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AncientIndia'sContributionto
PHYSICSANDCHEMISTRY
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AncientIndiantheorieslackedanempiricalbase,
buttheywerebrilliantimaginativeexplanations
ofthephysicalstructureoftheworld,andinalargemeasure,
agreedwiththediscoveriesofmodernphysics.
A.L.Basham,
AustralianIndologist
_______________________________________________
Coinagedatingfromthe8thCenturyB.C.
tothe17thCenturyA.D.
Numismaticevidenceoftheadvances
madebySmeltingtechnologyinancientIndia

ItwouldbesurprisingformanyIndianstodaytoknowthattheconceptsofatom(Ann,
Parmanu)andrelativity(Sapekshavada)wereexplicitlystatedbyanIndianphilosophernearly
600yearsbeforethebrithofChrist.Theseideaswhichwereoffundamentalimporthadbeen
developedinIndiainaveryabstractmanner.Thiswassoastheirexponentswerenotphysicians
intoday'ssenseoftheterm.Theywerephilosophersandtheirideasaboutthephysicalreality
wereintegratedwiththoseofphilosophyandtheology.
TheFiveBasicPhysicalElements
FromtheVedictimes,around3000B.C.to1000B.C.,Indians(IndoAryans)hadclassifiedthematerial
worldintofourelementsviz.Earth(Prithvi),fire(Agni),air(Maya)andwater(Apa).Tothesefour
elementswasaddedafifthoneviz.etherorAkasha.Accordingtosomescholarsthesefiveelementsor
PanchaMahabhootaswereidentifiedwiththevarioushumansensesofperceptionearthwithsmell,air
withfeeling,firewithvision,waterwithtasteandetherwithsound.Whateverthevaliditybehindthis
interpretation,itistruethatsinceveryancienttimesIndianshadperceivedthematerialworldas
comprisingthese5elements.TheBuddhistphilosopherswhocamelater,rejectedetherasanelementand
replaceditwithlife,joyandsorrow.
INDIANIDEASABOUTATOMICPHYSICS
SinceancienttimesIndianphilosophersbelievedthatexceptAkash(ether),allotherelementswere
physicallypalpableandhencecomprisedminisculeparticlesofmatter.Thelastminisculeparticleof
matterwhichcouldnotbesubdividedfurtherwastermedParmanu.ThewordParmanuisacombination
ofParam,meaningbeyond,andanymeaningatom.ThusthetermParmanuissuggestiveofthe
possibilitythat,atleastatanabstractlevelIndianphilosophersinancienttimeshadconceivedthe
possibilityofsplittinganatomwhich,asweknowtoday,isthesourceofatomicenergy.ThisIndian
conceptoftheatomwasdevelopedindependentlyandpriortothedevelopmentoftheideaintheGreco
Romanworld.ThefirstIndianphilosopherwhoformulatedideasabouttheatominasystematicmanner
wasKanadawholivedinthe6thcenturyB.C.AnotherIndianphilosopher,PakudhaKatyayanawhoalso

livedinthe6thcenturyB.C.andwasacontemporaryofGautamaBuddha,hadalsopropoundedideas
abouttheatomicconstitutionofthematerialworld.
ThesephilosophersconsideredtheAtomtobeindestructibleandhenceeternal.TheBuddhistsbelieved
atomstobeminuteobjectsinvisibletothenakedeyeandwhichcomeintobeingandvanishinaninstant.
TheVaisheshikaschoolofphilosophersbelievedthatanatomwasamerepointinspace.Indiantheories
abouttheatomaregreatlyabstractandenmeshedinphilosophyastheywerebasedonlogicandnoton
personalexperienceorexperimentation.ThustheIndiantheorieslackedanempiricalbase,butinthe
wordsofA.L.Basham,theveteranAustralianIndologist"theywerebrilliantimaginativeexplanationsof
thephysicalstructureoftheworld,andinalargemeasure,agreedwiththediscoveriesofmodern
physics."
TheStoryofKanada
Theschoolofphilosophywhichcontributedtothedevelopmentofideasabouttheatomwasthe
Vaisheshikaschool.AbrilliantphilosopherbythenameKashyapa(latercalledKanada)iscreditedwith
havingpropoundedtheconceptofatomforthefirsttime.Accordingtolegend,Kashyapalivedinthe6th
centuryB.C.HewasthesonofaphilosophernamedUlka.FromhischilddaysKashyapadisplayeda
keensensecservation.Minutethingsattractedhisattention.Thestorygoesthatoncewhenyoungboyhe
hadaccompaniedhisfathapilgrimagetoPrayaga,henoticedthatthousandsofpilgrimswhowere
flockingthetownlittereditsroadswithflowersgrainsofricewhichtheyofferedatthetmplesbythe
riverGanges.Whileeverybodyelsewasbusyofferingprayers,orbathingtheGanges,theyoung
Kashyapastartedcollectingthegrains(Kana)ofricethatlitteredthestreets.
Lookingatthisstrangebehaviourcomingfromaboywhoseeminglybelongedtodofamily,manyofthe
passersbycuriousandstartedwonderingwhohecouldbeandwhywasheactinginstrangemanner.
SoonacrowdcollectedaroundtheyoungKashyapawhocontinuedcollectingthegrains,obliviousofthe
attentionhewasattracting.PassingbythatwasMuniSomasharmaalearnedSage,wonderedwhythe
crowdhadgatheredtimewheneverybodyshouldhavebeenthebathingghatsforthemorning'sritual
bath.Ongoingnearhesawforhimselfreasonandheardthederogatoryremarksbeingmadeaboutthe
youngKashyapa.MuniSomasharmaknewwhoKashyapawas,hesilencedthecrowdandsaidthat,knew
whotheboywas.
BeinghimselfcurioustoknowthereasonforKashyapa'sstrangebehaviour,Somasharmaaskedhimwhy
hewascountingdiscardedgrainswhichevenabeggarwouldnotcaretocollect.Somewhathurtat
question,Kashyaparepliedthathowsoeverminisculeanobjectmightbe,itneverthelesswasapartofthe
universe.Individualgrainsinthemselvesmayseemworthless,butacollectionofsomehundredgrains
makeupaperson'smeal,thecollectionmanymealswouldfeedanentirefamilyandultimatelytheentire
mankindwasmadeofmanyfamilies,thusevenasinglegrainofricewasasimportantasallthevaluable
richesinthisworld.
ThisreplyoftheyoungKashyapadeeplyimpressedMuniSomasharmawhosaidthatonedayKashyapa
wouldgrowintoacelebratedphilosopherandsaidthatinrecognitionofKayshapa'sunusualsenseof
perceivingminisculeobjectshewouldhenceforthbeKanada,fromKanawhichmeansagrain.
ThiswashowKashyapacametoacquiretheKanada,whichwasmadeimmortalinhistoryofIndian
scienceduetothepathbreakingconceptionofatomandrelativitywhichKanadawastoputforth.He
propoundedtheVaisheshikaSutra(PeculiarityAphorisms).TheseSutraswereaofscienceand
philosophy.Theirsubjectwastheatomictheoryofmatter.OnreadingtheseSutraswefindthatKanada's
atomictheorywasfarmoreadvancedthanformulatedlaterbytheGreekphilosophers,Democritusand
Leucippus.
AnuandParmanu
ItwasKanadawhofirstpropoundedthethattheParmanu(atom)wasanindestrutibleparticleofmatter.
AccordingtothematerialuniverseismadeupofKana.Whenmatterisdividedandsudivided,wereacha
stagebeyondwhichnodivisionispossible,theundivisibleelementofmatterisParmanu.Kanada
explainedthatthisindivisible,indestructibleycannotbesensedthroughanyhumanorgan.
InsayingthattherearedifferenttypesofParmanuforthefivePanchaMahabhootas,Earth,water,fire,air
andether.EachParmanuhasapeculiarpropertywhichdepends,onthesubstancetowhichitbelongs.It
wasbecauseofthisconceptionofpeculiarityofParmanu(atoms)thatthistheoryundedbyKanadacame
tobeknownVaisheshikaSutra(PeculiarityAphorisms).InthiscontextKanadaseemstoarrivedat
conclusionswhichweresurpassedonlymanycenturiesafterhim.

AccordingtoKanada,anobjectappearstobeheavyunderwaterthanitdoesinairbecausethedensityof
atomsinwaterismorethaninair.Theadditionaldensityof,inwater,Kanadasaid,takesonpartofthe
weightofanobject,hencewefeelonlyapartofitstotalweight,whileinair,thelesserdensityofatoms
resultsinalesserpartofanobject'sweightbeingpickedbyair,hencewefeeltheobjecttobeheavierin
airthanwhatiswaswhenunderthewater.Insayingthis,inaveryelementarybutimportantway,Kanada
foreshadowedArchimedes'theorythatabodyimmersedinafluidissubjecttoanupwardforceequalin
magnitudetotheweightofthefluiditdisplaces.Kanada'sideaalsohadshadesofrelativityinitwhich
waspropoundedbyEinstieninourtimes.
Abouthisideasonatom,KanadaobservedthataninherenturgemadeoneParmanucombinewith
another.WhentwoParmanubelongingtooneclassofsubstancecombined,adwinuka(binarymolecule)
wastheresult.ThisdwinukahadpropertiessimilartothetwoparentParmanu.Inthematerialuniverse,
accordingtohim,Parmanubelongingtodifferentclassesofsubstancescombineindifferent
combinationsgivingusavarietyofdwinuka,whichinotherwordsmeansdifferenttypesofsubstances.
ApartfromsuchcombinationofdifferentParmanu,Kanadaalsoputforththeideaofchemicalchanges
occuringbecauseofvariousfactors.Heclaimedthatvariationintemperaturecouldbringaboutsuch
changes.
Hecitedtheexamplesofblackeningofanewearthenpotandtheripeningoffruittoillustratethe
chemicalchangeinsubstancesbroughtaboutbytheheat.ThusaccordingtoKanadaallsubstances,all
matterthatexistedintheuniversewasformedofParmanu(atoms).Thevariationsinthematterreflected
thepeculiarityoftheParmanuwhichconstitutedthatparticularmatter,thevarietyofcombinations
betweendifferenttypesofParmanuandtheeffectonthemofvariationintemperature.

Tableof
Contents

TheseIndianideasaboutatomandatomicphysicscouldhavebeentransmittedtothewestduringthe
contactscreatedbetweenIndiaandthewestbytheinvasionofAlexander.TheGreeksinvadednorth
westernIndiainaround330BC.AlongwithAlexander,cameGreekphilosopherslikeAristotlewhois
reportedtohavebeenAlexander'smentor.ScholarslikeAristotlewouldsurelyhavekeenlystudiedthe
sciencesofthelandswhichtheGreekarmiesoverran.EvenafterAlexander'sdeparture,massivetrade
anddiplomaticrelationsexistedbetweenIndiansandGreeks(whohadsettledinAsia)Thiswayperhaps,
Indianideascouldhavetravelledwestwardswheretheyweredevelopedfurther.

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Home
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Introduction
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Chapter1:

ThisimageofNataraja
theGodofDanceismadeof
fivemetals(PanchaDhatu)
Thistechnologyofmixing
twoormoremetalsandderivingsuperioralloys
hasbeenobservedandnotedby
theGreekHistorianPhilostratus.

Production
Technology
and
Mechanical
Engineering SomescholarsevengototheextentofsayingthatinKanada'slifetimeitselfsomeGreekscholarshad
visitedIndiaandthroughadebatewiththegreatphilosopherhadbeenexposedtoIndianideasabout
_________ atom.thepossibilityofsuchameetingisremoteasKanadalivedinthe6thcenturyB.C.andtheGreeks
cameintoIndiaonlyinthe4thcenturyB.C.ButneverthelessitremainsafactthatIndianideasabout
Chapter2
atomaretheoldest.Itisonlyafterthe4thcenturyB.C.,aftertheGreekshadcomeincontactwithIndia
dowefindreferencestotheideaofanatominGreekscience.ThusitisquitepossiblethattheGreeks
Shipbuilding borrowedtheideasaboutatomfromIndianphilosophersinthe4thcenturyB.C.Butthecreditof
and
developingtheseideasfurther,goestotheGreeksandotherwesternphilosophers.
Navigation
ORGANICANDINORGANICCHEMISTRY
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Paralleltothedevelopmentoftheconceptsofatomandatomicpermutationsandcombinationsinphysics
Chapter3
therealsowasasimilardevelopmentofideasintheareaofChemistry.Howevergiventhenatureof
chemistry,theideasdidnotremainconfinedtoanabstractlevel.Indianideasaboutchemistrygrewby
Architecture experimentation.Theareasofapplicationoftheprincipleofchemistrywere:thesmeltingofmetals,the
andCivil
Engineering

_________ distillationofperfumesandfragrantointments,themakingofdyesandpigments,theextractionofsugar,
etc.
Chapter4
Mathematics
_________
Chapter5
Thisexquisitemirrorwork
isinlaidonabaseofgoldand
brass.
Thisdatesbacktothe12th
century.

Astronomy
_________
Youare
currently
viewing
Chapter6
onPhysics
_________
Chapter7
Medical
Science

Incidentally,theempiricalnatureofchemistryisalsoreflectedinthewordweuseforsubstancesi.e.
PadarthawhichisacombinationoftwowordsPadameaning'step'andArthawhichitselfmeans
'meaning'.ThusthewordPadarthacanbeliterally*translatedtomean'meaninginsteps'.Perhaps,this
reflectsthefactthatinchemistry,knowledgewasacquiredstepbystepthroughexperimentationandthe
actualprocessofdaytodayactivities.

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InancientIndia,chemistrywascaledRasayanShastra,RasaVidya,RasatantraandRasakriyaallof
whichroughlymean'Scienceofliquids'.Therealsoexistedchemicallaboratoriesandchemicalsworks,
whichwerecalledRasakriyanagaramandRasakriyashalawhichliterallymean'Schoolwhereliquids
FineArts
areactivated'.AchemistwasreferredtoasaRasadnyaandRasatantravidwhichmean'Personhaving
knowledgeaboutliquids.ApartfromthetermRasawhichmeansliquid,anotherword,Dravyawhich
_________ meansslurry,wasalsousedtorefertochemicals.Thus,inancientIndia,chemistrywasevidently
developedtoasignificantlevel.
Chapter9
Metallurgywasanimportantactivitytheworldover.Infactthediscoveryofsmeltingofmetalsmade
Sportsand possibletheprogressofsocietyfromtheStoneAgetotheBronzeandIronAges.Intheareaofsmelting
Games
metals,Indianshadacquiredproficiencyintheextractionofmetalsfromore,andalsointhecastingof
metals.Inveryearlytimes:around2000B.C.theideaofsmeltingmetalswasknowninMesopotemia
_________ andtheNearEast.ItispossiblethatIndianscouldhaveborrowedtheideafromanoutsidesource.Itis
generallyagreedthattheAryantribeswhoaresaidtohavedestroyedtheIndusValleycivilizationhad
Chapter10 bronzeweaponswhichhelpedthemtoovercometheotherwisemoreadvancedpeopleoftheInduscities.
Chapter8

Philosophy ThoughIndianscouldhavehadborrowedtheideaofsmeltingmetalsfromanoutsidesource,theyseem
_________ tohavehadusedmetalsinwarfarefromaround1500B.GwhentheAryansaresaidtohaveinvadedthe
IndusValleycities.ThenextdefinitereferencetotheuseofmetalsbyIndiansoldiersisbytheGreeks.
Chapter11 TheGreekhistorianHerodotushasobservedinthe5thcenturythat"IndiansinthePersianarmyused
arrowstippedwithiron".IndiansteelandironwerereportedlybeingusedbytheRomansfor
manufacturingarmouraswellascutlery.Butthesereferencesapart,itisinIndiaitselfthatwefindactual
Summing
objectsthatreflecttheadvancementofthetechniqueofsmelting.
Up
_________ TheIronPillaratDelhi
Glossary
Sanskrit
English
Glossary
_________
NextBook

TheIronPillaratDelhiisonesuchinstance.ThisPillar,locatedneartheKutabMinar,isestimatedto
havebeencastintheGuptaperiodi.e.about1500yearsago.ThePillaris7.32metresinlength,tapering
fromadiameterof40cmsatthebaseto30cms,atthetopanditweightsabout6tonnes.Ithasbeen
standinginopenformorethanamilleniumintheheat,dustandrain,butexceptforthenaturalerosionit
hasnotcaughtrust.Thiskindofarustproofironhadnotbeensmeltedanywhereelseintheworld,till
weinventedthestainlesssteelafewdecadesago.
AnotherinstanceofIndianmetallurgyisthecopperstatueofGautamaBuddhafoundatSultanGanjin
Bihar.Thestatueis2.13metreshighandweighsnearlyatonne.Therearemanysuchexamplesthatbear
testimonytotheexcellenceinsmeltingmetalsachievedinIndiainancienttimes.

ASearchfor TheironsmithswhohadcasttheironpillarandthestatueofBuddhamustnotonlyhavebeenexpertsat
OurPresent theirjobbuttheymusthaveinheritedthetechniquethathadbeenperfectedovermanygenerations.The
inHistory IronPillaritselftestifiestothefactthatIndianmetallurgyandchemistryhadreachedahighstageof
perfectionmorethan1500yearsago.Nagarjunawasonesuchpractitionerofthetechniqueofcombining
_________ variousmetalsinordertoinventasuperiormetal.

TheMakara(Spire)overHindu
temples
werealwaysadornedwithbrassor
gold
toppings(Kamandals).Theearliest
referencetotheadvances
madeinSmeltingtechnology
inIndiaarebyGreekhistoriansviz,
PhilostratusandKtesiasinthe4th
centuryB.C.

NagarjunawasbornatFortDaihaknearthefamousshrineofSomnathinGujaratin931A.D.Hewasa
chemist,oranalchemist,ashiseffortshadbeenconcentratedontransformingthebasemetalsintogold.
Wearetoldthathehadacquiredsuchareputation,duetohisactivities,thatthepeoplebelievedthat
Nagarjunawasincommunionwithgodsandgoddesseswhohadblessedhimwiththepowerofchanging
basemetalsintogoldandtheextractingof'elixiroflife'.
Nagarjunaapparentlyrevelledintheideaofhisbeinglookeduponasblessedbythegods.Hehimself
addedtothis1beliefbywritinghistreatise,Rasaratnakaraintheformofadialoguebetweenhimandthe
gods.Thetreatisedealtwiththepreparationofrasa(liquids,mainlymercury).Nagarjunahasdiscussed
variouscombinationsofliquidsinthisvolume.Histreatise,theRasaratnakaraalsogaveasurveyofthe
statusofmetallurgyandalchemyasitexistedinIndiainthosedays.
Methodsfortheextractionofmetalslikegold,silver,tinandcopperfromtheiroresandtheirpurification
werealsomentioned,inRasaratnakara.Inhisattempttopreparethe'elixiroflife'frommercury,
Nagarjunamadeuseofanimalandvegetableproducts,apartfrommineralsandalkalis.Forthe
dissolutionofdiamonds,metalsandpearls,hesuggestedtheuseofvegetableacidslikesourgrueland
juicesoffruitsandbark.
Inhistreatise,hehasalsolistedtheapparatusthatwasusedbyearlieralchemists.Theprocessof
distillation,liquefaction,sublimationandroastingwerealsomentioned.Nagarjunaalsodiscussed,in
detail,thepossibilityoftransmutationofbasemetalsintogold.Butalthoughhecouldnotproducegold,
thesetechniquesdidyieldmetalswithgoldlikeyellowishbrillance.Tilltodaythesemethodsarebeing
usedtomanufactureimitationjewellery.
Nagarjunahasalsodiscussedmethodsforthepreparationofmercurylikecalamine.LaterNagarjuna
seemstohaveturnedtowardsorganicchemistryandmedicine.HehaswrittenatextcalledUttaratantra
whichissupposedtobeasupplementtoanearliertexttheShusrutasamahitawhichissaidtohavebeen
writtenbyShusrutainthe8thcenturyB.C.
Nagarjuna'sUttaratantradealsmainlywiththepreparationofmedicinaldrugs.Healsowrotefour
AyurvedictreatisesnamedArogyamanjariKakshaputatantra,YogasaraandYogasatak.
ThusNagarjunaseemstohavebeenacopiouswriter.Ashelivedinthe10thcenturyhisworks
incorporatetheideasofearlierchemistsandphysicians.OnlyafewdecadesafterNagarjuna,Indiawas

invadedbytheMohammedans:MahmudofGhaznihadraidedandplunderedNagarjuna'shometownof
Somnathin1020A.D.ItispossiblethatNagarjuna'stextsfellintothehandsoftheinvaders.
Whiletheinvadersruthlesslydestroyedthearchitecturalachievementsofthiscountryandimposedtheir
despoticrule,theyalsotransmittedIndiansciencestotheoutsideworld.
AlongwithMahmudofGhaznicamescholarslikeAlBeruniwhostudiedIndiantextsandtranslatedthem
intoArabic.ManyIndianideasofmedicinewereincorporatedintotheUnanisystemofmedicineofthe
Arabs.Nagarjuna'sworkscouldnothaveescapedtheirattention.Itispossiblethatthetechniqueof
alchemywasborrowedbytheArabsfromIndia.Intheancientworldthereisnoreferencetoalchemy.
WefirsthearofitinthemedieavalEurope.ThehomelandoftheArabsisnotrichinmetals,thusalchemy
andthesmeltingofmetalscouldnothavebeenindigenoustotheArabs.
ThustheArabsseemtohaveborrowedthetechniqueoftransformingbasemetalsinfogoldlikemetals
fromIndia.TheArabscalledthetechniqueAlKimiawhichaccordingtotheOxfordDictionaryliterally
meansthe'transformationofmetals'.Almeans'The'andKhimiawhichisderivedfromtheGreekterm
Khemiameans'totransumutemetals'.
Butwesternersdidnotappeartohavehadtheknowledgeofthetechniqueofalchemy.Thisisborneout
bythefactthatthetermAlchemywhichthewesternersusefordescribingthistechniquewasborrowed
fromtheArabs.ThewordA1chemyisobviouslyacorruptionofthetermAlKimiawhichtheArabsgave
tothetechniqueofconvertingbasemetalsintogoldlikesubstanceswhichtheyculledoutfromIndian
textsonthesubject.
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AncientIndia'sContributiontoMedicalScience
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