SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

INTRODUCTION
The collection, transport, treatment, and disposal of solid wastes, particularly
wastes generated in medium and large urban centers, have become a relatively
difficult problem to solve for those responsible for their management. The problem
is even more acute in economically developing countries, where financial, human,
and other critical resources generally are scarce.
The organic fraction of municipal solid waste (MSW) is an important
component, not only because it constitutes a sizable fraction of the solid waste
stream in a developing country, but also because of its potentially adverse impact
upon public health and environmental quality. A major adverse impact is its
attraction of rodents and vector insects for which it provides food and shelter.
Impact on environmental quality takes the form of foul odors and unsightliness.
These impacts are not confined merely to the disposal site. On the contrary, they
pervade the area surrounding the site and wherever the wastes are generated,
spread, or accumulated.
Unless an organic waste is appropriately managed, its adverse impact will
continue until it has fully decomposed or otherwise stabilized. Uncontrolled or
poorly managed intermediate decomposition products can contaminate air, water,
and soil resources.
Studies have shown that a high percentage of workers who handle refuse,
and of individuals who live near or on disposal sites, are infected with
gastrointestinal parasites, worms, and related organisms. Contamination of this kind
is likely at all points where waste is handled. Although it is certain that vector
insects and rodents can transmit various pathogenic agents (amoebic and bacillary
dysenteries, typhoid fever, salmonellosis, various parasitoses, cholera, yellow fever,
plague, and others), it often is difficult to trace the effects of such transmission to a
specific population.
Due to the implementation of modern solid waste management practices,
both the public health and the quality of the environment are benefited directly and
substantially. A modern solid waste management program can be implemented for
a reasonable cost. This is an important fact because there are ample known
situations where solid waste management costs in developing countries are high
and the level of service low. But, if the underlying reasons for these situations are
analyzed, then one can see in many cases that cost-effective waste management
systems would result if the identified deficiencies in the systems were remedied.

For example, in some developing countries, municipalities spend a

disproportionate amount of financial resources on certain solid waste services, in
particular waste collection and sweeping. In the past, a common approach to curing
poor service provision was to simply expend more capital (e.g., the acquisition of
additional equipment, design and construction of facilities, etc.) without also
addressing and remedying inefficiencies inherent in the system. Unfortunately, high
capital investment in the solid waste management sector in many developing
countries does not necessarily lead to improvements in the quality of service. On
the other hand, substantial improvements can be achieved in many cases by
making low-cost, or sometimes no-cost, modifications in the existing system, with
the focus being on increasing system efficiencies. Examples of such improvements
are the efficient design of collection routes, modifications in the collection vehicles,
reductions in equipment downtime, and public education, (e.g., education and
communication leading to the production of less waste and the reduction of litter).
Nations
are
leaning
towards
sustainable development, of which,
integrated solid waste management is
included. At the United Nations
Sustainable Development Summit held
last 25th of September 2015, world
leaders adopted the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable
Development,
which
includes a set of 17 Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) to end poverty, fight inequality and injustice, and tackle
climate change by 2030. With proper implementation of SWM, this can contribute to
the overall improvement of the economic stability of nations and attaining the set of
global goals.

SOLID WASTE CHARACTERIZATION

Municipal solid waste (MSW) is a term usually applied to a heterogeneous

collection of wastes produced in urban areas, the nature of which varies from region
to region. The characteristics and quantity of the solid waste generated in a region
is not only a function of the living standard and lifestyle of the region's inhabitants,
but also of the abundance and type of the region's natural resources. Urban wastes
can be subdivided into two major components -- organic and inorganic. In general,
the organic components of urban solid waste can be classified into three broad
categories: putrescible, fermentable, and non-fermentable.
Putrescible wastes tend to decompose rapidly and unless carefully
controlled, decompose with the production of objectionable odors and visual
unpleasantness. A major source of putrescible waste is food preparation and
consumption. As such, its nature varies with lifestyle, standard of living, and
seasonality of foods.
Fermentable wastes tend to decompose rapidly, but without the
unpleasant accompaniments of putrefaction. These wastes are typified by
crop and market debris.
Non-fermentable wastes tend to resist decomposition and, therefore,
break down very slowly.

Definitions of Municipal Solid Waste

By OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development :
Municipal waste is collected and treated by, or for municipalities. It covers waste
from households, including bulky waste, similar waste from commerce and trade,
office buildings, institutions and small businesses, yard and garden, street
sweepings, contents of litter containers, and market cleansing. Waste from
municipal sewage networks and treatment, as well as municipal construction and
demolition is excluded.
By PAHO (Pan-American Health Organization): Solid or semi-solid waste
generated in population centers including domestic and, commercial wastes, as well
as those originated by the small-scale industries and institutions (including hospital
and clinics); market street sweeping, and from public cleansing.

By IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change): The IPCC includes the

following in MSW: food waste; garden (yard) and park waste; paper and cardboard;
wood; textiles; nappies (disposable diapers); rubber and leather; plastics; metal;
glass (and pottery and china); and other (e.g., ash, dirt, dust, soil, electronic waste).
Biodegradable wastes are materials that can be easily decomposed by natural
agents like water, oxygen, ultraviolet rays of the sun, and microorganisms. One can
notice that when a dead leaf or a banana peel is thrown outside, it is acted upon by
several micro-organisms like bacteria, fungi or small insects in a time period. The
natural elements like oxygen, water, moisture and heat facilitates the
decomposition thereby breaking the complex organic forms to simpler units. The
decomposed matter eventually mixes or returns back to the soil and thus the soil is
once again nourished with various nutrients and minerals.
Non-biodegradable wastes are materials which cannot be broken down or
decomposed into the soil by natural agents are labelled as non-biodegradable.
These substances consists of plastic materials, metal scraps, aluminum cans and
bottles, hazardous chemicals etc. These things are practically immune to the
natural processes and thus cannot be fed upon or broken down even after
thousands of years. Therefore, these waste rather than returning back, contribute to
solid waste which is very hazardous for the environment. The ever increasing load
of non-biodegradable trash is a growing concern all over the world and several
countries are therefore, looking for eco-friendly alternatives that can minimize the
threat on several land and aquatic life forms.
Recyclable materials are any waste material retrieved from the waste stream and
free from contamination that can still be converted into suitable beneficial use or for
other purposes, including, but not limited to, newspaper, ferrous scrap metal, nonferrous scrap metal, used oil, corrugated cardboard, aluminum, glass, office paper,
tin cans and other materials

Sources of Solid Waste

Sources of solid wastes in a community are, in general, related to land use

and zoning. Although any number of source classifications can be developed, the
following categories have been found useful: (1) residential, (2) industrial, (3)
commercial, (4) institutional, (5) construction and demolition, (6) municipal
services, (6) process, (7) medical waste, and (8) agricultural.
Table 1: Generators and Types of Solid Waste (adapted from What a Waste
1999)

Waste Composition

In the municipal solid waste stream, waste is broadly classified into organic
and inorganic. Waste composition is categorized as organic, paper, plastic, glass,
metals, and other. These categories can be further refined, however, these six
categories are usually sufficient for general solid waste planning purposes.
Table 2: Types of Waste and their Sources

Figure 1. Global Solid Waste Composition (2009)

Waste composition is influenced by many factors, such as level of economic

development, cultural norms, geographical location, energy sources, and climate.
As a country urbanizes and populations become wealthier, consumption of inorganic
materials (such as plastics, paper, and aluminum) increases, while the relative
organic fraction decreases. Generally, low- and middle-income countries have a
high percentage of organic matter in the urban waste stream, ranging from 40 to
85% of the total. Paper, plastic, glass, and metal fractions increase in the waste
stream of middle- and high-income countries.

Waste Composition by Income

As Figures 2 a-d show, the organic fraction tends to be highest in low-income

countries and lowest in high-income countries. Total amount of organic waste tends
to increase steadily as affluence increases at a slower rate than the non-organic
fraction. Low-income countries have an organic fraction of 64% compared to 28%
in high-income countries. The data presented in Figure 4 illustrates solid waste
composition by income as compared between current values and values projected
for 2025.

Figure 2. Waste Composition by Income Level

Tables 3a and 3b represents a compilation of composition values of current

day data presented in Annex M of What A Waste: A Global Review of Solid Waste
Management, and specific reports for larger countries such as China and India.
Estimates for waste composition in 2025 are based on trends observed in OECD
countries and authors projections.

Table 3a: Summary of Waste Composition by Income Level (as of 2012)

Table 3b: Summary of Waste Composition by Income Level (2025 Estimates)

Waste Composition by Region

Geography influences waste composition by determining building materials
(e.g. wood versus steel), ash content (often from household heating) , amount of
street sweepings (can be as much as 10% of a citys waste stream in dry locations) ,
and horticultural waste. The type of energy source in a location can have an impact
on the composition of MSW generated. This is especially true in low-income
countries or regions where energy for cooking, heating, and lighting might not come
from district heating systems or the electricity grid.
For example, Figure 3 shows the difference in waste composition in China
between a section of the population that uses coal and another that uses natural
gas for space heating. The other category is clearly higher: 47% when coal is used,
and an ash residue is included, as opposed to 10% when natural gas is used for
home heating.

Figure 3. Waste Composition in China

Climate can also influence waste generation in a city, country, or region. For
example, in Ulan Bator, Mongolia, ash makes up 60% of the MSW generated in the
winter, but only 20% in the summer (UNEP/GRID-Arendal 2004) . Precipitation is also
important in waste composition, particularly when measured by mass, as uncontainerized waste can absorb significant amounts of water from rain and snow.
Humidity also influences waste composition by influencing moisture content.
MSW composition by region is shown in Figures 5 a-g. The East Asia and the
Pacific Region has the highest fraction of organic waste (62%) compared to OECD
countries, which have the least (27%). The amount of paper, glass, and metals
found in the MSW stream are the highest in OECD countries (32%, 7%, and 6%,
respectively) and lowest in the South Asia Region (4% for paper and 1% for both
glass and metals). Annex J provides data for MSW projections for 2025 by region.
AFR Africa Region
EAP East Asia and Pacific Region
Africa Region
ECA Europe and Central Asia Region
Region

SAR South Asia Region

MENA Middle East and North
LCR Latin America and Caribbean

OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development

Figure 4.
Solid
Waste
Compositio
n by
Income

Figure 5.
Waste
Compositio
n by
Region

TYPES OF SOLID WASTES

The type of solid waste to be disposed is an important consideration in the
design of a sanitary landfill. Generally, sanitary landfills are considered to be land
disposal facilities that receive solid wastes from residential, commercial, and
industrial sources. The quantities and characteristics (e.g., composition, etc.) of the
solid waste define the general procedures to be employed in the landfill operation.
Furthermore, the type and composition of the wastes buried in the fill affect the
quantity and composition of leachate generated and of the gases generated within
the fill. Other considerations related to types of solid waste that affect the design
and operation of landfills include the risks and hazards to personnel arising from the
corrosivity, severe toxicity, or other dangerous property had by a particular waste.
Solid wastes can be categorized into three types. These are acceptable wastes,
unacceptable wastes, and special wastes.

I.

ACCEPTABLE wastes

Most solid wastes generated by residential, commercial, industrial, and

agricultural sources may be disposed in a sanitary landfill of modern design without
necessarily directly or indirectly endangering the well-being of the public and the
quality of the environment. For convenience of reference, such wastes are referred
to as acceptable wastes.
In contrast, many types of industrial process wastes (as opposed to the
wastes generated in the offices of industrial facilities) should not be disposed in
sanitary landfills but should be handled in specially designed landfills. These wastes
are referred to as unacceptable wastes. Wastes that are unacceptable should
receive special evaluation to assess the particular risks associated with their
disposal. With very few exceptions, only those wastes for which a given facility has
been specifically designed should be accepted by that facility. An exception might
be a waste that has been shown to fit within the existing or appropriately modified
design capacity of the facility and that has the appropriate biochemical
characteristics.
Unfortunately, in many of the poorer developing nations, separation of
wastes into acceptable and unacceptable categories is not practiced, nor is
separation feasible in the foreseeable future. In many developing countries,
circumstances are likely to be such that the only feasible course of action to gain
some degree of control over land disposal is to accept all solid wastes without
exception. The very act of removing the wastes from the open environment and
placing them in a controlled land disposal facility would represent an advancement
over the indiscriminate disposal practices currently in existence.

Dewatered solids (i.e., sludges or, synonymously, biosolids) from municipal

wastewater treatment plants and water supply treatment plants (excepting raw
sludge) can be regarded as being acceptable wastes.

II.

UNACCEPTABLE wastes

Ideally, the decision as to which wastes are to be deemed unacceptable

should be made during the planning process, should be made jointly by the
responsible governmental agency and the disposal site designer and operator, and
should take into account the results of surveying large waste generators (in
particular, industrial waste generators) in terms of the quantities and characteristics
of their wastes. The wastes should be identified in the landfill development plans
and frequent users of the disposal facility should be provided with a list of such
wastes. Criteria recommended for use in decisions regarding acceptability should
include the hydrogeology of the site; the chemical and biological characteristics of
the waste; availability of alternative methods for disposal, reuse, or recycling;
environmental risks; and the risks to the health and safety of the operating
personnel and to the public.
Wastes that should require specific approval of the responsible government
agency for acceptance at the disposal site should include those that are legally
defined as hazardous waste or wastes that contain materials that are defined as
hazardous materials -- medical wastes, bulk liquids and semi-liquids, sludges
containing free moisture, highly flammable or volatile substances, raw animal
manures, septic tank pumpings and raw sludge, and industrial process wastes. It
should be noted that some animal wastes may be infectious because they contain
animal disease organisms that can be transmitted to humans.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) promulgated a
definition of hazardous waste that is appropriate for industrialized and developing
nations. According to the definition, a waste is hazardous if it poses a substantial
present or potential hazard to human health or living organisms because: the waste
is non-degradable or persistent in nature, it can be biologically magnified, it can be
lethal, or it may otherwise cause or tend to cause detrimental cumulative effects.

III.

SPECIAL wastes

There are several types of wastes that are commonly termed special
wastes. Of these, medical (infectious) wastes and various types of sludge are
commonly generated and disposed on the land in developing nations, and therefore,
should receive special attention. Quantities of other types of special wastes will be
considerably reduced through extensive scavenging and recycling activities

characteristic of developing nations. Some of these wastes include institutional

wastes, construction and demolition debris, animal manures, and animal carcasses.
Special wastes are those types of solid waste that require special handling,
treatment, and/or disposal. The reasons for separate consideration include: 1) their
characteristics and quantities (either or both may render them difficult to manage if
they are combined with typical municipal solid waste); or 2) their presence will or
may pose a significant danger to the health and safety of workers and/or the public,
to the environment, or both.
These wastes are very different from each other, so they should be managed
and handled separately if feasible. Typically, in developing countries, special wastes
are set out for collection, collected, and/or disposed along with wastes from
commercial businesses and residential generators. Ideally, these wastes should not
enter the municipal solid waste stream, but quite frequently they do, particularly in
developing countries.
Some examples of special types of wastes are given below.

Special wastes can cause significant health and environmental impacts when
managed inadequately. Persons that may come into direct contact with the wastes,
such as waste collectors and scavengers, may be subject to significant health and
safety risks when exposed to some types of special wastes, e.g., industrial
hazardous waste. Toxic components of these wastes can enter the environment, for
example, poisoning surface and groundwater bodies. Hazardous wastes can also
degrade MSW equipment used to manage solid waste (e.g., collection vehicles), or
the performance of the equipment.
Proper management of special wastes is quite difficult in most developing
countries, particularly in those countries where regular MSW is not managed

adequately. Three issues are usually always relevant: 1) the party or organization
responsible for managing special wastes is seldom clearly identified and the
necessary entity may not even be in existence; 2) available resources to manage
solid waste are scant and priorities have to be set; and 3) the technology and
trained personnel needed to manage special wastes are seldom available. In the
absence of countervailing reasons, the development of sound practices in the
management of special wastes should follow the integrated waste management
hierarchy applied in other areas of MSWM, i.e., waste reduction, minimization,
resource recovery, recycling, treatment (including incineration), and final disposal.
As with the management of other types of MSW, the proper application and
programmatic emphasis of this hierarchy to special wastes depends on local
circumstances (e.g., available technologies, waste quantities and properties, and
available human and financial resources).

A. Medical Waste
Medical waste is one of the most
problematic types of wastes for a
municipality or a solid waste authority.
When such wastes enter the MSW stream,
pathogens in the wastes pose a great
hazard to the environment and to those
who come in contact with the wastes.
Wastes generated within health care
facilities have three main components: 1)
common (general) wastes (for example, administrative office waste, garden waste
and kitchen waste); 2) pathogenic or infectious wastes (these types also include
sharps); and 3) hazardous wastes (mainly those originating in the laboratories
containing toxic substances). The quantity of the first type of general wastes tends
to be much larger than that for the second and third types.
Segregation of medical waste types is recommended as a basic waste
management practice, as indicated in the table below. However, thorough
separation is possible only when there is significant management commitment, indepth and continuous training of personnel, and permanent supervision to ensure
that the prescribed practices are being followed. Otherwise, there is always a risk
that infectious and hazardous materials will enter the general MSW stream.

Recommended Methods for Managing Medical Waste

B. Household Hazardous Waste

Households generate small quantities of
hazardous wastes such as oil-based paints,
paint thinners, wood preservatives, pesticides,
insecticides, household cleaners, used motor
oil, antifreeze, and
batteries. It has been
estimated that household hazardous waste in
industrialized countries such as the United
States accounts for a total of about 0.5% (by
weight) of all waste generated at home. In
most developing countries, the percentage
probably is even lower.
There are no specific, cost-effective, sound practices that can be
recommended for the management of household hazardous wastes in developing
countries. Rather, since concentrated hazardous wastes tend to create more of a
hazard, it is best to dispose of household hazardous wastes jointly with the MSW
stream in a landfill, where the biological processes tend to exert a fixating effect on
small amounts of toxic metals, while other toxic substances are diluted by the
presence of MSW or are broken down into less toxic intermediates during the
process of decomposition in the fill. When resources are available (typically in
industrialized countries), appropriate methods and necessary conditions for
separation of household hazardous wastes from the rest of the MSW stream include
those stated below.
Methods and Conditions for Promoting Separation of Household Hazardous
Wastes (HHW) in Industrialized Countries.

C. Used Tires
The management of used tires poses
a potential problem for even the more
modern MSWM systems, for reasons related
both to the tires physical properties and
their shape. Tires are composed primarily of
complex natural and synthetic rubber
compounds, both of which have substantial
heating value, and various other materials.
The recovery of rubber from used tires can
be
very
energy-intensive,
and
such
processing
may
generate
hazardous
substances and other types of process residues. Illegal stockpiles of used tires can
create substantial land use problems, harm the environment, and serve as breeding
grounds for insects and other small animals that harbor pathogens that are
detrimental to human health. Stockpiles can self-ignite and cause fires that are very
difficult to control, resulting in negative human health and environmental impacts.
When whole tires are disposed in a landfill, they often rise to the top and
make it difficult to maintain the soil cover over the wastes. When dumped illegally,
tires can become breeding grounds for mosquitoes and other forms of life that can
spread disease, such as dengue. Some appropriate methods of managing used tires
are described below. The informal sector oftentimes serves as a means to reuse or
recycle used tires.
Appropriate Methods for Managing Used Tires

D. Used Oil

Used oils are generated primarily in

gas stations and in mechanics shops.
These oils generally are discharged in the
most convenient location and frequently
enter the
sewage
system,
causing
problems in the treatment plants or in the
receiving bodies of water. When oil is
collected haphazardly as part of the MSW
stream, it causes problems at the landfill
and often becomes part of the landfill leachate.

Some Recommended Methods of Managing Used Oils

E. Electronic Waste (e-waste)

During the last few years, there has been a substantial reduction in the cost
and a commensurate increase in the availability and usage of a variety of electronic
products. Although the list of relatively new products is long, some of the most
common products include personal computers, printers, monitors, television sets,
and cellular telephones. As the usage of these and similar products increases, a
large number of them are replaced and disposed each year. Improper treatment and
unsafe final disposition of these materials has resulted in several problems, which
have far reaching implications. One key problem is that related to the fact that most
electronic products contain several types of hazardous materials, such as mercury,
arsenic, lead, cadmium, and others. If the electronic products are improperly treated
or discarded along with the general municipal solid waste, the hazardous materials

in the products can be released and result in

negative impacts to the public health and to
the environment.
One
practical
solution
to
the
management of e-waste involves the
implementation of segregated collection and
adequate processing. Current methods for
the
treatment
of
e-products
include
mechanical and chemical processing of the
products for the recovery of valuable materials and the removal and/or reduction of
the toxicity of the residue.

F.

Wet Batteries

Used wet batteries are typically generated

by car maintenance facilities and vehicle battery
suppliers. This type of battery contains acid and
lead, both of which are hazardous to humans and
to the environment if not properly managed.
Environmentally acceptable processing of wet
batteries for materials recovery requires trained
and experienced facility personnel. Recycling of
batteries
typically
involves
draining
and
neutralization of the acidic liquid, and recovery of the lead in a non-ferrous foundry.

G. Construction and Demolition Debris

Construction and demolition (C&D) debris
are generated regularly in urban areas as
a result of new construction, demolition of
old structures and roadways, and regular
maintenance of buildings. These wastes
contain cement, bricks, asphalt, wood,
metals, and other construction materials
that are typically inert. In many cases, the
biological inertness of C&D debris means
that it can be disposed in landfills with
lesser restrictions than those required for
MSW, which has substantially higher biodegradable content and potential for
polluting the environment. However, it must be pointed out that C&D debris may
contain some hazardous materials, such as asbestos and PCBs, although this
circumstance is most probable in the case of industrialized countries.

Very large volumes of demolition waste are generated during natural disasters
(earthquakes, floods, typhoons, and others) and during wars. City authorities need
to protect against disposal of these wastes in the streets and on vacant lands, since
these locations can become illegal, uncontrolled dumps with their attendant
negative consequences. On the other hand, disposal of C&D debris in MSW landfills
can be costly and a poor use of landfill capacity. Thus, other alternatives to disposal
of C&D may be warranted and should be considered in any event. Processing and
recycling are alternatives.
Sound
practices
for
the
management of C&D wastes are based
on the concept of prevention, reuse, and
recycling of waste. When these practices
cannot be implemented, proper disposal
must be considered. Since these wastes
are primarily inert or they can be
processed to be so in some cases, they
can be used for fill, for example in former
quarries, as road base, or in coastal
cities, to gain land at the ocean front or
for the construction of levees.

Special landfill sites for the final disposition of construction and demolition
landfill sites are also an option. Siting of these landfills is less difficult than for
regular MSW landfills since the potential environmental impact in the majority of
cases is relatively small.

Sound Practices for Diverting Construction and Demolition Debris from

Landfill Disposal

H. Bulky Metallic Waste

Bulky metallic waste is composed of
metallic objects that occupy large volumes
(e.g., greater than 1 or 2 m3) and are
composed of high-density material, either
when encountered singularly or in
combination. Examples of bulky metallic
waste are old vehicle bodies, structural
steel, large metallic appliances, and
discarded fabricating equipment. The most
prevalent material of construction for
bulky metallic waste is steel, although
other types, such as aluminum, are also encountered to a lesser extent.
This type of waste is considered a special waste because it is difficult to
handle, process, and dispose using the more common and conventional municipal
solid waste management equipment. Special, large-capacity equipment is normally
required to collect, process, and dispose of bulky metallic waste. Also, much of bulky
metallic waste is potentially recyclable. However, the feasibility of recycling is a
function of the costs of processing, availability of markets, transportation costs, etc.
Management of bulky metallic waste is a particularly difficult problem for
rural and isolated communities (e.g., remote islands) because of limited space for
storage and/or disposal, limited financial resources, and long distances to recycling
markets.

I.

Municipal Wastewater Treatment (sewage) sludge, Septage, and

Slaughterhouse wastes

Municipal wastewater treatment (MWWT) sewage sludge (biosolids)

is generated as a consequence of processing municipal wastewater for safe
discharge to the environment. The sludge is composed of the semi-solid or solid
residues remaining after processing of wastewater. Septage, on the other hand, is
the material pumped from septic tanks serving residences. Both MWWT sludges and
septage contain large quantities of pathogenic organisms, and they often contain
chemical contaminants, as well, if liquid discharges at the source are not pretreated before disposal into the sewer. These materials, therefore, require proper
treatment and disposal.
Slaughterhouse wastes can be used to produce ingredients in the
manufacture of soil amendment, animal feed, and glues. The traditional methods of
sun-drying, breaking up bones manually, composting in pits (sometimes with the
addition of household organics), and steam digestion carry various types of health
risks, and cannot be considered acceptable practices.
Small-scale aerobic
composting of animal wastes, including manures, hide scrapings, and tannery and
slaughterhouse wastes, can also produce a soil amendment, but carries some risks
in terms of spreading pathogens if the wastes are not properly sterilized. All of these
activities generate leachate and the associated unpleasant odors, and are typically
associated with poor working conditions and risks to worker health, but may be
profitable and provide subsistence income.
Appropriate methods of management of these types of materials could
involve introducing technical and health improvements, rather than entirely
eliminating the activities themselves.

Practices for Reducing and Handling Sewage Sludge and Septage

J.

Industrial Waste

The collection of industrial waste typically is not under the jurisdiction of

municipal authorities in industrialized countries. However, in developing countries,
where proper industrial waste management systems are not in place, such waste
often enters the MSW municipal solid waste stream.
Waste generated from industrial sources can have non-hazardous and
hazardous components, with non-hazardous waste usually representing the greater
part of the volume. The hazardous component of this waste, while generally being
relatively small in volume, can pose significant environmental and public health
problems.
Appropriate methods for the proper management of hazardous industrial
wastes vary substantially, depending on the specific quantities and characteristics
of the waste, cost of management, local regulations, and other factors. The planning
and design of methods and facilities for managing industrial hazardous waste are
beyond the scope of this publication. In any case, best waste management practices
incorporate separation of hazardous industrial waste from MSW. In those cases
where municipal authorities are forced to provide a temporary solution for the
disposal of hazardous waste, specially designed cells should be provided within the
municipal landfill. These cells must be isolated so that scavengers cannot come into
contact with the hazardous waste.

Types of Street Wastes

For purposes of solid waste management, street wastes can be classified into
three main categories, depending upon the type of generator. The classification is
as follows: 1) wastes generated by natural causes, 2) wastes generated by road
traffic, and 3) wastes generated by the public (behavioral wastes). A discussion of
each type follows.

A. Wastes generated by natural causes

As the name implies, these wastes are generated by natural phenomena and
are difficult to avoid. They include dusts blown from unpaved areas, and leaves and
flowers that fall from trees and plants in the community. Since wastes produced by
natural events cannot be avoided, the method of management must be control, for
example, the use of such measures as planting of vegetation and other artificial
methods to prevent erosion in empty lots, planting of adequate trees and
vegetation as wind breakers, and careful selection and regular maintenance (e.g.,
pruning) of the trees planted in the city.

B. Wastes generated by traffic

Motor vehicles can generate a relatively high proportion of street wastes.
Motor vehicles deposit dirt and mud, as well as oil and rubber on the roads.
Particulate matter from diesel emissions also accumulates on streets, trees, and
building surfaces, creating a public nuisance. In addition, in developing countries, it
is common to transport materials in vehicles that are uncovered, and there can be
accidental spillage of a vehicles load. Additionally, animals drawing vehicles can
deposit excrement on the road surface. Mud is often carried out of construction
sites, adhered to the tires of motor vehicles, and subsequently deposited on
adjacent roads. In general, traffic wastes are unavoidable; however, it is possible to
control them through public education and the promulgation of appropriate rules
and regulations. Regulations requiring that loads be covered to reduce spillage and
that vehicles be properly cleaned before leaving muddy construction sites can
positively contribute toward the reduction of wastes generated by traffic.

C. Wastes generated by the public

There are two major sources of wastes generated by the public: 1) litter
thrown onto the streets by pedestrians, and 2) residential and commercial wastes
swept or discarded from private premises. As previously indicated, a large fraction
of these wastes can be controlled, provided that an efficient and reliable refuse
collection service is in operation and that litter bins are provided for use by
pedestrians. These two conditions should be complemented by a continuous
program of public education, combined with strong legislation and enforcement
procedures. Another potential solution to reducing the amount of litter is to offer a
free or relatively inexpensive program to collect non-conventional wastes such as
construction and demolition debris, tree trimmings, and others.

Yard waste and Food Waste Processing

A waste processing facility can include an accommodation to receive and
process segregated yard and food wastes.
Yard Waste
Yard waste is taken cumulatively to mean the variety of wastes of plant
origin that are produced during the course of gardening, landscaping, and general
maintenance of grounds. Sources of yard waste may be residential, commercial,
institutional, and industrial sectors. Institutional sources include parks, public
gardens, and landscaping (initiation and maintenance) of public properties.

The composition and quantities of yard waste are influenced predominantly

by geographical location, population density, and seasonality. Residential sources
include single family residences and multi-family units (e.g., apartments)
Residential units in rural settings can be expected to generate more varied and
larger amounts of yard waste than those in suburban areas-- and far more than
those in densely populated urban cities. Volumes and types generated in
institutional and commercial park settings are fairly similar. Not to be overlooked is
kerbside landscaping, of which trees are major constituents. Although the
generation of yard waste may be relatively small in small municipalities in
economically developing countries, the quantity of yard wastes generated in large
metropolitan areas is substantial.
The principal types of yard waste of concern in solid waste management are:
1) fallen leaves (especially from deciduous shrubs and trees); 2) discarded
herbaceous plants or plant trimmings; 3) trimmings from large shrubs, ornamentals,
and trees; and 4) grass clippings. These types of yard waste differ one from the
other with respect to physical and chemical properties and to biodegradability. For
example, the fallen leaves collected in autumn contain large concentrations of
carbon and very little nitrogen. The structure and the carbon-to-nitrogen ratio of
freshly discarded green herbaceous plants and their trimmings are conducive to
rapid decomposition, whereas those of mature ones are not; for example, the higher
lignin content of large tree branches compared to that of growing twigs.

Food Waste
The term food waste refers to the putrescible waste generated in the
preparation and consumption of food and that remaining after consumption (i.e.,
kitchen and restaurant wastes); discarded comestibles (e.g., spoiled or partially
eaten fruit, stale bakery goods, etc.); and vegetable trimmings generated in
produce markets. A relatively recent development in the United States and Western
Europe is the expanding advocacy for composting a mixture of yard waste and food
waste. The concept has much in its favor. Food waste decomposes readily and
under proper conditions enhances the compostability of yard wastes, especially of
shrub and tree trimmings and leaves by serving as a readily available microbial
energy source and to a limited extent as a nitrogen source for the microbial
populations.

REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9003

ECOLOGICAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT ACT OF 2000

Date: July 24, 2000

Date Approved: January 26, 2001
Approved by: Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo
Ch. 1 Art. 1 Sec. 2: Declaration of Policies
It is hereby declared the policy of the State to adopt a systematic,
comprehensive and ecological solid waste management program which shall:
a. Ensure the protection of public health and environment;
b. Utilize environmentally-sound methods that maximize the utilization of
valuable resources and encourage resources conservation and recovery;
c. Set guidelines and targets for solid waste avoidance and volume reduction
through source reduction and waste minimization measures, including
composing, recycling, re-use, recovery, green charcoal process, and others,
before collection, treatment and disposal in appropriate and environmentally
sound solid waste management facilities in accordance with ecologically
sustainable development principles;
d. Ensure the proper segregation, collection, transport, storage, treatment and
disposal of solid waste through the formulation and adoption of the best
environmental practices in ecological waste management excluding
incineration;
e. Promote national research and development programs for improved solid
waste management and resource conservation techniques, more effective
institutional arrangement and indigenous and improved methods of waste
reduction, collection, separation and recovery.
f. Encourage greater private sector participation in solid waste management;
g. Retain primary enforcement and responsibility of solid waste management
with local government units while establishing a cooperative effort among the
national government, other local government units, non-government
organizations, and the private sector;
h. Encourage cooperation and self-regulation among waste generators through
the application of market-based instruments;
i. Institutionalize public participation in the development and implementation of
national and local integrated, comprehensive and ecological waste
management programs; and
j. Strengthen the integration of ecological solid waste management and
resource conservation and recovery topics into the academic curricula of
formal and non-formal education in order to promote environmental
awareness and action among the citizenry.

Ch. 1 Art. 2 Sec. 3 Definition of Terms

Agricultural waste shall refer to waste generated from planting or harvesting of
crops, trimming or pruning of plants and wastes or run-off materials from farms or
fields.
Bulky wastes shall refer to waste materials which cannot be appropriately placed
in separate containers because of either its bulky size, shape or other physical
attributes. These include large worn-out or broken household, commercial, and
industrial items such as furniture, lamps, bookcases, filing cabinets, and other
similar items.
Buy-back center shall refer to a recycling center that purchases or otherwise
accepts recyclable materials from the public for the purpose of recycling such
materials.
Collection shall refer to the act of removing solid waste from the source or from a
communal storage point.
Composting shall refer to the controlled decomposition of organic matter by microorganisms, mainly bacteria and fungi, into a humus-like product.
Consumer electronics shall refer to special wastes that include worn-out, broken,
and other discarded items such as radios, stereos, and TV sets.
Controlled dump shall refer to a disposal site at which solid waste is deposited in
accordance with the minimum prescribed standards of site operation.
Disposal shall refer to the discharge, deposit, dumping, spilling, leaking or placing
of any solid waste into or in any land.
Disposal site shall refer to a site where solid waste is finally discharged and
deposited.
Ecological solid waste management shall refer to the systematic administration
of activities which provide for segregation at source, segregated transportation,
storage, transfer, processing, treatment, and disposal of solid waste and all other
waste management activities which do not harm the environment.
Environmentally acceptable shall refer to the quality of being re-usable,
biodegradable or compostable, recyclable and not toxic or hazardous to the
environment.
Generation shall refer to the act or process of producing solid waste.
Generator shall refer to a person, natural or juridical, who last uses a material and
makes it available for disposal or recycling.

Hazardous waste shall refer to solid waste or combination of solid waste which
because of its quantity, concentration, or physical, chemical or infectious
characteristics may: (1) cause, or significantly contribute to an increase in mortality
or an increase in serious irreversible, or incapacitating reversible, illness; or (2) pose
a substantial present or potential hazard to human health or the environment when
improperly treated, stored, transported, or disposed of, or otherwise managed.
Leachate shall refer to the liquid produced when waste undergo decomposition,
and when water percolate through solid waste undergoing decomposition. It is a
contaminated liquid that contains dissolved and suspended materials.
Materials recovery facility includes a solid waste transfer station or sorting
station, drop-off center, a composting facility, and a recycling facility.
Municipal waste shall refer to wastes produced from activities within local
government units which include a combination of domestic, commercial,
institutional and industrial wastes and street litters.
Open dump shall refer to a disposal area wherein the solid wastes are
indiscriminately thrown or disposed of without due planning and consideration for
environmental and health standards.
Opportunity to recycle shall refer to the act of providing a place for collecting
source-separated recyclable material, located either at a disposal site or at another
location more convenient to the population being served, and collection at least
once a month of source-separated recyclable material from collection service
customers and to providing a public education and promotion program that gives
notice to each person of the opportunity to recycle and encourage source
separation of recyclable material.
Person(s) shall refer to any being, natural or juridical, susceptible of rights and
obligations, or of being the subject of legal relations.
Post-consumer material shall refer only to those materials or products generated
by a business or consumer which have served their intended end use, and which
have been separated or diverted from solid waste for the purpose of being
collected, processed and used as a raw material in the manufacturing of recycled
product, excluding materials and by-products generated from, and commonly used
within an original manufacturing process, such as mill scrap;
Receptacles shall refer to individual containers used for the source separation and
the collection of recyclable materials.
Recovered material shall refer to material and by-products that have been
recovered or diverted from solid waste for the purpose of being collected, processed
and used as a raw material in the manufacture of a recycled product.

Recyclable material shall refer to any waste material retrieved from the waste
stream and free from contamination that can still be converted into suitable
beneficial use or for other purposes, including, but not limited to, newspaper,
ferrous scrap metal, non-ferrous scrap metal, used oil, corrugated cardboard,
aluminum, glass, office paper, tin cans and other materials as may be determined
by the Commission.
Recycled material shall refer to post-consumer material that has been recycled
and returned to the economy.
Recycling shall refer to the treating of used or waste materials through a process
of making them suitable for beneficial use and for other purposes, and includes any
process by which solid waste materials are transformed into new products in such a
manner that the original products may lose their identity, and which may be used
as raw materials for the production of other goods or services: Provided, That the
collection, segregation and re-use of previously used packaging material shall be
deemed recycling under this Act.
Resource conservation shall refer to the reduction of the amount of solid waste
that are generated or the reduction of overall resource consumption, and utilization
of recovered resources.
Resource recovery shall refer to the collection, extraction or recovery of
recyclable materials from the waste stream for the purpose of recycling, generating
energy or producing a product suitable for beneficial use: Provided, that, such
resource recovery facilities exclude incineration.
Re-use shall refer to the process of recovering materials intended for the same or
different purpose without the alteration of physical and chemical characteristics.
Sanitary landfill shall refer to a waste disposal site designed, constructed,
operated and maintained in a manner that exerts engineering control over
significant potential environmental impacts arising from the development and
operation of the facility.
Schedule of Compliance shall refer to an enforceable sequence of actions or
operations to be accomplished within a stipulated time frame leading to compliance
with a limitation, prohibition, or standard set forth in this Act or any rule or
regulation issued pursuant thereto.
Segregation shall refer to a solid waste management practice of separating
different materials found in solid waste in order to promote recycling and re-use of
resources and to reduce the volume of waste for collection and disposal.
Segregation at source shall refer to a solid waste management practice of
separating, at the point of origin, different materials found in solid waste in order to
promote recycling and re-use of resources and to reduce the volume of waste for
collection and disposal.

Solid waste shall refer to all discarded household, commercial waste, nonhazardous institutional and industrial waste, street sweepings, construction debris,
agriculture waste, and other non-hazardous/non-toxic solid waste.
Unless specifically noted otherwise, the term solid waste as used in this Act shall
not include:
(1) waste identified or listed as hazardous waste of a solid, liquid, contained
gaseous or semisolid form which may cause or contribute to an increase in mortality
or in serious or incapacitating reversible illness, or acute/chronic effect on the
health of persons and other organisms;
(2) infectious waste from hospitals such as equipment, instruments, utensils, and
fomites of a disposable nature from patients who are suspected to have or have
been diagnosed as having communicable diseases and must therefore be isolated
as required by public health agencies, laboratory wastes such as pathological
specimens (i.e., all tissues, specimens of blood elements, excreta, and secretions
obtained from patients or laboratory animals), and disposable fomites that may
harbor or transmit pathogenic organisms, and surgical operating room pathologic
specimens and disposable fomites attendant thereto, and similar disposable
materials from outpatient areas and emergency rooms; and
(3) waste resulting from mining activities, including contaminated soil and debris.
Solid waste management shall refer to the discipline associated with the control
of generation, storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing, and disposal
of solid wastes in a manner that is in accord with the best principles of public
health, economics, engineering, conservation, aesthetics, and other environmental
considerations, and that is also responsive to public attitudes
Solid waste management facility shall refer to any resource recovery system or
component thereof; any system, program, or facility for resource conservation; any
facility for the collection, source separation, storage, transportation, transfer,
processing, treatment, or disposal of solid waste.
Source reduction shall refer to the reduction of solid waste before it enters the
solid waste stream by methods such as product design, materials substitution,
materials re-use and packaging restrictions.
Source separation shall refer to the sorting of solid waste into some or all of its
component parts at the point of generation.
Special wastes shall refer to household hazardous wastes such as paints, thinners,
household batteries, lead-acid batteries, spray canisters and the like. These include
wastes from residential and commercial sources that comprise of bulky wastes,
consumer electronics, white goods, yard wastes that are collected separately,
batteries, oil, and tires. These wastes are usually handled separately from other
residential and commercial wastes.

Storage shall refer to the interim containment of solid waste after generation and
prior to collection for ultimate recovery or disposal.
Transfer stations shall refer to those facilities utilized to receive solid wastes,
temporarily store, separate, convert, or otherwise process the materials in the solid
wastes, or to transfer the solid wastes directly from smaller to larger vehicles for
transport. This term does not include any of the following:
(1) a facility whose principal function is to receive, store, separate, convert, or
otherwise process in accordance with national minimum standards manure.
(2) a facility, whose principal function is to receive, store, convert, or otherwise
process wastes which have already been separated for re-use and are not intended
for disposal; and
(3) the operations premises of a duly licensed solid waste handling operator who
receives, stores, transfers, or otherwise processes wastes as an activity incidental to
the conduct of a refuse collection and disposal business.
Waste diversion shall refer to activities which reduce or eliminate the amount of
solid wastes from waste disposal facilities.
White goods shall refer to large worn-out or broken household, commercial, and
industrial appliances such as stoves, refrigerators, dishwaters, and clothes washers
and dryers collected separately. White goods are usually dismantled for the
recovery of specific materials (e.g., copper, aluminum, etc.); and
Yard waste shall refer to wood, small or chipped branches, leaves, grass clippings,
garden debris, vegetables residue that is recognizable as part of a plant or
vegetable and other materials identified by the Commission.
(1) on solid waste generation and management techniques as well as the
management, technical and operational approaches to resource
recovery; and
(2) of processors/recyclers, the list of materials being recycled or bought
by them and their respective prices;
b. Promote the development of a recycling market through the establishment of
a national recycling network that will enhance the opportunity to recycle;
c. Provide or facilitate expert assistance in pilot modeling of solid waste
management facilities; and
d. Develop, test, and disseminate model waste minimization and reduction
auditing procedures for evaluating options.
The National Ecology Center shall be headed by the director of the Bureau in his
ex officio capacity. It shall maintain a multi-sectoral, multi-disciplinary pool of
experts including those from the academe, inventors, practicing professionals,
business and industry, youth, women and other concerned sectors, who shall be
screened according to qualifications set by the Commission.

References:
Aquino, A., Deriquito J.A., & Festejo, M. (December 2013). Ecological Solid Waste
Management Act: Environmental Protection through Proper Solid Waste Practices.
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Hoornwe, D. & Bhada-Tata, P. (March 2012). WHAT A WASTE: A Global Review of
Solid Waste Management. World Bank. Retrieved January 20, 2016 from
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/
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Megha, M. (November 14, 2014). Difference between Biodegradable and NonBiodegradable
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29,
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http://www.tao-

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