Agroforest Syst (2016) 90:325337

DOI 10.1007/s10457-015-9857-z

Leucaena-KX2 mulch additions increase growth, yield

and soil C and N in a managed full-sun coffee system
in Hawaii
Adel H. Youkhana . Travis W. Idol

Received: 8 June 2015 / Accepted: 4 October 2015 / Published online: 15 October 2015
Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2015

Abstract One option to sustain full-sun coffee

plantation is the use of a cut-and-carry system in
which a stand of N-fixing trees is grown outside the
coffee field and utilized as a source of mulch to capture
the benefits of organic matter, nutrient additions, and
continuous soil cover. The objectives of this study
were to evaluate the potential of a cut-and-carry
system of mulch additions from a multipurpose
N-fixing tree for open-grown coffee in Hawaii to
support high crop yield as well as improved soil
organic matter and nitrogen. A stand of Leucaena
variety KX2 trees were pollarded every 6 months, and
the pollarded material was chipped and added to opengrown coffee plots. Approximately 65 Mg ha-1 of
mulch dry matter was added over a 3-year period,
including *27.5 Mg ha-1 of C and *530 kg ha-1 of
total N. Plots without mulch addition were fertilized
with equivalent amounts of inorganic N for comparison. Mulch decomposition averaged 64 % (weight
basis) over the first year and followed first-order decay
dynamics. Net N mineralization was positive by
3 months after addition. There was significant loss of
all major biochemical components during the decomposition process. Mulching increased soil CO2 efflux
by 2.89 Mg ha-1. Total soil C and N increased by 2.90

A. H. Youkhana (&)  T. W. Idol

Department of Natural Resources and Environmental
Management, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1910 EastWest Rd, Sherman Lab 101, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA
e-mail: adel@hawaii.edu

and 1.42 Mg ha-1, respectively. Mulch addition significantly increased all measures of coffee growth and
yield over 2 years, except for average bean weight.
Where space is available or shade is undesirable, a cutand-carry mulching system using Leucaena-KX2 can
increase soil C and N and achieve coffee yields similar
to or greater than other full-sun systems.
Keywords Coffee yield  Mulching  Full-sun grown
coffee  Soil carbon and nitrogen  Carbon
sequestration  Leucaena-KX2  Surface-soil CO2
efflux

Introduction
Arabica coffee (Coffea arabica L.) is a cash crop of
major economic importance in Hawaii and many other
countries (Bates 1997; Steiman 2008; Valos-Sartorio
and Blackman 2010). Studies of coffee production
have long focused on the factors that help maintain
high yields (Bates 1997; Bittenbender and Smith
1999) because many small farmers depend on production levels for their livelihood. In Hawaii, as
elsewhere, this has resulted in standard recommendations for high rates of fertilizer input and supplemental
irrigation in most coffee-growing areas (Bittenbender
and Smith 1999). Although readily available and
relatively affordable for Hawaiis growers, inorganic
fertilizers in many coffee-growing regions are scarce
and costly for small farms with low levels of outside

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income. Maintaining and enhancing soil quality and

crop nutrition under demands for high yields can be
achieved through application of organic materials,
whether generated on-site or as external inputs (Titilayo 1982; Owaiye 1993; Agboola and Adeoye 1990;
Rayer and Chiroma 1990; Adu-Daaphet et al. 1994;
Folorunsho 1999; Gaiser et al. 2012).
Recent studies reported that soil C, N, phosphorus
(P) and sulfur (S) status were improved in plots with
additions of mulch from the multi-purpose N-fixing
tree Leucaena leucocephala (Wendt et al. 1996;
Heinemanet al. 1997) and inter specific hybrids like
variety KX2, a cross between L. leucocephala and L.
pallida (Brewbaker 2008; Youkhana and Idol 2009).
In these previous studies, however, the mulch was
generated from shade trees growing in the coffee field.
While shade can reduce environmental stress of coffee
plants under hot and dry conditions (Muschler 2001;
Damatta et al. 2007), in a moderate climate like
Hawaii, even traditional land races of Coffea arabica
tend to perform best under full-sun conditions (Steiman et al. 2011; Youkhana and Idol 2011). As well,
large coffee plantations in Hawaii have been established in fields with low slope to allow for mechanized
operations. In-field shade trees are considered largely
incompatible with mechanized operations, but windbreak trees are common and recommended in open
areas of Hawaii, due to the wind-sensitivity of coffee
leaves.
One option for full-sun operations is the use of a
cut-and-carry system in which a stand of N-fixing
trees is grown outside the coffee field and utilized as a
source of mulch to capture the benefits of organic
matter, nutrient additions, and continuous soil cover
(Snoeck 1961; Kimemia et al. 2001). Although this
requires additional growing space, trees can be grown
on areas less suitable for coffee or at least mechanized
operations, such as degraded soils, sloping areas, or
uneven terrain. Alternatively, trees can be planted at
field borders, as with wind breaks or live fences.
Chipping of pruning residues, which include a mixture
of leaves, seed pods, branches and orthotropic shoots
from the main stem (Youkhana and Idol 2009) also
ensures a uniform material that is easier to spread in
the field and should decompose faster due to increased
surface area, soil contact, and mixtures of residues
with higher and lower nutrient concentration and
ratios of C:N and lignin:N. Understanding litter
quality, such as C:N and lignin:N ratios, can improve

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Agroforest Syst (2016) 90:325337

understanding and prediction of decay rates, N

mineralization, and effects on SOM using standard
models, such as Century model (Parton and Rasmussen 1994). However, few studies have tracked
changes in these litter quality parameters over time
(Berg and Ekbohm 1991).
The objective of this study was to evaluate the role
of chipped pruning residues of Leucaena variety KX2
to improve soil organic matter and N and coffee
growth and yield when added as mulch to a full-sun
coffee production system. We investigated the following aspects: (1) decomposition and biochemical
changes of the mulch, (2) changes to soil organic C
and CO2 efflux, (3) mulch N release and change in
total soil N; and (4) coffee tree growth and yield in
plots amended with mulch vs those where equivalent
amounts of inorganic N were added. We hypothesized
that mulch additions would increase coffee tree
growth and yield, soil CO2 efflux, total soil C and N,
and coffee yield as compared to coffee fertilized with
inorganic N.

Materials and methods

Study site
The study was carried out at the University of Hawaii,
College of Tropical Agriculture and Human
Resources, Waimanalo Research Station on the windward side of the island of Oahu (21200 N, 158200 W).
The site is 20 m above sea level and is classified as a
humid tropical environment (Giambelluca et al. 2013).
The soils are classified mainly as Vertic Haplustolls,
dominated by the Waimanalo series (Ikawa et al.
1985). Annual rainfall from 2006 to 2008 was 1815,
1268, and 968 mm, respectively (Fig. 1).
Experimental design
The field selected for this experiment was fallow at the
beginning of the experiment on September 15, but had
been used to grow various tropical crops in the past.
Eight full-sun plots, each 4 9 6 m in size, were
established. We trenched to a depth of 1 m between all
plots and lined the trench with plastic sheeting to
prevent overlap of root systems between adjacent
plots. The eight plots were randomly assigned to either
a mulch or no-mulch addition treatment (n = 4). On

Agroforest Syst (2016) 90:325337

Rainfall (mm)

1600

mulch that was added to the mulch addition plots

(160 kg ha-1). In addition, micronutrients were
applied as foliar sprays to coffee plants in the nomulch plots to address leaf yellowing, following
recommendations of Bittenbender and Smith (1999)
to support growth and high fruit production and
maintain the same nutrient regime as the mulch
addition plots (Table 2).

30

Annual rainfall
Average temperature
Max. temperature
Min. temperature

28

1200

26

800

24

400

22

Temperature(C)

2000

327

Decay pattern of mulch

20

0
2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

To monitor the decomposition dynamics of the tree

mulch, we created decay microplots in all plots
(Fig. 3), similar to those used previously in Youkhana
and Idol (2009). A 50 9 50-cm area of ground was
cleared of any plant litter and debris. A 1-mm mesh
nylon screen was placed over this surface. The screen
was separated into four quadrants using a rigid
aluminum mesh screen barrier placed down the center
parallel to the four sides of the screen. A 10-cm
diameter hole was cut out of the screen in each
quadrant. A 10-cm diameter ABS plastic cylinder was
driven 13 cm in the soil surface inside each hole and
allowed to protrude 23 cm above the surface. The
mesh screen cut out of the hole was placed inside the
cylinder on the soil surface. In the mulch-addition
plots, approximately 550 g of mulch (fresh weight)
was weighed in the field and added to each microplot.
Of this, 50 g was added to each of the four decay cores.
Subsamples of mulch were taken back to the lab and
oven-dried at (70 C) to constant weight to determine
water content and initial dry mass, as well as C and N
concentrations. The decay microplots in the no-mulch
treatment were established as in the mulch-addition
treatment, but the cores remained empty. Natural
litterfall was excluded from the decay microplots by
placing a plastic mesh tray over the top of the
microplot for the duration of the decomposition
experiment. Rainfall was able to move through the

Year

Fig. 1 Annual rainfall, minimum, maximum and average

temperature in Waimanalo from 2005 to 2009

20 September 2005, chipped mulch harvested from the

border row of trees of Leucaena-KX2 from a seed
orchard was spread manually and uniformly to all
plots as a green manure. The amount added to each
plot was controlled to match the average amount
added to 18 shaded coffee plots in the seed orchard
(Youkhana and Idol 2009), which ranged from approx.
1727 Mg ha-1.On 20 March 2006, two seedlings of
coffee (Coffea arabica var. Kona typica) were
planted in all 4 plots, each 2 m apart between the tree
rows (Fig. 2).
On 20 August 2006, mulch was added again and
distributed uniformly back to the mulch-addition plots
only. Mulch addition was repeated on 20 August 2007.
As before, addition rates were the average of those in
the shade-coffee plots (Table 1). Carbon and total
nitrogen concentrations of mulch samples were estimated using a combustion furnace elemental analyzer
by the University of Hawaii Agricultural Diagnostic
Service Center (ADSC). Average mulch of 18 plots
was used for the open-grown coffee plots.
In the no-mulch plots, urea (46-0-0) was added as a
foliar spray at an equivalent rate as the N content of the
Fig. 2 Layout of
experimental plots in fullsun coffee

1*

3*

6*

8*

* Mulch addition

2m

4m

6m

Coffea arabica var. Kona Typica

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Agroforest Syst (2016) 90:325337

Table 1 Leucaena-KX2 mulch, C and N additions (g kg-1 and Mg ha-1) and their standard error (SE)
Year

Dry mass
Mg ha

Carbon

-1

SE

-1

g kg

Nitrogen
-1

SE

Mg ha

SE

g kg-1

SE

Mg ha-1

SE

2005*

17.60

0.83

423

1.78

7.45

0.26

9.02

0.50

0.16

0.01

2006

24.33

0.42

414

1.68

9.97

0.67

8.60

0.67

0.19

0.04

2007

26.77

0.65

421

1.60

11.24

0.13

7.00

0.35

0.18

0.03

* Mulch added to all plots

Table 2 Fertilization rate and time of application in no-mulch
plots
Fertilizer

Date of application

Rate

ZnSO4

June 14, 2006

5 % solution

Urea (46-0-0)

July 13, 2006

50 g plot-1

Sequestrene (Fe2O3)

July 26,2006

14.20 %

These plots were planted with coffee seedling on March 20,

2006
50 cm

Soil sampling and analysis

10 cm

6
50 cm

12

Fig. 3 Layout of mulch decay microplot unit

mesh tray, but there was likely some interception, as

well. At 3-month intervals for 1 year, the mulch from
one cylinder was removed in order to estimate mass
loss, change in C and total N concentration, and
change in biochemical composition.
Mulch decay rates were fitted to a negative
exponential decay model:
Lt L0 ekt

where Lt is the proportion of dry weight of litter mass

remaining at time t, L0 is the proportion of litter mass
at time zero, and k is an exponent that characterizes the
decomposition rate over the measured time interval
(Chapin et al. 2002).
Carbon and N concentrations were estimated by
ADSC as described for the initial soil samples.

123

Biochemical composition was determined using a

modified sequential fiber digestion analysis as
described by Holocheck and Vavra (1982). This
procedure separates organic material in the plant tissue
into components that are soluble first in a neutraldetergent solution (proteins, sugars, and other easily
degraded material), then in an acid-detergent solution
(hemicellulose). The residue was digested in potassium permanganate to digest the lignin fraction. The
remaining organic material was mostly cellulose. This
was estimated via loss on ignition in a muffle furnace.

On 20 August 2005, initial soil samples were taken

from 3 holes per plot and at 20-cm increments to a
depth of 1 m and analyzed for physical and chemical
properties (Table 3). Soil C and N content, pH (2:1
soil:water mixture), and nutrient availability were
analyzed by the ADSC. Soil samples from 0 to 20 cm
were collected randomly within the plots at approx.
6-month intervals from May 2006 until May 2008 to
monitor changes in soil C and N concentration. Soil
was not sampled below this depth, as mulch additions
were expected to affect primarily the surface soil
layers. Bulk density was determined from core samples
(Anderson and Ingram 1990) from 0 to 20 cm depth
once a year from 2005 until 2008 in order to scale soil C
and N concentrations to a mass per area basis.
Soil-surface CO2 efflux
Soil-surface CO2 efflux (lmol m-2 s-1) was measured from all cores inside the decay microplots on a
monthly basis from 20 January 2006 to 20 December
2008 (Fig. 3), using a portable infrared gas analyzer
attached to a soil respiration chamber (CIRAS-1
instrument, PP-Systems, Inc., Haverhill, MA). Measurements were taken from 10:00 to 11:00 AM to

Agroforest Syst (2016) 90:325337

329

Table 3 Initial soil characteristics and their standard error (SE) in a full-sun coffee plot at the CTAHR Waimanalo Station
Soil depth (cm)
020

SE

2040

SE

4060

SE

60100

SE

pH

6.15

0.26

6.2

1.17

6.35

1.16

6.4

0.18

BD (Mg m-3)

1.25

0.14

1.28

0.12

1.33

0.21

1.35

0.07

C (g kg)

15.5

1.74

11.1

0.64

8.9

1.15

4.8

0.19

N (g kg-1)

1.1

0.17

0.9

0.23

0.7

0.12

ND

0.88

P (mg kg-1)

84

8.37

43

1.73

34

2.31

21

K (mg kg-1)

383

11.55

192

6.93

180

17.32

98

2.51

Ca (mg kg-1)

2716

145.29

2878

115.47

2787

75.33

2962

35.88

Mg (mg kg-1)

1066

57.74

1144

184.75

1224

127.02

1334

18.44

C:N

14:01

12:01

12:01

ND

Sand (%)

8.7

13.7

11.4

11.4

Silt (%)

45.2

40.7

43.8

43.8

Clay (%)

46.1

45.6

44.8

44.8

BD bulk density

Total content of C

Soil texture (Source: Ikawa et al. 1985)

Table 4 Average N concentration (%) in leaf tissue of no

mulch and mulch full-sun coffee plots of 2007 and 2008
samplesand their standard error (SE)
2007

2008

Leaf N (%)

SE

Leaf N (%)

SE

No-mulch

2.01

0.86

2.21

1.03

Mulch

2.39

1.15

2.52

0.90

the instantaneous reading of CO2 efflux to a daily

cumulative total. In order to scale the single monthly
readings to an annual basis, we ran a simple linear
regression between the monthly measurement of CO2
efflux and average air temperature taken at the on-site
weather station. We used this equation to predict daily
average instantaneous CO2 efflux and scaled up to an
annual basis.
Coffee tree growth and yield measurement

minimize differences due to hourly fluctuations over

the day. The air temperature (C) and relative humidity (%) at 05 cm above the soil surface were
measured in parallel with soil respiration measurements using a Kestrel 3000 Pocket Weather Meter.
Soil-surface CO2 efflux, and surface soil air temperature and relative humidity per plot were measured
every 2 h for a 24-h period on July 19, 2006 to
characterize the diurnal pattern of soil respiration. The
patterns of CO2 efflux and air temperature over this
24-h period were similar; moreover, the averages for
both measurements over the 24-h period were approximately the same as the individual readings taken at
10:00 AM (Fig. 8). We therefore assumed the monthly
CO2 efflux and air temperature readings taken between
10:00 and 11:00 AM were reasonable approximations
of the average over the day. This was then used to scale

All coffee plants in the plots were measured for growth

and yield. The height of all verticals per plant was
measured on 15 December of 2007 and 2008. The
diameter of the main stem at 10 cm from the base was
measured using a caliper at the same time as the height
measurement. The number of fruiting laterals per main
stem, fruiting nodes per lateral and fruits per node
were counted on 5 September 2007 and 2008. During
2007 and 2008, mature cherries were harvested twice
monthly from 15 September until 15 December. At the
end of each harvest day, the coffee cherries were dried
at 50 C for 72 h. The total weight of cherries (g) per
tree for 2007 and 2008 were determined by summing
the oven-dry weight of all harvests.
Green bean weight was estimated by drying a 1-L
representative sub-sample of cherries (approx. 500 g)

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Statistical analysis

Proportion of mass remaining

1.0

y = e-0.099t
R2 = 0.96
P < 0.01

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
0

10

12

Time (months)

Fig. 4 Mulch decomposition in full-sun coffee system

100

-0.090t
y=e
2

80

N remaining (%)

at 50 C (48 h) from each harvest. Each sample was

then processed through a huller machine (LimprimitaJohn Gorden & CO LTD Epping, Essex, England) to
remove the skin. A winnower machine (John Gordon)
was used to separate the skin, parchment and other
light impurities from the bean. Both the huller and
winnower processes were repeated until the whole
green bean samples were determined to be clean.
Random samples of 100 green beans from each sample
were taken, oven dried for 24 h at 50 C and weighed.
The chlorophyll concentration (SPAD) of 5
selected leaves of each coffee tree per plot was
measured every 3 months during 2007 and 2008 using
a Minolta SPAD 502 chlorophyll meter (Spectrum
Technologies, Plainfield, 111). SPAD values are
closely associated with leaf N concentration
(g N m-2) (Swaider and Moor 2002).
In order to determine coffee nutritional status, 10
pairs of the most recently matured leaves (3rd or 4th
pair from the terminal) from lateral branches from
each plot were collected on 15 March 2007 and 14
March 2008. Leaves were analyzed for N concentration by ADSC(Table 4).

Agroforest Syst (2016) 90:325337

R = 0.95
P < 0.01

Col 1 vs Col 2

60

40

20

Mass loss data were transformed using the natural

logarithm and then fitted to a linear regression to
estimate the slope, which is the k-value in Eq. 1.
Changes in litter N content (N mineralization) and
biochemical compositions over time were compared
via repeated-measures analysis of variance using the
MIXED procedure in SAS, V. 9.1.3 (SAS Institute Inc.
1990) with specific contrasts to compare different time
intervals. For comparison of changes in soil C and N,
we used a repeated measures multivariate analysis of
variance (MANOVA), using the GLM procedure in
SAS (von Ende 1993; Maxwell and Delaney 2004) to
test both treatment and time effects.
For coffee growth and yield data analysis of 2007
and 2008, one-way ANOVA using a complete
randomized design (CRD) was used. Means were
compared using Tukeys honest significant difference
test. All analyses were carried out using SAS 9.1.3
(SAS Institute Inc. 1990).

123

0
0

10

12

Time (months)

Fig. 5 Nitrogen loss from litter in full-sun coffee system. Error

bars represent 1 SE. *Indicates significant net N mineralization between months 0 and 3. Indicates significant net N
mineralization between months 6 and 12

Results
Mass loss and N mineralization
Dry mass loss of mulch after 1 year was 64 % and fit a
first-order decay curve (Fig. 4). Throughout the
decomposition period, N was mineralized from the
mulch. Mulch N declined significantly between
months 0 to 3 and 6 to 12 (Fig. 5).

Agroforest Syst (2016) 90:325337

carbohydrate

100

331

hemicellulose

cellulose

lignin

ash

Mass remaining (%)

80

60

40

20

0
0

12

Time (months)

Fig. 6 Mass loss from mulch biochemical components in fullsun coffee system
Table 5 Significance of mass loss and changes in proportion
of mulch biochemical components over time
Component

Time (mo)

Fig. 7 Changes in proportion of mulch biochemical components in full-sun coffee system

percentage of mass as carbohydrate, hemicellulose,

cellulose, and lignin was 33, 29, 21, and 13 %,
respectively. In relationship to the original mass of
mulch added, the percentages after 12 months were
27, 24, 17, and 9 respectively (Fig. 7).

03

36

612

Indicators of litter quality

CHO

HEM

ns

CEL
LIG

*
*

*
*

*
*

CHO

ns

The C:N ratio of the leucaena mulch was 50:1 at the

beginning of the decomposition period (Table 6).
Over 1 year, it declined significantly to 40:1. The
lignin:N ratio of the mulch was initially 13:1. It
declined significantly over 1 year to final values of
10:1.

HEM

ns

CEL

ns

LIG

Mass loss

Proportion of mass

* Significant at P \ 0.017
ns not significant at same level, CHO soluble carbohydrates,
HEM hemicellulose, CEL cellulose, LIG lignin

Biochemical composition
Mass loss among the major biochemical components
in the mulch varied over time (Fig. 6). There was
significant loss of all components from months 03
and 612 (P \ 0.017, Table 5). There was a significant loss of both lignin and cellulose for all time
contrasts. In absolute terms, the most mass loss was in
the soluble fraction (Fig. 6). There were also small but
significant shifts in the proportion of each component
in the mass remaining (Table 5). The initial

Soil C and N
Soil %C and %N increased from 2006 to 2008 in both
the mulch and no-mulch treatments (Table 7). The
increases in %C and %N were significant in the mulchaddition treatment but not in the no-mulch treatment.
In both treatments, soil bulk density in the top 20 cm
declined significantly from 2006 to 2008 (Table 7).
This affected calculations of total soil C and N. In the
mulch-addition treatment, soil C still increased significantly by 2.90 Mg ha-1, but the increase in soil N
was not significant. For the no-mulch treatment, total
soil C declined significantly by 6.80 Mg ha-1 despite
no significant change in soil %C. When compared to
each other, soil C and N in 2008 were both
significantly greater in the mulch than the no-mulch
treatment.

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Agroforest Syst (2016) 90:325337

Table 6 Changes in % of carbon, nitrogen and lignin concentrations and the C:N and lignin:N ratios of tree mulch
Months

C (%)

SE

N (%)

SE

C:N

Lignin (%)

SE

Lignin:N

51.22

2.07

1.03

0.08

50:1

13.23

2.50

13:1

43.25

2.96

0.98

0.09

44:1

12.10

2.52

12:1

6
9

39.13
36.66

2.53
1.34

0.93
0.89

0.18
0.16

42:1
41:1

10.63
9.85

1.82
1.35

11:1
11:1

12

34.15

2.35

0.85

0.12

40:1

8.84

1.79

Time

10:1
*

* Indicates a significant change in concentration or ratio values over time at P \ 0.05

Table 7 Changes in soil bulk density (Mg m-3), C and N

(Mg ha-1) at 20 cm depth, due to mulch additions in full-sun
coffee system

Table 8 Changes in soil CO2 (l mol m-2 s-1) efflux and C

(Mg ha-1 year-1) due to mulch addition in full-sun coffee
system

Year

Year

No mulch

Mulch

Bulk density (Mg m-3)

No mulch

SE

Mulch

SE

CO2 (l mol m-2 s-1)

2006

1.26

1.25

2006

3.83

0.52

3.90

0.46

2008

0.93

0.90

2008

3.30

0.88

4.65

1.23

Change

-0.33

-0.35

Carbon (Mg ha-1)

Change

-0.53

0.75*

Carbon (Mg ha-1 year-1)

2006

45.6

45.6

2006

14.77

0.75

15.04

1.30

2008

38.8

48.50

2008

12.73

1.03

17.93

0.90

Change

-6.80*

2.9

Change

-2.04

2006

2.5

2.5

2008
Change

2.4
-0.1

3.92
1.42*

Nitrogen (Mg ha-1)

2.89*

* Indicates a significant change in CO2 efflux and C between

2006 and 2008

Indicates a significant difference between mulch and nomulch treatments

* Indicates a significant change in soil C or N between 2006

and 2008

Indicates a significant difference between mulch and nomulch treatments

with departures coinciding with periods of prolonged

dry weather, where soil water content may be limiting.

Soil CO2 efflux

Coffee growth and yield
Mulch additions from 2006 to 2008 increased soil CO2
efflux significantly by 0.75 l mol m-2 s-1 (Table 8).
There was no change over time in the no-mulch plots.
Soil CO2 efflux in 2008 was significantly higher in the
mulch than the no-mulch treatment (Table 8). This
treatment difference in 2008 was equivalent to approximately 5 Mg C ha-1.
Seasonal variations in the CO2 efflux, soil temperature, and soil moisture levels were observed in 2006
and 2008 (Fig. 9). Monthly variation in CO2 efflux
(Fig. 8) followed monthly changes soil temperature,

123

Growth and yield components of both treatments

increased from 2007 to 2008. Mulch addition significantly increased most of growth and yield components of coffee in 2007 and all components in 2008
(Table 9). Main stem diameter, height, laterals/stem,
nodes/lateral, fruits/node, and green bean weight were
greater in the mulch plots in both years (Table 9). Leaf
chlorophyll content (SPAD) in the mulch treatment
was significantly greater than the no-mulch treatment
in 2008 but not 2007.

Agroforest Syst (2016) 90:325337

333
Table 9 Growth and yield characteristics of coffee plants
based on mulch and no mulch treatments in 2007 and 2008

Surface soil temperature (C)

A
35

No mulch

30

mulch

SE

2007

25
20

Main stem D (mm)

17.32b

0.47

29.60a

0.81

Plant H (cm)

108b

0.84

166.50a

1.53

15

chl content (SPAD)

60.80a

1.01

64a

1.94

10

Yield (g)/tree

250.03b

1.77

407.36a

1.25

Fruit/node

8.14b

0.33

15.55a

0.57

Nodes/lateral

11.54b

0.40

18.55a

1.03

Laterals/stem

18.22b

0.86

28.44a

0.81

100 green beans (g)

16.14a

0.66

17.90a

0.98

Main stem D (mm)

29.70b

0.98

39.79a

0.75

Plant H (cm)

157.80b

0.96

205a

1.32

chl content (SPAD)

60.20b

1.30

68.25a

1.34

Yield (g)/tree

344.80b

1.55

855.35a

1.35

Fruit/node
Nodes/lateral

9.01b
14.50b

0.83
1.80

19.42a
25.34a

0.40
0.31

Laterals/stem

22.25b

0.95

31.44a

1.05

100 green beans (g)

16.62b

1.15

18.80a

0.72

B
5

Soil CO2 eflux

SE

2008

No-mulch
Mulch

0
01:00:00

05:00:00

09:00:00

13:00:00

17:00:00

21:00:00

01:00:00

Daily time

Fig. 8 a Surface soil temperature and b daily soil CO2 efflux

(l mol m-2 s-1) from mulch and no mulch plots of full-sun
coffee system

Means in the same row with the same letters in each year are
not significantly different based on Tukeys Studentized Range
(HSD) Test

Discussion
Mulch decay and changes in soil C
Mass loss of the added Leucaena mulch fit a first-order
exponential decline curve, similar to other studies of
fine litter decay (Kumar and Deepu 1992; Jama and
Nair 1996; Pereira et al. 1998) including Leucaena
leucocephala (Budelman 1988; Jamaludheen and
Kumar 1999) and Leucaena-KX2 in a shaded coffee
agroecosystem in Hawaii (Youkhana and Idol 2009).
The initial rapid decay phase is typical on the order of
24 months. The second phase is characterized by the
gradual loss of litter mass and can take many months
for complete decay. Although this pattern has generally been identified for leaves and other fine litter, we
found a similar pattern for the chipped tree pruning
residues of the Leucaena-KX2, which included a
mixture of leaves, seed pods, branches and orthotropic
shoots from the main stem (Youkhana and Idol 2009).
The actual and modeled decomposition rates in this
study were lower than in the previous study by

Youkhana and Idol (2009). The locations of the

experimental plots, mulch material and timing of
application were similar in both studies. Higher
surface temperatures and lower relative humidity in
the full-sun system may have reduced mulch water
content. This would retard microbial activity, especially during the middle of the day (Wintgens 2004).
Changes in the biochemical fractions of mulch were
small, also similar to patterns found in Youkhana and
Idol (2009). Various models of litter decomposition
and soil organic matter cycling separate out fast and
slow decay pools based on C:N ratio, lignin:N ratio, or
actual biochemical fractions such as cellulose, lignocelluloses, and extractives (Zhang et al. 2008). A
cross-biome study of litter decay also showed that
litter lignin concentration and the lignin:N ratio were
the strongest predictors of first-year decay rates.
However, classic studies of leaf litter decay suggest
decomposition in the first year can include all major
biochemical fractions (Berg et al. 1998; de Santo et al.
1993). This is because in the early stage, the

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334

123

2006

Soil CO2 efflux ( m-2 sec-1)

availability of easily degraded components like soluble carbohydrates provides sufficient energy to drive
decomposition of all major fractions. The preferential
loss of this soluble fraction then limits decay of the
more recalcitrant lignin and cellulose components
later on. This is despite a pattern of decreasing litter
C:N and lignin:N ratios over time. The general lack of
depletion of the soluble fraction or build-up of
recalcitrant fractions in the leucaena mulch suggests
the potential for continued rapid decay, but the
decomposition pattern over 12 months clearly demonstrates a slowing of the decay rate after the first
6 months.
Similar to Youkhana and Idol (2009), addition of
mulch in the full-sun system increased soil C after
2 years compared to the no-mulch plots. The decline
in soil bulk density in the top 20 cm (0.35 Mg m-3)
reduced the calculated total soil C and N. However,
this was similar for both treatments; thus, the relative
differences are still valid. The treatment difference of
10 Mg ha-1 is equivalent to approx. 20 % of the C
added as mulch over 2 years. Youkhana and Idol
(2009) found that over 3 years, the increase in soil C in
a shaded coffee system accounted for 38 % of the
added mulch C. Longer-term studies suggest a
1015 % annual rate of sequestration can be maintained for at least 1020 years (Fassbender 1998).
Given the rapid mulch decay and increases in soil C
and N in Youkhana and Idol (2009), significant
increases in soil CO2 efflux in the present study were
anticipated. The deposition of abundant and easily
decomposable, nitrogen-rich litter is known to result in
increased soil atmospheric CO2 concentrations
(McLain and Ahmann 2008) and soil respiration
(RSoil), e.g. under Prosopis spp. (Potts et al. 2008). In
our study, CO2 efflux increased gradually over time,
reflecting the effect of mulch decay on total soil
organic matter and cycling activity rather than direct
mulch C mineralization (Fig. 9). Mean annual efflux
in 2008 in the mulch-addition plots was significantly
greater than in 2006 and greater than efflux in the nomulch plots (Table 8). Daily and monthly variation
followed temperature patterns (Figs. 8, 9). Analyzing
data from 2007 and 2008, mulch C loss via decomposition in 2008 alone is estimated at 10.06 Mg ha-1.
Assuming the difference in CO2 flux between treatments in 2008 is primarily due to the addition of
mulch, these account for 5.1 Mg ha-1or just over
50 % of the mulch C added in 2008. Assuming the

Agroforest Syst (2016) 90:325337

2007

0
6

2008

No-mulch
Mulch

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Months

Fig. 9 Monthly average of soil CO2 efflux (l mol m-2 s-1)

from 2006 to 2008 in mulch and no mulch plots of full-sun
coffee system

difference in soil C content between treatments in

2008 is the average of the 2 years, this accounts for
another 4.85 Mg ha-1, or 48 % of the C lost via
decomposition.
Mulch N mineralization and changes in soil N
As in Youkhana and Idol (2009), there was a net loss of
N from the mulch between each time period. As well,
there was significant loss of mass from all measured
biochemical components but relatively small changes

Agroforest Syst (2016) 90:325337

in the proportion of mass remaining in each fraction.

Based on studies of other litter types (Palm 1995;
Young 1997), the initial C:N and lignin:N ratios of the
leucaena mulch were moderate, which would support
rapid litter decay and net N mineralization.
Leucaena has been used as a N source for coffee in
other parts of the world for many decades (e.g. Snoeck
1961). The early and sustained net release of N from
the decomposing mulch in our study provided a slowrelease N source for the coffee plants (Munroe and
Isaac 2014). Green bean yields in our study increased
over time as the plants continued to mature, but there
were clear differences between the mulch and nomulch plants in 2008 for all aspects of plant size and
bean yield, including average bean weight. Thus, even
at an equivalent N addition rate, there are growth and
yield advantages for using leucaena mulch as a
primary source of N. This suggests that the N provided
by Leucaena-KX2 mulch was sufficient for full-sun
coffee plants at this location. In cut and carry mulch
treatments, leaf N status showed adequate N concentration and no statically differences (Table 4) and no
nutrient deficiencies based on recommendations by
Bittenbender and Smith (1999).
Coffee growth and yield
Other studies have observed multiple benefits from
mulching, including increased soil fertility, soil
organic matter, soil water storage capacity, and
infiltration rate associated with increased crop growth
and yield (Mbagwu 1991; Owaiye 1993; Ogban et al.
2001). According to Cyamweshi et al. (2014), the
yield of Arabica coffee was highly significantly
influenced by mulching. Vaast et al. (2006) and
Wintgens (2004) reported that mulch application on
coffee soils helps in regulating soil temperature and
increases soil moisture by decreasing evaporation
from the surface soil, thus contributing to a greater
number of fruits per node and nodes per lateral branch.
This is also in line with the findings of Yunianto
(1986), who reported that the use of mulch helped in
reducing over-bearing and dieback in Arabica coffee
and enhanced its sustainable biological productivity
for longer period of time.
All components of growth and yield were higher in
mulch than no-mulch plots, despite attempts to provide
adequate nutrients to no-mulch plots through fertilization. A related study that compared full-sun vs shaded

335

coffee found that yields were highest under full-sun

(Youkhana and Idol 2011). As in this study, urea was
added to the full-sun plots at the same rate as the mulch
N addition in the shaded plots. However, in that study,
trees were pruned every 3 months to maintain target
shade levels, resulting in a higher N addition rate over
time than the annual mulch additions in this study.
Thus, in both shaded and full-sun plots, N was added
more frequently and at a higher rate.
In the present study, there was a net loss of N from
the mulch between each time period. As well, there
was significant loss of mass from all measured
biochemical components but relatively small changes
in the proportion of mass remaining in each fraction.
Based on studies of other litter types (Palm 1995;
Young 1997), the initial C:N and lignin:N ratios of the
leucaena mulch were moderate, which would support
rapid litter decay and net N mineralization. This
contrasts with urea, which is regarded as a short-term
source of mineral N. Thus, even though similar
amounts of N were added in both treatments, the N
release pattern in the mulch plots likely was a better
match with plant demand over the cropping cycle.
This would also explain the better full-sun yields in the
study by Youkhana and Idol (2011), since urea was
added every 3 months rather than once a year.
The mulch addition rates in this study were set to be
the same as those in Youkhana and Idol (2009), in
which trees growing within the coffee rows were
pollarded to provide mulch. The coffee plants in that
study were planted on the same spacing as in the
present study (2 9 2 m). The Leucaena-KX2 trees in
that study were also planted on a 2 9 2-m spacing in
between the coffee plants; therefore, a similar area of
KX2 trees can be used to supply mulch to open-grown
coffee plots.
We did not measure soil water availability or
retention in this study. Plots were irrigated during the
dry season, but greater soil water storage due to
increased organic matter could have benefited the crop
during dry periods. As these soils have a very dark
color due to the presence of manganese oxides,
exposed surface soil temperatures can be as high as
50 C during the middle of the day (data not shown).
Mulch should act as an effective insulator under these
conditions, lowering soil surface temperature and thus
reducing soil evaporation.
The practical benefits of mulch, therefore, extend
beyond simply providing an alternative source of N for

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336

coffee plants. The tradeoff of a cut-and-carry system,

of course, is the increased land requirement for the
trees and the labor and machinery to pollard and chip
the tree prunings to generate the mulch. However, in
mechanized coffee plantations, the ability to provide
the benefits of green manures without the interference
of in-field trees may make the tradeoff desirable for
certain growers. Green bean yields for the mulch
treatment in 2008 are similar on a per-plant basis to
yields reported for mature Coffea arabica Kona
Typica plants grown at low-elevation sites on Oahu
(Steiman et al. 2011; Youkhana and Idol 2011). Mulch
additions in full-sun coffee, therefore, can support the
move toward sustainable and organic production
without sacrificing yields in addition to the benefits
of increased soil organic matter and soil cover (e.g.
reduced weed growth, increased water infiltration and
plant-available soil water and reduced soil erosion).

Conclusions
Leucaena mulch added to full-sun coffee decayed
rapidly and mineralized significant amounts of N over
a 12-month decomposition period based on site
climate and micro-climate factors. The combination
of a humid tropical climate and moderate to high litter
quality likely accounted for these patterns. Mass loss
occurred in all major biochemical components,
including lignin and cellulose. Decay of this material
on the top of 20 cm of soil also resulted in greater soil
C and N and higher soil CO2 efflux compared to nomulch plots. Carbon sequestration in soil organic
matter was *20 % of added mulch. Coffee yields
were twice as high in the mulch-addition plots, even
though equivalent amounts of inorganic N were
applied to no-mulch plots. The results of this study,
therefore, confirm the potential of a cut-and-carry
system of Leucaena-KX2 mulch to enhance the yield,
soil C and fertility of full-sun coffee production in
Hawaii.

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