Running head: BENEFITS OF GOAL SETTING

Benefits of Goal Setting and Promoting Self-Efficacy in Special Education Classrooms

Ann Strickler
ETD 624
Saginaw Valley State University

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Abstract

This literature review focused on the benefits of utilizing goal-setting interventions with special
education students. Additionally, it included the positive implications of using teaching strategies
to promote positive self-concept and academic motivation. The purpose of this review was to
compile the findings of professionals in the field of education to identify the positive scholastic
outcomes of students taking active roles in their learning. Such active roles included goal-setting
possessing self-determination. This paper included the findings of a number of scholarly studies.
The studies used to compose this review involved students from a variety of educational levels
and backgrounds. The majority of these studies revolved around special education students.
Sources were located using library databases. Together, these studies suggested a positive
correlation between motivation, goal-setting, self-efficacy, self-determination, and scholastic
performance of special education students.
Keywords: goal-setting, self-determination, self-efficacy, motivation, goals

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Table of Contents

Literature Review.............4
Goal Setting.................................................................................................................................4
Self-Determined Goals................................................................................................................5
Self-Determined Goals and Students with Behavior Struggles...................................................7
Self-Efficacy, Self-Concept, and Motivation...............................................................................9
Individualized Education Plans.................................................................................................10
Implications for Teaching..........................................................................................................11
Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................14
References......................................................................................................................................15

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Literature Review

Much research had been done to support the benefits of integrating goal-setting, selfefficacy, and self-determination into the educations of special education students. Such effects
included increased motivation to work towards academic and behavioral goals. The following
review identified and described relevant findings to support the importance of goal-setting for
special education learners and the ways in which goal-setting aided in student success.
Additionally, it discussed the teaching strategies and interventions that could be utilized to foster
positive self-concept and self-directed learning in special education students.
Goal Setting
Many studies had been done regarding the positive outcomes of setting goals. Kang
(2010) identified the results of using goal-setting interventions to increase special education
students performances in mathematics. Kang noted students previous inabilities to self-regulate
and be active participants in their learning. The research involved the integration of goal-setting
interventions during mathematics instruction. Students were instructed on the process of setting
an attainable and relevant academic goal. Educators modeled this process and supported learners
in choosing goals and monitoring progress towards noted goals. Kang found that goal-setting
interventions provided students with self-regulatory skills. This, in turn, increased students
motivations towards learning mathematics. Additionally, Kang discussed the transfer of students
mathematics goal-setting skills to other subject areas. The goal-setting skills students learned in
their mathematics classes proved to be beneficial and transferable to future settings.
Self-Determined Goals
Kleinert , Harrison, Mills, Dueppen, and Trailor (2014) discussed the ideas of selfdetermined goal selection for special education learners in a variety of grade levels. It was clear

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that goals were vital and beneficial, but even more so when the goals were chosen by the special
education learners. The self-determined learning model (SDLM) involved the identification of a
goal, planning to meet the goal, and adjustment of plans as necessary. The study included
students with disabilities ranging from mild to significant. The authors noted the importance of
fostering students abilities to select their own academic, social, or behavioral goals. Kleinert et
al. described the positive correlation between self-selected goals and achievement of these goals.
The article discussed the need for special education teachers to aid students with planning the
necessary steps to take in order to achieve a self-determined goal. Kleinert et al. noted the
implications that self-determined goal selection has for special education learners. The research
identified this process as being beneficial for increasing students motivation and overall success
during their years in school and beyond. Palmer and Wehmeyer (2003) noted that early
elementary students could participate in the SDLM to build strong foundations for future
successes.
Along these same lines, Lee, Palmer, and Wehmeyer (2009) discussed the relationship
between setting goals and self-monitoring these goals. Specifically, this research revolved around
the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). IDEA mandated that students with
disabilities participate in the least-restrictive environment with the support of accommodations.
The Self-Determined Learning Model of Instruction (SDLMI) was described as playing a key
role in special education students successes in general education settings. This research
identified the process for carrying out the SDLMI. The article suggested that students can
succeed when they participate in the SDLMI by selecting an attainable goal, creating a plan for
achieving the goal, evaluating and monitoring progress, and adjusting the plan or goals as
necessary. Lee et al. also suggested that this process allowed for meaningful feedback from the

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students teachers and intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Palmer, Wehmeyer, Gipson, and Agran
(2004) supported the idea that students individual academic needs can be identified in their
goals, which, in turn, aids in their success in the general education environment.
Lee, Wehmeyer, Palmer, Soukup, and Little (2008) elaborated on the idea that selfdetermination increased the successes of special education students participating in the general
education environment. The study discussed the use of the SDLMI for students in co-taught
general education courses. The study conducted by Lee et al. examined the ways in which the
SDLMI could engage high school learners in student-directed learning experiences. The study
described a positive correlation between students goal-oriented behaviors and their successes in
the general education setting and beyond. Lee et al. noted that the use of goal-setting,
monitoring, adjusting, and evaluating allowed students to engage in activities that would be
beneficial not only in high school, but also as they assumed post-secondary positions.
As supported by Williams-Diehm, Palmer, Lee, and Schroer (2010), special education
students goals were dependent upon a variety of factors. This was evident when student-selected
goals were examined. Students who struggled with academics did not always focus on selecting
appropriate academic goals. In addition to academic differences, students other goals varied
among grade levels. Students in high school settings did not always consider post-secondary
goals. It was clear that self-determined goals were beneficial in promoting positive self-concept.
However, the Williams-Diehm et al. reinforced a need for teacher support.
Self-Determined Goals and Students with Behavior Struggles
Special education learners have possessed academic, behavioral, or both types of
struggles. A variety of studies had supported the benefits of promoting self-determined goals for
learners with behavior problems. The idea of self-determination was further studied in an article

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by Martin, Mithaug, Cox, Peterson, Van Dycke, and Cash (2003). The concept of selfdetermination and its possible implications in increasing students successes was expanded upon.
Martin et al. explored the use of self-determination contracts with students who had behavior or
emotional problems. Students, ages 9-10, completed daily contracts to outline plans for
achieving academic goals. These contracts included action plans, work towards progress,
evaluations, and possible adjustment of goals and plans. Martin et al. found that students focuses
and levels of engagement in the learning activities were increased as they interacted with the
contracts each day. Students possessed personalized learning goals and practiced the adjustment
of these goals as necessary. This practice allowed the learners to make decisions about the
actions they needed to take in order to learn. At the end of the study, Martin et al. concluded that
the contracts were beneficial in providing students with the tools needed to self-regulate and, as a
result, increase learning. Additionally, the self-regulation skills gained by the students had
positive results in terms of managing their behavior problems. Again, interventions played key
roles in students successes in the classroom.
The effects of goal-setting strategies on students with behavior problems were also
examined by Bruhn, McDaniel, Fernando, and Troughton (2016). Students with special needs
faced many challenges in the school setting, and these challenges were increased for students
with behavior issues. Bruhn et al. focused specifically on increasing self-regulation skills by
utilizing behavior goal interventions. Results of this study confirmed the positive effects of
students playing active roles in their educations by setting goals to manage their behaviors. The
study noted the fact that results were most favorable when students provided input for their own
behavior goals rather than being assigned goals by educators. This research was also supported
by Bruhn, McDaniel, and Kreigh (2015) in a similar review. Self-monitoring was the focus of

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this study. It was noted that goal-setting in the form of self-monitoring aided in the management
of students behavior issues that were negatively impacting their academics. The review
examined the results of students self-monitoring their behaviors. Similar to previous studies,
teachers played roles in facilitating the goal-setting and progress monitoring events. Again, it
was vital that the goals and interventions aligned with students current levels of performance
and need. Additionally, feedback and positive reinforcement in tandem with the self-monitoring
was also examined. These intrinsic and extrinsic rewards were helpful for students who
appreciated such rewards. Bruhn et al. also noted positive results of students utilizing technology
to self-monitor their behavior goals. The use of technology in a similar context was also explored
by Mazzotti, Test, and Wood (2013). This study analyzed the results of using multimedia to
instruct students in the use of the SDLMI. Again, students with behavior challenges were the
subjects. In this case, learners participated in computer-assisted instruction (CAI) to become
versed in the SDLMI. The study provided promising results, but limitations including students
abilities to transfer skills outside of the classroom and feasibility of utilizing the program in a
classroom setting existed. Carter, Lane, Crnobori, Bruhn, and Oakes (2011) authored a review
that further identified the limitations of the studies on self-determination interventions. This
literature supported the idea that goal-setting, self-determination, and self-regulation were skills
that benefit learners with behavior or emotional challenges both in and out of the classroom
setting. However, the study posed questions for future investigations into the contexts in which
the interventions were delivered and the need for culturally diverse studies.

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Self-Efficacy, Self-Concept, and Motivation

Bong and Skaalvik (2003) studied the relationship between academic self-concept and
self-efficacy. Both of these character qualities were connected to the idea of goal-setting. It was
true that students beliefs about themselves and their abilities have academic repercussions.
Students with disabilities often possessed negative ideas about themselves and their capabilities
in classroom settings. Bong and Skaalvik argued that self-efficacy, or the belief in ones ability to
reach goals, played a key role in overall self-concept development. It had been noted that these
two ideas were both similar and different. These were described as being two separate entities
with close ties to one another. It was noted that self-determined goal selection and other such
interventions aided students in developing positive self-efficacy. This, in turn, led to self-concept
growth. Linnenbrink and Pintrich (2003) also explored the idea of positive self-efficacy and the
effects this quality had in the classroom. The authors investigated the relationship between selfefficacy and engagement. It was found that engagement was increased when students had
positive thoughts about their abilities. Students with disabilities had the potential to obtain
positive thoughts about their abilities by setting tangible goals, establishing action plans, and
evaluating their progress towards the goals. With teacher support and guidance, engagement and
motivation were increased.
Individualized Education Plans
Arndt, Konrad, and Test (2006) investigated the possibilities of students participations in
their individualized education plan (IEP) meetings. Annual meetings have been in place to
discuss and evaluate special education students IEP documents. IEPs have contained data to
support students present academic levels, accommodations, and goals. In many cases, these
goals and their accompanying objectives have been set and monitored by the special education

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teachers. Though students have sometimes attended their IEP meetings, they have not played key
roles in the establishment of their academic or social goals and correlating objectives.
Additionally, they have not always been aware of their progress towards the goals. As previously
mentioned, much research had been done on the positive effects of self-determined goals. Amdt
et al. found that engaging students in the establishment of their own goals and objectives be
especially beneficial in the realm of special education. Mason, Field, and Sawilowsky (2004)
utilized a survey to identify educators opinions about self-determination instruction and student
participation in the IEP process. The online survey noted that the majority of participating
educators were not satisfied with the self-determination instructional techniques used in their
educational settings. Furthermore, the results supported a need for increased student participation
in IEP meetings. It was evident that students should play key roles in goal selection and progress
monitoring.
Bremer, Kachgal, and Schoeller (2003) also supported the relationship between selfdetermination and students participation in IEP meetings. This study, however, focused on the
transition aspect of IEP meetings. In addition to academic and social goals, special education
students have needed support in ensuring success in post-secondary positions. Students must
acquire the abilities to be self-advocates who set goals, adjust plans, make choices, and problem
solve. Studies expressed the fact that these skills were not only beneficial for students in school,
but also in their future positions. Research supported the need for teacher training in the area of
self-determination. However, the means for carrying out this training were not solidified. Test,
Mason, Hughes, Konrad, Neale, and Wood (2004) review literature on this topic and came to
similar conclusions. The authors noted a need for instruction on self-directed activities in order
for students to effectively participate in the IEP process. Again, limitations revolving around the

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theory were identified. It was evident that teachers needed training and tools in order to foster
self-determination skills.
Implications for Teaching
Research supported the idea that goal-setting and positive self-concept were beneficial to
special education learners in academics, behavior, and in post-secondary options. Limitations
existed in the transition from theory to practice, teaching strategies have been researched.
Algozzine, Browder, Karvonen, Test, and Wood (2001) described such strategies in an study
which reviewed the types of self-determination interventions that have taken place. The
researchers found that the majority of literature reviewed involved self-advocacy and choice
making interventions. These interventions were carried out in a number of formats including,
large group instruction and one-on-one conferences. Though they concluded the effectiveness of
interventions in any setting, they questioned students opportunities to practice self-determination
skills. Students may have learned about making choices outside of the academic, school setting.
However, they may not have been provided with opportunities to practice such skills. Educators
needed to ensure that learners could transfer learned skills into practice. This may have included
exposure to self-advocacy or choice making situations outside of school.
Research supported the idea that goal-setting and students active participation in their
learning increased motivation. Goldberg, Foster, Maki, Emde, OKelly, and May (2001) explored
teaching strategies to further increase motivation. They described the need for students to set
goals to ensure engagement in learning activities. However, they also identified the limitation
that many students had difficulties working towards goals that are unattainable or untimely.
Goldberg et al. explored the use of cooperative learning strategies to increase motivation. This
was deemed effective, but questions still exist. It was unclear if the strategy could be utilized

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with special education learners. Though the research noted that cooperative learning structures
aided in increased motivation, it did not explore the impact that the structures had on selfconcept or goal-setting.
Konrad, Fowler, Walker, Test, and Wood (2007) reviewed literature on the use of selfdetermination interventions with students who have learning disabilities and/or attention
deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). It was determined that the most effective interventions
included direct and strategy instruction of both self-management and goal-setting skills. Konrad
et al. described the promising effects such instruction had on academics and productivity, but
noted the fact that self-determination is a broad category that can be taught in a variety of ways.
For this reason, the authors did not overgeneralize the positive effects. In a related study, King
and McInerney (2016) researched the links between mastery goals, metacognitive strategies, and
achievement. The researchers confirmed the idea that mastery goals were effective in the
improvement of motivation and academic achievement. Additionally, they explored the
instruction of metacognitive strategies. They implied that educators could teach students to be
aware of their thoughts and beliefs. This, in turn, would aid students in being self-advocates who
set and worked towards goals.
Lin-Siegler, Ahn, Chen, Fang, and Luna-Lucero (2016) studied the idea of using
struggle stories to increase students levels of motivation. Students had decreased motivation
when they struggled in science and mathematics classes. They seemed to accept their current
levels of achievement or avoid such classes altogether rather than strive for success. Lin-Siegler
et al. studied the effects of sharing famous scientists struggles with a group of 9th and 10th grade
learners. Their results noted positive effects on low-performing learners. The learners who
participated in the study connected with the stories and had increased motivation to engage in

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science content. Though the study focused on general education science students, it may have
had implications for special education learners in a variety of subject areas. The use of struggle
stories to employ a growth mindset was related to self-directed goal-setting interventions and
positive self-concept. In a related study, Lau and Nie (2008) shed light on goal-setting
implications for practice. Their study examined two different classroom goal structures and
climates. The authors set out to identify the ways in which mastery goals and performance goals
played into academic outcomes. Their results noted the benefits of supporting students in
establishing and maintaining growth mindsets. Students who set goals related to their own
academic abilities put forth the effort to make individualized growth.
The types of interventions and supports elicited to increase special education learners
self-concepts depended upon their types of disabilities. Varsamis and Agaliotis (2004) studied
this idea, and identified the qualities that interventions should have to ensure success for students
with physical, intellectual, or multiple disabilities. They discussed the fact that students who
have physical disabilities often have low self-esteems related to their disability. For this reason,
they required interventions with adaptations to encourage participation and increase self-concept.
When it came to learners with intellectual disabilities, Varsamis and Agaliotis suggested that
teachers build upon existing self-concept and self-regulatory skills. They discussed the fact that
educators should encourage these students with positive reinforcement. When it came to learners
who had multiple disabilities, educators must eliminate preconceived notions. Students with
multiple disabilities had been considered to have positive self-concepts despite low
performances. However, this was not always the case. These learners needed a multi-faceted
approach that included reinforcement and feedback. Though suggestions were provided, data to
reinforce such suggestions was not available.

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Conclusion

The literature reviewed supported the idea that goal-setting and promoting positive selfconcept are beneficial for special education learners. In many cases, interventions to establish
and maintain positive self-concept and self-directed learning in special education students had
positive effects on engagement and motivation. It was clear that students beliefs about their
academic and other abilities correlated to their actions in the school setting. It was also noted that
students active participations in their educations had positive effects. Special education teachers
must elicit interventions to increase students self-concepts and abilities to self-regulate. They
must also provide opportunities for students to reflect upon their abilities, set goals, establish
action plans, and evaluate progress. However, more research had to be done to identify the ways
to move from theory to practice. Best practices for goal-setting interventions had not been
identified. Though many strategies were attempted and evaluated, it was not yet clear how
educators could successfully integrate strategies into their existing settings. In a broad context, it
was evident that educators must support special education students in their abilities to set
attainable goals and monitor their achievements. Because special education involved a variety of
content areas and disability types, more focused research must be done.

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