Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Lund
University of Oslo
Oslo, Norway
case in reactions for which the direction may be reversed by changing temperature or relative concentrations. By careful selection of experimental conditions a state of equilibrium can be attained a t which
the two opposing forces balance.
It is evident that Guldberg and Waage's work was influenced by the investigations of Berthelot and St. Gilles
in 1861-63 (4) dealing with the formation and ddecomposition of esters. Guldberg and Waage's own
experimental work was primarily concerned with heterogeneous equilibria in systems containing sulfates and
carbonates of barium and potassium. In such cases
they find the same kind of situation as reported by
Berthelot and St. Gilles in their experiments, namely
that in a reaction of the kind A B = A'
B' there
is a limiting situation where all four substances are
present a t the same time. Guldberg and Waage considered this to be a state of equilibrium at which two
opposing forces were of equal magnitude. A few direct
quotations indicate their starting point and their
conclusion in the form of a general law.
In order to study the chemical force we have chosen the conditions where the formation and decomposition are taking place
at the same time. In this case, the forces which produce the
formation of the two molecules and those which decompose these
molecules in regenerating the original molecules, are acting s t the
same time and give rise to a. state of equilibrium.
When two molecules A and B with masses M and N tend to
form the two new molecules A' and B' by a substitution of their
elements, the total volume being V , the force which tends to
produce this substitution may be expressed by u ( M / V ) " ( N / V ) b
where a , a, and b are specific coefficients far the species
Let
us suppose that one has 8. system of four substances A, B, A',
and B' with masses p, q, p', and q' respeotively. When the state
...
of equilibrium is attained, the quantity z of A and of B is transformed into A' and B' and the masses are p - I , q - z, p',+ z ,
and q'
z . The force which tends to form A'
B' w111 he
a [ ( p - z ) / V I S [ ( q- z ) / V I b , and that which tends to form A
B will be a ' [ ( p '
z)/VI"[(qf
z ) / V ] b ' . These two forces
are equal and one ohtsina the equation
Let Us assume that the new bodies A'and B' do not react. Let
I, and o be the number of molecules of A and B. v the veloeitv. t
v = d x / d t = k [ ( p - x)]'[(q
- x)]b - a x "
forces acting in a chemical system. From this discussion it follows that they considered forces to he
acting between all pairs of molecules present. Most
important were the "affinity forces" between the chemically reacting species. I n addition, weaker "secondary forces" were assumed to he acting between any
other pnir of molecules present. These latter forces
might rr:tard or accelerate the reaction.
Again they considered a system containing four substances A, B, A', and B' in a dynamical chemical
equilibrium with the equation A
B = A'
B'.
This time the concentrations (which they called "active
masses") were denoted by the letters p, q, p', and q',
respectively.
In order to simplify matters the authors introduced
the concept af an ideal reaction-in which the secondary
forces might be neglected. From their experiments
they considered themselves in the position to conclude
that the affinity force between A and B was proportional to the product of the concentrations, i.e., equal
to kpq, where k is a constant ("aflinity coefficient").
The opposite force, causing regeneration of A and B,
will be k'p'q' where k' is the affinity coefficient for that
reaction. This force is in equilibrium with the first
force, and consequently kpq = k'p'q'.
A few direct quotations may be appropriate to show
their further treatment.
q = (Q - z ) / V
q' = (Q'
z)/V
With the aid of this equation, one easily determines the value of z .
When the two bodies A and A' have constant active masses
during the reaction and when the values of these masses are
equal, the formula reduces t o
0.0372 p'q
+ 0.00723 9.9'
549
acid, ethyl alcohol, ethyl acetate, and water respectively. The last four terms on the right hand side
express the action of secondary forces. They clearly
are of minor importance.
In the same paper of 1867, Guldberg and Waage also
considered reaction rate in the new formulation and
gave observed and calculated values in a number of
cases.
We know today that some of the ideas of Guldberg
and Waage have been abandoned, for instance the
vague concept of "chemical force." This was, however, at the time a frequently used idea in the theory
of chemical affinity. Furthermore, it was perhaps
unfortunate that they based the theories so much on
heterogeneous equilibria. Their treatment of this
case was not quite correct because they considered the
active masses of BaSOPand of BaC03 to be equal.
On the other hand, they introduced useful ideas about
the concept of a reaction sequence and the influence of
"foreign" substances on reaction rate and equilibrium.
Of far greater importance, however, was their formulation of a general equilibrium equation, namely kpq =
k'p'q'. Their motivation for this equation was based
on general arguments in terms of forces and they
checked their hypotheses by experimental data, both
on reaction rates and on equilibrium.
The essential content of their work was made generally known due to the application of the equilibrium
equation by the Danish thermochemist Julius Thomsen
in a paper of 1869 (9). August Horstmann quoted the
same formula in 1873 and considered it to be in correspondence with his own theory of dissociation (10).
Horstmann also used Guldberg and Waage's experimental results in the case of the equilihrium between
BaSOa, BaC03, K2SOa, and K2C03. He found the
ratio between the concentration of KsSOa and K&O,
to he constant and independent of the relative amounts
of BaSOa and BaCOa present. This result, he admits,
was already suggested by Guldberg and Waage.
As a supplement to this account of Guldherg and
Waage's work, it seems appropriate to make a brief
note on other papers which represent two important
steps in the further development of the field. In 1877
van't Hoff gave a treatment (11) of the kinetics of
ester formation, based on the data of Berthelot and
St. Gilles. He assumed that the rate of a reaction is
proportional to the product of the numbers (P and Q )
of the interacting molecules and inversely proportional
to the total volume, i.e.
From this assumption he arrived at the simple equilibrium equation pq = '/rp'q' (here written in Guldberg
and Waage's notation). In spite of a somewhat incorrect rate law the equilihrium equation is correct
because there are two reactants on both sides.