom problems to suggest preventative strategies and practical solutions. For
some faculty, teaching comes quite naturally and the notion of management in the classroom is irrelevant. But situations within
the classroom do occasionally occur that lead us to seek out advice in order to maintain the learning environment for students
not to mention our personal sanity.
Typical classroom management topics are listed in faculty handbooks to reflect pragmatic concerns such as policies on
classroom breaks, adds and drops, disruptive and dangerous students, emergency procedures including weapons and drugs
in the classroom, location of phones, etc. Keeping essential records is a component of this topic and is addressed in the
previous Read section.
A rule of thumb for faculty is to keep current on policies regarding student and faculty interactions as well as the role of your
teaching assistants, if you have one. Know your college and state policy on student conduct.
As a new faculty member, I was terrified that I would not know how to handle students who were older than I. I wanted very
much to hear "for instances" from other faculty. Serendipitously, our campus Staff Learning Department instituted an online
discussion forum where faculty could seek collective advice on issues of classroom management. Your campus may
use the services of the 4faculty discussion forums. If your campus doesnt utilize the 4faculty system, you might encourage
them to do so or ask if you might work with your Professional Development Office or Information Technology to establish this
valuable communication forum on your campus.
Some common conduct issues identified by Gerald Amada in his research for Coping With Misconduct in the College
Classroom (1999) are listed in the table below. In discussing what constitutes problematic classroom behaviors with
colleagues, I have decided to add to Dr. Amadas list. While his approach does not necessarily align with learner-centered
teaching, his work does cover many sticky issues of navigating the uncomfortable situations that occur from time to time and
suggests several strategies for working with student services and other administrators to remedy situations.

Issues / Solution Suggestions Table

Issue

Solution

1. Undermining the instructors

authority

This is tricky as it speaks to "attitude." A student might belittle the

instructor or engage in a battle of the wills. This student would need to be
privately told that their attitude was confrontational and asked how this
might be resolved mutually.
"Be careful not to read most questions about content, interpretation, or
assignments as a challenge of authority. Acting as it they are not, even
when you suspect they are, can convey a sense of confidence and
control. Sometimes merely assuring the student, while smiling, that you
have indeed reflected on this issue at length and that they too will
understand soon why the information or the assignment is valuable
diffuses the situation. You may even want to encourage them to ask the
question again at a later date if necessary."

2. Leaving class too frequently

Camps are divided as to whether or not students should ask for

permission to leave for bathroom breaks or wait for a break in the class. I
dont require my students to limit their bathroom breaks or ask
permission, however, this is contentious for some faculty when breaks are
taken too frequently. You might privately ask the student if everything is
OK so that they know that you are concerned by their behavior. Dont
assume disrespect it might be a bladder infection or some other
physical problem.

3. "Spacing Out" or Sitting With

Back to Instructor

If this is a repeated problem, students need to know that their non-verbal

behavior is perceived as disinterest. You might ask them after class if they
need a more comfortable seat. Some students are extremely shy and it
might take half of the semester before they open up enough to make
sustained eye contact or face the instructor completely. Remember also
that sustained eye contact is a culturally dictated practice that might not
be feasible for some students.

4. Poor hygiene (possible

cultural considerations)

Poor hygiene, too much perfume, cigarette odor or other strong odors can
be distracting or even nauseating to students. The cause for the odor
might be culturally based in bathing preferences between cultures. This
can be a real problem for some faculty while others will never encounter
the dilemma. I suggest letting the offending student know that in close
quarters, some students have issues with strong smell. It might be
suggested that for the course (not their outside of class lives) that the
odor be masked in some way.

5. Verbal or physical threats

Verbal or physical threats are serious matters. They are discussed in

detail by experts in the field in "Handling Crisis."
As a general rule consult professional experts for assistance immediately.

6. Gum, Food, Pagers, and Cell

Phone Disruption

If decided upon by class, consequences for breaking this policy might

range from the loss of participation points to the offender having to
present on a topic of interest to the class. Some instructors allow pagers
and cells to be on the vibrate setting as long as they are attended to at

the break rather than used when it interrupts the class. Instructors need to
abide by this rule as well and allow for at least one mistake per student as
accidents do happen from oversight. The idea here is to prevent habitual
disruption from gum popping and phones ringing.
7. Monopolizing Discussions

This is common but manageable. Many students are excited and talkative
so it might be good to give them a few class periods to settle in. However,
if its evident right away that this is a trend, its best to ask them to stay
after class. You might approach them initially by saying that you are
pleased with the amount of enthusiasm they have for discussion but were
hoping that they have suggestions for getting the other class members
equally involved. The student will most likely get your drift with minimal
humiliation.

8. Sleeping in class

Sleeping in class is usually considered rude. Most faculty believe it should

not be tolerated and is best curbed up front by waking a sleeping student
and asking them to step outside with you. Once there faculty often tell
students that its best for the rest of the class if they return when they are
awake enough to be an active participant. This occurs from time to time
and you obviously are the one to choose lenience or punitive action. If its
one of your more regularly involved students, perhaps give them an
option of an extra credit research assignment they can bring to your next
class period covering the subject matter they missed while they were
sleeping.
An alternative approach is to assume that the student does not feel well,
was up most of the night with a sick child, or has some other condition
that results in sleepiness when still for long periods of time. You might
simply choose to wake the student and ask them if they are feeling alright.
To pull this off you need to approach it with true concern for the student's
health and well being. Most of the time, student's are so embarrased and
so appreciative of your genuine concern that they don't let it happen
again.
Encourage students to actively participate, take notes (explain that this is
helpful to their learning as it stimulates memory in the brain) and in
particularly long classes break up the session with activities or paired
conversations about a topic to ensure that students stay engaged.
Students don't learn much from listening, so remember that the more they
"experience" the learning process the more you are really teaching.

9. Repeated Tardiness:

There should be clear parameters set around this issue up front either
in your syllabus or in the class decided norms. Stick to your guns on the
policy. Some fair policies might include 3 tardies equals one absence.
It might be best to discuss this with students individually; some are
habitually late because they are dependant on bus routes or other drivers
for transportation to school.

10. Refusal to Participate or

We cannot force students to speak in class nor participate in group

Speak

projects. This can be addressed and become a win-win situation by either

giving the student alternative options to verbal participation (unless its a
speech class) or simply carefully coaxing some response out of them and
praising whatever minimal effort you receive from them. Remember, some
students are terrified to be in a class setting especially if there are round
tables rather than desks allowing for little anonymity.

11. Sexual Innuendo, Flirting, or

Other Inappropriate Suggestion

This behavior should be curbed as soon as it occurs. Its never

comfortable to tell a student that they arent being appropriate and if you
are uncomfortable, a short, positive e-mail or phone call might suffice.
Your response should be not judgmental and you might discuss it with
your department chair or faculty mentor before broaching it with your
student.

12. Sharing/Copying Work

In some cultures, students work together to produce homework. It may

come as a shock to these students that they cannot submit identical work.
This may also come as a surprise to couples, parent-child, siblings, or
close friends. Be careful to give thought to how you will handle this before
you encounter it and react as if it were intentional cheating. This can also
occur when the class does a great deal of group work. Make sure you are
clear about what is individual vs. group work in your assignments.

13. Plagiarism or Lying

Depending upon the class and the students prior knowledge of what
plagiarism entails, some faculty issue an automatic F for the first instance,
then expulsion from the class with a report to the department chair and
division dean on a second instance. Most colleges have specific policies.
Be sure to know you college policy before taking action.
Plagiarism should be outlined in your syllabus with a reference for
students to the college catalog for more information.

14. Too Much Chit Chat

Give 2-minute chat times for groups or before class begins let them know
that you have material to be covered and that their talking isnt helping
you achieve your goals for the class. Know too that some students
occasionally translate a word or phrase to a tablemate who might not
have as strong an understanding of English, be patient and observant
when curbing this behavior.

15. Disrespectful Behavior

The reality is that sometimes students just plain wont like you. You will
find yourself in a conversation with yourself about why they dont like you
and treat you with disrespect. Animosity will perpetuate itself so
remember your role and look for a way to positively invite the student to
engage more deeply in the class. Perhaps offer them a special task
based on a self-disclosed talent; for instance, a student whose hobby is
Origami (Japanese paper folding) might lead a lesson on the art of
following instructions.

A few notes on confronting the behaviors listed above:

Avoid calling a student to the carpet publicly. This can be humiliating and break down respect and the sense of a safe
environment that students need in the classroom.
Start with a positive statement if possible: for example, if a student is monopolizing class discussion, you might start by
saying, "Im really pleased that you take such an interest in discussions and have a lot to share. But I was wondering if you
might have suggestions to help others get equally involved?"
Document incidents that you feel might continue or are egregious enough to warrant a paper trail. Keep in mind that your dean
will likely suggest you take a graduated approach: verbal warning, written warning, meeting with the dean, etc.
Remember that you were once a student. Think before you act. Take a deep breath if necessary before saying or doing
anything you might later regret.

Setting the Classroom Atmosphere

You may wish to revisit and reflect upon the importance of the first day of class. A successful first day and week often
contributes to a semester free of classroom management problems. Setting ground rules, as discussed in Module 4, can be
particularly helpful.
Managing Tempo and Time
If you have an early morning, after lunch, or after dinner class time, you might notice some problems with rhythm and
attentiveness. You might start these classes with brainteasers or wake up exercises that get students ready to focus. Being
aware of circadian rhythm might save you some frustration in getting used to timing issues with your class.
New instructors often become surprised by how even the best-laid lesson plans go awry. It is often the case that students will
lead the discussion off topic and the instructor, pleased to have such lively interaction, will not be able to bring the class
back on track. As mentioned in Making a Good First Impression, a handy practice is to have key phrases pre-planned to bring
class back to topic such as "time to come together now, please wrap it up in 2 minutes."
Some classrooms dont have clocks where faculty can see them, so as is practiced in Toastmasters (the professional
speaking organization) it might be useful to select a timekeeper whose function it is to notify you when discussion time is up
and transition is needed. I often write a reminder to the class not to let me get off track or talk past a certain time amount when
we have a good amount of material to be covered or group activities planned. With this reminder written on the board under
the daily agenda, students arent as hesitant to let me know that while they are fascinated by my words, I have exceeded a
self-imposed limit.
Taking this a bit further, the act of student input into the pacing of the class adds to a sense of empowerment and lessens the
sense that they are powerless to mood or whims of the instructor. Finally, if you have taken the advice to audio or video tape
your instruction but still find that you are prone to tangents, you might bring a kitchen timer with a soft bell to keep track of
time limits on lecturing or group projects. This is especially helpful with question and answer times following student
presentations. With limited time allotted to groups or individuals to present, a timer can serve to maintain the sense of
fairness.

Making a Connection Between Faculty and Students:

Students can feel disconnected and disoriented in a new class. Returning students might feel self-conscious about their age
and out of place returning to school while younger students might bring emotional remnants of negative high school
experiences with them to their first college classroom.

Breaking the ice is essential in establishing this connection. In Planning for the First Day of Class, you found solid advice
for the first day of class. Some ideas for lessening the tensions that might exist from lack of familiarity include:
Know your philosophy regarding education and tell your students what it is. This can be an enlightening experience for
them to realize that you consider your career to be deeper in meaning beyond merely collecting a paycheck.
Take digital photos (with permission) of the class to let them know that you value them and want know their names and
faces as soon as possible. Other options are name tents in on their desk, or practice as a group with name memory tricks.
Harry Lorraine is a memory expert whose video "Memory Power" teaches name and face recognition tricks. There is also
ample information available on the Internet for getting students names learned quickly.
Present a visual depiction of your life such as a Power Point that contains family photos, pictures of a pet, a mission
statement, examples of artwork, hobbies, short biographical sketch, etc. Allow students to ask questions within your comfort
zone. I have found this to be a useful introduction to technology in presentations as well as breaking down student-perceived
barriers. See Sample
Share an instance when you struggled as a student and how you dealt with it.
Share your memories of your best and your worst instructors when you were a student. Let them know that you are evolving
as an instructor and hope to develop into one that learns to meet students expectations.
Distribute a questionnaire. I usually distribute a single-page (confidentially and with a clear statement that the decision to
not answer the questions does not constitute lack of participation) for students e-mail address, phone number, age, number of
children, hobbies, favorite books, expectations about the class, favorite movies, music, number of hours worked, special
information that would help them succeed in the class, favorite subject in high school, plan of study, and more. Answers to the
questionnaire are later discussed with the class in terms of averages and areas of interest. Often students make connections
with each other when they hear commonalties.
Let the students know what you want them to call you. "Miss," "Mr.," "Mrs.," "Ms.," "First Name," "Professor," or "Dr." are
the choices most commonly agreed upon. Remember, some students will not feel comfortable being required to call you by
your first name based on cultural background or prior educational experience, so its recommended that they are not forced to
do so. Conversely, be aware that some students interpret the informality of being on a first name basis or the discovery of
commonalties as permission to try to bend boundaries or challenge standards. There is much to be gained from balancing
friendliness with expectations.
Announce your boundaries for communication. Be it e-mail or talking after class, let them know what you will and will not
accept. Tell students that you want to have outside of class communications but you need a certain amount of time for replies
and need courtesy in communication. For example, I give a separate e-mail address to my students than my home address
and let them know that they may not Spam me, add me to chain e-mail lists, send me unsolicited or unidentified attachments,
nor add me to their instant message buddy lists without prior permission. Additionally, let them know that you want to be
equitable in sharing your office hours with others students, so they might be asked to come to office hours with concrete
questions or concerns.
Walk your talk: give students a list of things and behaviors they can expect from you. If you agree to give assignments back
graded within one week, do so. Avoid contradicting yourself or appearing indecisive. Model the behaviors you expect of your
students.
Allow students to form a list of expectations they have for you, the instructor. This can serve to empower students as
well as provide a forum to discuss what their fears, concerns, expectations, and needs as students really are. This activity will
most likely aid in the classroom sense of fairness and serve to prevent later challenges to fairness and or documentation
issues by students.

Making Connections: Student-to-Student

Research into student retention suggests that students drop out of college most frequently citing lack of connection as
the key factor. With this in mind, it is good practice to pepper the first few classes of the term with connection building
activities. Having established a connection amongst peers, students will be more likely to contact each other outside of class
for support, ask each other for missed notes, feel safer to offer answers aloud during discussions, and ask for advice
regarding other academic and personal concerns. One of the most gratifying feelings as a new faculty was to witness my
students staying after class to chat informally.
Some suggestions for fostering student connectedness are:
Pair off or small groups of three in which students find answers to questions written on the board such as "where were you
born?," "why are you taking this class?," "what kind of car do you drive?," etc.
Scavenger hunts such as finding one person with 2 kids, one person who has a famous relative, one person who is born in
January, 2 people who have unusual pets, etc.
For more suggestions, you might consult with your staff development office for books on team building exercises or search the
Internet for "ice breaker" activities.

Helping Students Learn to Be College Students

Distributing this list of desirable and undesirable behaviors can serve to avert management issues in that some students
simply do not realize that their behavior is negative or disruptive to the instructor or to their classmates. The following table
identifies some common positive and negative behaviors that provide students with a guide for managing themselves as
students. You might wish to distribute this list to your class at the time you discuss your syllabus or set class norms as a
group. Feel free to modify this list as needed for your students.
Positive Impression Givers

Negative Impression Givers

Book on desk, pencil or pens ready

Picking face, nose, grooming, knuckle cracking, nail

filing or cleaning teeth

Note taking or recording the lecture/class with

permission from the instructor

Heavy sighs, eye rolling

Ask questions that are appropriate

Laughing AT the instructor rather than WITH the class

Make an effort to maintain eye contact

Leaving early without letting the instructor know

ahead of time

Sit where you can see and be attentive

Frequent tardiness or absences

Submit assignments on time, ask if there is

supplemental material you can explore to better
complete your assignments such as video titles or
other materials

Distracting noises: foot tapping, nail biting, pen

twirling/tapping, yawning w/o covering your mouth,
mumbling, zipping up bags to indicate you want the
class to end, paper tearing, paper toy making, etc.

Help your classmates whenever possible

Head on desk to indicate boredom

Make certain you understand assignments when

assigned

Staring at the clock or your watch

Save announcements about necessary absences for

before or after class

Skipping assignments and/or breaking assignment

policy, handing in shoddy, unstapled, ripped out
pages that show no care for the assignment

Refrain from doing other course work or paying bills in

class

Refer to sexual situations inappropriately in

assignments (unless its asked for in the assignment
such as a human sexuality class)

When using the Internet in class, stay on task rather

than surfing for fun

Frequently forget text and notebook

Give the instructor the respect you wish to be treated

with

Attempt to be class clown inappropriately; a joke here

and there is fine, but repetitious clowning is
distracting

Dont interrupt, belittle, or put down fellow students

Squinting or face making to show disapproval

Keeping an open mind when issues arise you

disagree with. Disagreeing with dignity.

Note passing or hand signals to others

Make certain you pay your fees for enrollment and get
your text on the first day of class

Interrupting the instructor to ask what you missed

when you were absent or if you missed anything
"important"

Be positive with expectations of success in the course

Acting as if the class or topic of discussion is

irrelevant or stupid if you really feel so, drop the
class

Know the instructors name and call them only what

they prefer to be called ask if necessary

Leaving your belongings where they inconvenience

others

Spell the class, instructor, and assignment name

correctly on all submitted work

Tipping in your chair

Methods and Techniques for Use in Small and Large Group

Teaching
Provided below are a selection of common flexible methods one may use in both large and small group
teaching. Basic guidelines are provided to demonstrate how each may work in a given situation, like all such
methods they are open to adaption and interpretation to suit your individual needs.
The following have been adapted from Brown (1997).

Silent Reflection
This is where you give students a few minutes to think about a problem or issue. Ask them to write down
their thoughts or ideas on a note pad. Keep the task specific. For example, ask them to write down the three
most important, or positive, or expensive etc. aspects of an issue. It is often useful to ask them to write on
post-its and then post them on, say, a notice board or the wall. Alternatively, ask them to share their ideas
with their neighbour before moving into a discussion phase. This technique suits quieter students and ensures
that everyone has the opportunity to provide feedback.

Rounds
Where groups are not too large (20 or so) go around everyone in the group and ask them to respond. People
often use rounds as icebreakers or as part of the winding-up of a session. Try not to make the round too
daunting by giving students guidance on what is expected of them. Keep it short. For example try and avoid
questions like "I want everyone to give their name and then identify one aspect of the course that they know
nothing about but are looking forward to learning about". In big rounds, students can be quite nervous, so
make it clear that it's OK to pass and if people at the beginning have made your point, that concurrence is
sufficient.

Three Minutes Each Way

Ask students in pairs to speak for three minutes on a given topic.
Be strict with timekeeping. Your students might find this quite difficult at first, but it is an excellent way of
getting students to articulate their ideas, and also means that the quieter students are given opportunities to
speak and be heard. The art of listening without interrupting (other than with brief prompts to get the speaker
back on target if they wander off the topic) is one that many students will need to foster. This pair-work can
then feed into other activities.

Buzz Groups
Give pairs, threes, fours or fives small timed tasks which involve them talking to each other, creating a
hubbub of noise as they work. Their outcomes can then be shared with the whole group through feedback, on
a flip chart sheet poster, on an overhead projector transparency or otherwise as appropriate.

Brainstorms
This can be a valuable way of stimulating creative free-thinking and is particularly useful when looking for a
solution to a problem or in generating diverse ideas. Start with a question like "How can we..?" or "What do
we know about ... ?" and encourage the group to call out ideas as fast as you can write them up (perhaps use
two scribes on separate boards if the brainstorm flows well). Make it clear that this is supposed to be an
exploratory process, establish some ground-rules in advance for example:

A large quantity of ideas is desirable, so everyone should be encouraged to contribute at whatever

level they feel comfortable.
Quick snappy responses are more valuable at this stage than long, complex, drawn-out sentences.
Ideas should be noted without comment, either positive or negative - no one should say "That
wouldn't work because." or "That's the best idea we've heard yet" while the brainstorm is in progress as
this might make people feel foolish about their contributions.
Participants should 'piggyback' on each other's ideas if they set off a train of thought, 'logic circuits'
should be disengaged, allowing for a freewheeling approach.

The ideas thus generated can then be used as a basis for either a further problem-solving task or a tutor
exposition.

Syndicates
This is the term used to describe activities undertaken by groups of students working to a brief under their
own direction. They can be asked to undertake internet or literature searches, debate an issue, explore a
piece of text, prepare an argument, design an artefact or many other tasks. To achieve productively, they will
need an explicit brief, appropriate resources and clear outcomes.
Specialist accommodation is not always necessary; syndicates can work in groups spread out in a large room,
or, where facilities permit, go away and use other classrooms etc. If the task is substantial, the tutor may
wish to move from group to group, or may be available on a 'help desk' at a central location. Outcomes may
be in the form of assessed work from the group or produced at a plenary as described above.

Snowballing (Also Known As Pyramiding)

Start by giving students an individual task of a fairly simple nature such as listing features, noting questions,
identifying problems, summarising the main points of their last lecture. Then ask them to work in pairs on a
slightly more complex task, such as prioritising issues or suggesting strategies. Thirdly, ask then to come
together in larger groups, fours or sixes for example and undertake a task involving, perhaps, synthesis,
assimilation or evaluation. Ask them to draw up guidelines, perhaps, or produce an action plan or to assess
the impact of a particular course of action. They can then feed back to the whole group if required. You may
also wish to try reverse pyramiding!

Fishbowls
Ask for a small group of up to half a dozen or so volunteers to sit in the middle of a larger circle comprising
the rest of the group. Give them a task to undertake that involves discussion, with the group around the
outside acting as observers. Make the task you give the inner circle sufficiently simple in the first instance to
give them the confidence to get started. This can be enhanced once students have had practice and become
more confident.
This method can be useful for managing students who are dominating a group, because it gives them
permission to be the centre of attention for a period of time. After a suitable interval, you can ask others from
the outer circle to replace them, thus giving the less vocal ones the opportunity for undisturbed air-time.
Fishbowls can also be useful ways of getting representatives from buzz groups to feed back to the whole
group.
Some students will find it difficult to be the focus of all eyes and ears, so it may be necessary to avoid
coercing anyone to take centre stage (although gentle prompting can be valuable). A 'tag wrestling' version
can also be used, with those in the outer circle who want to join in gently tapping on the shoulder of someone

in the middle they want to replace and taking over their chair and chance of talking. Alternatively it can be
very effective to give the observers in the outer group a specific task to ensure active listening. For example,
ask them to determine the three key issues or conclusions identified by the inner group. It is then possible to
swap the groups round and ask the new inner group to evaluate the conclusions identified by the first group.
Fishbowls can work well with quite large groups too.

Crossovers
Often we want to mix students up in a systematic way so they work in small groups of different compositions.
You can use crossovers with large groups of students, but the following example shows how this method
would work with twenty-seven students.
Prepare as many pieces of paper as you have students, marking on them A1, A2, A3, B1, B2, B3 and so on
(this combination is for creating triads - groups of three). If you want to create groups of four students add
A4, B4 etc. (You can do this as a header on handouts.)
When you are ready to have the students go into smaller groups, get them to group themselves with students
who have the same letter as themselves: AAA, BBB, CCC and so on for one group exercise. For a second
exercise, ask the students to work with people who have the same number as themselves: 111, 222, 333. A
third exercise will have students in triads where none of the students can have a matching letter or number:
e.g. A1, D2 F3. This will allow you to get students to crossover within groups, so they work with different
people on each task in a structured way. This technique also cuts down on the need to get a lot of feedback
from the groups because each individual will act as rapporteur on the outcomes of their previous task in the
last configuration. As with snowballing or pyramids, you can make the task at each stage slightly more
difficult and ask for a product from the final configuration if desired. Crossovers are useful in making sure
everyone in the group is active and also help to mix students outside their normal friendship, ethnic or gender
groups.
It takes a little forethought to get the numbers right for the cohort you are working with (for example, you
can use initial configurations of four rather than three, so that in stage two they will work as fours rather than
triads). If you have one person left over, you can just pair them with one other person and ask them to
shadow that person wherever they go.

Syllabus Design
Syllabus:
A syllabus is an expression of opinion on the nature of language and learning; it acts as a guide for both teacher
and learner by providing some goals to be attained. Hutchinson and Waters (1987:80) define syllabus as follows:

At its simplest level a syllabus can be described as a statement of what is to be learnt. It reflects
language and linguistic performance.

This is a rather traditional interpretation of syllabus focusing on outcomes rather than process. However, a syllabus can
also be seen as a "summary of the content to which learners will be exposed" (Yalden.1987). It is seen as an
approximation of what will be taught and that it cannot accurately predict what will be learnt
A language teaching syllabus involves the integration of subject matter and linguistic matter.

Difference between Syllabus and Curriculum

Curriculum is wider term as compared with syllabus. Curriculum covers all the activities and arrangements made
by the institution through out the academic year to facilitate the learners and the instructors. Where as Syllabus is limited
to particular subject of a particular class.

Syllabus Design
To design a syllabus is to decide what gets taught and in what order. For this reason, the theory of
language underlying the language teaching method will play a major role in determining what syllabus should be adopted.
Theory of learning also plays an important part in determining the kind of syllabus used. For example, a syllabus based on
the theory of learning evolved by cognitive code teaching would emphasize language forms and whatever explicit
descriptive knowledge about those forms. A syllabus based on an acquisition theory of learning, however, would
emphasize unanalyzed and carefully selected experiences of the new language.
The choice of a syllabus is a major decision in language teaching, and it should be made as consciously and with
as much information as possible. There has been much confusion over the years as to what different types of
content are possible in language teaching syllabi and as to whether the differences are in syllabus or
method. Several distinct types of language teaching syllabi exist, and these different types may be implemented in
various teaching situations.

TYPES OF SYLLABI
Although six different types of language teaching syllabi are treated here as though each occurred "purely," but in
practice, these types rarely occur independently. Almost all actual language teaching syllabi are combinations of
two or more of the types defined here. For a given course, one type of syllabus usually dominates, while other types
of content may be combined with it. Furthermore, the six types of syllabi are not entirely distinct from each other. For
example, the distinction between skill-based and task-based syllabi may be minimal. In such cases, the distinguishing
factor is often the way in which the instructional content is used in the actual teaching procedure. The characteristics,
differences, strengths, and weaknesses of individual syllabi are defined as follows:

1:- Product-Oriented Syllabus

This kind of syllabuses emphasizes the product of language learning and is prone to approval from an authority.
There are three types of syllabus described in the following:

(i) The Structural Syllabus

Historically, the most prevalent of syllabus type is perhaps the structural or grammatical syllabus in which the
selection and grading of the content is based on the complexity and simplicity of grammatical items. The learner is
expected to master each structural step and add it to her grammar collection. As such the focus is on the outcomes or the
product.
One problem facing the syllabus designer pursuing a grammatical order to sequencing input is that the ties
connecting the structural items may be rather weak. A more fundamental criticism is that the grammatical syllabus
focuses on only one aspect of language, namely grammar, whereas in truth there exist many more aspects of language.
Finally, recent research suggests there is a disagreement between the grammar of the spoken and of the written language;
raising complications for the grading of content in grammar based syllabuses.

(ii) The Situational Syllabus

The limitations found in structural approach led to an alternative approach where situational needs are
emphasized rather than grammatical units. Here, the principal organizing characteristic is a list of situations which reflects
the way language is used in everyday life i.e. outside the classroom. Thus, by linking structural theory to situations the
learner is able to grasp the meaning in relevant context.
One advantage of the situational Syllabus is that motivation will be heightened since it is "learner- rather than
subject-centered" (Wilkins.1976). However, a situational syllabus will be limited for students whose needs were not
encompassed by the situations in the syllabus. This dissatisfaction led Wilkins to describe notional and communicative
categories which had a significant impact on syllabus design.

(iii) The Notional/Functional Syllabus

Wilkins' criticism of structural and situational approaches lies in the fact that they answer only the 'how' or 'when'
and 'where' of language use (Brumfit and Johnson. 1979:84). Instead, he enquires "what it is they communicate through
language" Thus, the starting point for a syllabus is the communicative purpose and conceptual meaning of language i.e.
notions and functions, as opposed to only the grammatical items and situational elements.
In order to establish objectives of such a syllabus, the needs of the learners will have to be analyzed on the base of
communication need. Consequently, needs analysis has an association with notional/functional syllabuses. White
(1988:77) claims that "language functions do not usually occur in isolation" and there are also difficulties of selecting and
grading function and form.
The above approaches belong to the product-oriented category of syllabuses. An alternative path to

Syllabus Design would be to adopt process oriented principles, which assume that language can be learnt
experientially as opposed to the step-by-step procedure of the synthetic approach.

2:- Process-Oriented Syllabuses

Process-Oriented Syllabuses are developed as a result of a sense of failure in product-oriented courses to enhance
communicative language skills. Syllabus is a process rather than a product. That is, focus is not on what the
student will have accomplished on completion of the program, but on the specification of learning tasks and activities that
s/he will undertake during the course.

(i)Procedural/Task-Based Syllabus

Prabhu's (1979) 'Bangalore Project' is a classic example of a procedural syllabus. Here, the question concerning
'what' becomes subordinate to the question concerning 'how'. The focus shifts from the linguistic element to the
educational, with an emphasis on learning or learner. Within such a framework the selection, ordering and grading of
content is no longer wholly significant for the syllabus designer. Arranging the Syllabus around tasks such as
information- and opinion-gap activities, it was hoped that the learner would perceive the language
subconsciously whilst consciously concentrating on solving the meaning behind the tasks. There appears to be
an indistinct boundary between this approach and that of language teaching methodology.
A task-based syllabus assumes that speaking a language is a skill best perfected through practice and
interaction, and uses tasks and activities to encourage learners to use the language communicatively in order to achieve a
purpose. Tasks must be relevant to the real world language needs of the student. That is, the underlying learning theory of
task based and communicative language teaching seems to suggest that activities in which language is employed to
complete meaningful tasks, enhances learning.

(ii)Learner-Led Syllabus
The notion of basing a syllabus on how learners learn language was proposed by Breen and Candlin (1984). Here
the emphasis lies on the learner, who it is hoped will be involved in the implementation of the syllabus design. By being
fully aware of the course they are studying, it is believed that their interest and motivation will increase, coupled with the
positive effect of nurturing the skills required to learn.
However, as suggested earlier, a predetermined syllabus provides support and guidance for the teacher and
should not be so easily dismissed. Critics have suggested that a learner-led syllabus seems radical and utopian in that it
will be difficult to follow as the direction of the syllabus will be largely the responsibility of the learners.
This leads to the final syllabus design to be examined ; the proportional syllabus as suggested by
Yalden (1987).

(iii)The Proportional Syllabus

The proportional syllabus basically attempts to develop an "overall competence. It consists of a number of
elements within the main theme playing a linking role through the units. This theme is designated by the learners. It is
expected initially that form will be of central value, but later, the focus will turn towards interactional components. The
syllabus is designed to be dynamic, not static, with sufficient opportunity for feedback and flexibility.
The shift from form to interaction can occur at any time and is not limited to a particular stratum of learners. As
Yalden observes, it is important for a syllabus to indicate explicitly what will be taught, "not what will be learned". This
practical approach with its focus on flexibility and spiral method of language sequencing leading to the recycling of
language, seems relevant for learners who lack exposure to the target language beyond the classroom.

Practical Guidelines to Syllabus Choice and Design

It is clear that no single type of content is appropriate for all teaching settings, and the needs and conditions of
each setting are so particular that specific recommendations for combination are not possible. However, a set of
guidelines for the process is provided below.

Steps in preparing a practical language teaching Syllabus Choice:

1. Determine, to the extent possible, what outcomes are desired for the students in the instructional program i.e. what the
students should be able to do as a result of the instruction.

2. Rank the syllabus types presented here as to their likelihood of leading to the outcomes desired. Arrange the six types
with preference you going to give to each type.
3. Evaluate available resources for teaching, needs analysis, materials choice and production and in training for teachers.
4. Rank the syllabi relative to available resources. That is, determine what syllabus types would be the easiest to
implement within available resources.
5. Compare the lists made under Nos. 2 and 4. Making as few adjustments to the earlier list as possible, produce a new list
of ranking based on the availability of resources.
6. Designate one or two syllabus types as dominant and one or two as secondary.
7. Review the question of combination or integration of syllabus types and determine how combinations will be achieved
and in what proportion.
In making practical decisions about syllabus design, one must take into consideration all the possible
factors that might affect the teachability of a particular syllabus. By starting with an examination of each syllabus
type, tailoring the choice and integration of the different types according to local needs, one may find a principled and
practical solution to the problem of appropriateness and effectiveness in syllabus design.

Suggested Steps for Planning Syllabus:

Develop a well-grounded rationale for your course.

Decide what you want students to be able to do as a result of taking your course, and how their work will be
appropriately assessed.

Define and delimit course content.

Structure your students active involvement in learning.

Identify and develop resources.

Compose your syllabus with a focus on student learning.

Suggested Principles for Designing a Syllabus that Fosters Critical Thinking:

Critical thinking is a learnable skill; the instructor and class fellows are resources in developing critical thinking
skills.

Problems, questions, or issues are the point of entry into the subject and a source of motivation for nonstop
inquiry.

Successful courses balance the challenge to think critically with supporting studentsdevelopmental needs.

Courses should be assignment centered rather than text and lecture centered. Goals, methods and evaluation
emphasize using content rather than simply acquiring it.

Students are required to formulate their ideas in writing or other appropriate means.

Students should collaborate to learn and to stretch their thinking, for example, in pair problem solving and small
group work.

Courses that teach problem-solving skills nurture students metacognitive abilities.

The developmental needs of students are acknowledged and used as information in the design of the course.
Teachers in these courses make standards explicit and then help students learn how to achieve them.

Syllabus Functions:

Establishes an early point of contact and connection between student and instructor

Describes your beliefs about educational purposes

Acquaints students with the logistics of the syllabus

Contains collected handouts

Defines student responsibilities for successful course work

Describes active learning

Helps students to assess their readiness for your syllabus

Sets the course in a broader context for learning

Provides a conceptual framework

Describes available learning resources

Communicates the role of technology in the course

Can improve the effectiveness of student note-taking

Can include material that supports learning outside the classroom

Can serve as a learning contract

Checklist Syllabus Design:

Title Page

Table of Contents

Instructor Information

Letter to the Student

Purpose of the Course

Course Description

Course and Unit Objectives

Resources

Readings

Course Calendar

Course Requirements

Evaluation

Grading Procedures

How to Use the Syllabus

How to Study for This Course

Content Information

Learning Tools

Course Objectives:

What will the students know and be able to do as a result of having taken this course?

What levels of cognitive thinking are required from students to engage in?

What

Instructional Approaches:

Given the kind of learning I'd like to encourage and foster, what kinds of instructional interactions need to occur?
Teacher-student, student-student, student-peer tutor?

What kinds of instructional approaches are most conducive to helping students accomplish set learning objectives?

learning

skills

will

the

students

develop

in

the

course?

How will classroom interactions be facilitated? In-class? Out-of-class? Online? Electronic discussion? Newsgroups?
Chatroom?
Course Requirements, Assignments:

What will students be expected to do in the course?

What kinds of assignments, tests do most appropriately reflect the course objectives?

Do
assignments
and
tests
bring
forth
the
kind
of
learning
I
want
to
foster?
Assignments (frequency, timing, sequence)? Tests? Quizzes? Exams? Papers? Special projects? Laboratories? Field
trips? Learning logs? Journals? Oral presentations? Research on the web? Web publishing? Electronic databases?

What kinds of skills do the students need to have in order to be successful in the course?
Computer literacy? Research skills? Writing skills? Communication skills? Conflict resolution skills? Familiarity with
software?
Course Policies:

What is expected of the student? Attendance? Participation? Student responsibility in their learning? Contribution
to group work? Missed assignments? Late work? Extra credit? Academic dishonesty? Makeup policy? Classroom
management issues? Laboratory safety?
Grading, Evaluation:

How will the students' work be graded and evaluated?

Proportion of each test toward final grade? Grading scale?

How is the final grade determined? Drop lowest grade?

How
do
students
receive
timely
feedback
on
their
performance?
Instructor? Self-assessment? Peer review? Peer tutors? Opportunities for improvement? Ungraded assignments?

Number of tests? In-class? Take-home? Point value?

Texts/Resources/Readings/Supplies:

What kinds of materials will be used during the course? Electronic databases? Electronic Course Reserve? Course
Webpage? Software? Simulations? Laboratory equipment?

What kinds of instructional technologies will be used?

Course Calendar:

In what sequence will the content be taught? When are major assignments due? Fieldtrips? Guestspeaker?
Schedule
for
Term
Examination?
Result?
Vacations?

Study Tips/Learning Resources:

How will the student be most successful in the course?

What resources are available? Online quiz generator? Study guides? Lecture notes online? Lecture notes on
reserve in library? Guestspeaker to explain/demonstrate online resources? TA? Peer tutors? Study groups?
Academic Services Center? Writing Center? Evaluation of online resources? Citation of web resources?
Student Feedback on Instruction:

Anonymous suggestion box on the web and E-mail.

Student feedback at midterm for instructional improvement purposes.

End-of-term student feedback. Supplement to departmental student feedback form.