Gender Energy and Human Freedom in Nepal

Rural energy in general and biomass in particular, has a great impact on peoples wellbeing especially on the life qualities of rural
women in Nepal as they are directly involved in production and management of household energy.. For instance, increased use of
biomass limits the production and reproduction capacities of women, which, in turn, restricts their capabilities to access better
energy services as well as other socio-economic opportunities. The challenges are then to identify alternative options that help to
address both energy poverty as well as human poverty so as to increase the human capabilities (especially of women) and their
freedom for the well being of rural households.
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Key words: energy, poverty, capabilities and freedom

1. Background

Energy is one of the central aspects of human life as it affects agricultural productivity,
environmental sustainability, health care, and job creation. More than a need, energy per se is
absolutely essential to deliver adequate living conditions, food, water, health care, education,
shelter and employment (Najam and Cleveland, 2003). For instance, energy availability is a key
determinant of how food is grown and cooked, the health impacts of how food is cooked or how
living spaces are heated, the time required to procure household energy, and so on. It especially
influences the poor peoples lives as they spend much of their income in obtaining energy for
basic needs and also much of their time in energy related activities (UNDP, 1997).
In Nepal, 86 percent of the energy comes through biomass (CRT, 2005), which has a greater
impact on the countrys socio-cultural, economic and environmental aspects. Fuelwood
collection takes a considerable amount of time (estimates range from two to twenty hours a
week) and distances covered over difficult terrain can be substantial. For example in Nepal
women can walk over 20 km per journey in search of wood (Mahat, 2004). Women also suffer
back problems from carrying heavy wood loads (40 kg are not usual) on their head as well as the
less recognized threats of rape and beatings (Cecelski 2000, UNDP, 1997). In many cases,
uterine prolapsed among rural women in Nepal is attributed to carrying heavy firewood and
similarly women often face a risk of miscarriages with such heavy workload (Earth and Staphit,
2002; Haile, 1991; UNDP, 1997). A study in Nepal indicated that highest percentage of infant
mortality is associated with ARI, which is mainly caused by indoor air pollution (Pandey, 2003).
Girl children are kept out of school to assist in wood collection (Clancy, 2000). Water collection
for the household has similar impacts. This has a large negative impact on rural poverty in

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general, and human poverty in particular affecting well being of rural households (Ramani,
2004).

2. Relationship between Energy Poverty and Human Freedom

It is worth relating energy with poverty deprivations as energy is

considered as one of the basic human needs that have a crucial role in
improving peoples wellbeing (GNESD, 2007). At the most basic level, energy
is needed for cooking food, and space heating (World Bank, 2000). For the
worlds poor, the only source of energy that is generally available and
affordable is traditional biomass, including fuel wood, crop residues, and
animal wastes (REN 21, 2005). Using biomass as fuel contributes to
multiple deprivations of poverty such as economic, socio-cultural and
ecological. Particularly, the social and cultural deprivations (such as equity,
inequalities) have a major influence on human capabilities especially of
women limiting their production and reproduction capacities (e.g no time and
labour for production and social activities, no access to decision making)
(Ramani, 2000; Mahat, 2004; Skutsch, 1995).
At present, energy is considered as one of the vehicles for poverty alleviation as it is an
essential input for sustaining peoples livelihoods (Clancy, Skutsch, and Bachelor 2000). Energy
poverty reflects the low access to better energy services at one end. However, the deprivations
caused by energy poverty on human development are much more significant than the energy
poverty itself (Ramani, 2004; Modi, McDade, Lallement and Sagir, 2006). For instance, energy
has equity dimensions as the richer households can afford higher quality fuel than the poorer
households (Clancy, Skutsch, and Bachelor 2000; Cecelski, 2004). In this case, women from the
poorer households suffer from large health problems, spend more time in collecting firewood and
pay higher price per unit of energy (Reddy, 2000; ESMAP, 1999). Such problems restrict
womens capabilities to participate in other economic and social activities and thereby their
wellbeing.

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 In addition, energy in rural areas reflects more human energy than
biomass and other sources of fuel (Cecelski, 2000). The problem is not lack
of biomass energy but lack of womens time and labor to manage the
household energy. In rural areas of Nepal womens time and labor are more
valued that functions for achieving the wellbeing of a family. Womens role in
production of energy and in reproduction of household income through small scale enterprises at
household level are often undermined (Bhattachan, 2001; Cecelski, 2000; Skutsch, 1995). For
instance, women are the main producers and managers of biomass energy in rural areas, while
they have little access in decision making processes in regard to any energy interventions such as
locating biogas plant (Cecelski, 2000; Skutsch, 1996; Mark, 1995). While women value their
roles in such decisions (agency freedom) to achieve their well being. In absence of work sharing
at household level, women do heavy physical exercise, spend long working hours and suffer
from numerous health problems (e.g smoke related diseases) in managing the biomass energy
that deprives their production and reproduction capacities affecting their well being (Acharya,
2001; Cecelski, 2000).

3. Conceptual Model

The chart below presents the conceptual framework of my study indicating how the use of
biomass energy causes multiple deprivations of the rural households affecting their well being
and agency freedom and its last impact on human development.

Social Deprivation

As stated earlier, biomass is one of the major sources of cooking in rural areas, which is
mainly managed by women. Women and children in developing countries suffer
disproportionately, as they spend much of their time gathering wood (Cecelski, 2000; Mahat,
2004). Using biomass as a major source of fuel indicates the low accessibility to alternative fuels
by the poorest households and thus involves equity concerns, which in turn affects womens
workload and their health. For instance, burning traditional biomass over open fires or in
inefficient stoves contributes to health-threatening indoor air pollution (World Bank, 2000;
Barnes, 2005). The World Health Organization estimates that 1.6 million of these

3
deaths are women and children, whose responsibility for domestic chores
makes them relatively more exposed to indoor air pollution from cooking and
heating. Similarly, carrying heavy firewood causes numerous health problems such as
miscarriage, chest problems and uterine prolapsed (Earth and Sthapit, 2002; World Bank, 2000;
Haile, 1991).

Low
well being
and agency
freedom

Human Social
Human
Development/
Freedom
deprivatio Development/
n Freedom

Economic Low
Ecological Biomass well
Low well deprivatio being
being deprivatio n freedom
freedom Energy
n

Cultural Human
deprivation
Human Developmen
Development/ t/Freedom
Freedom
Low well
being and
agency
freedom

In addition, girl children are often withdrawn from school to work at home for helping
their mothers in energy related activities, such as carrying firewood. These problems are
attributed to the social deprivation, which restricts womens choices and their capacities for
production and reproduction.

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 Economic Deprivation

Absence of sufficient and quality energy hinders the growth and efficiency. It restricts the
economic and social opportunities for rural households and to start any new ventures and energy
based enterprises (REN21, 2005). This affects relative income deprivations and in turn, affects
on the capabilities deprivations of the many rural households (Sen, 1999).
For instance, using biomass as the major source of energy consumes considerable time
and labour for women, which allows limited time and opportunities for economic activities
(Skutsch, 1996; Cecelski, 2004, Mahat, 2004). This adds to the household poverty which, in turn,
limits access to better energy services limiting the production and reproduction capacities of
women and production and income opportunities of HHS.

Ecological deprivation

Using biomass for energy causes depletion of the forest resources which has a negative
impact on its inhabitants as it contributes to the extinction of natural species due to the change in
climate (Najam and Cleveland, 2003). Since forests are habitats for large number of species,
their degradation directly affects the loss of biodiversity. Rural populations in poor countries pay
the highest price for environmental degradation, as their livelihoods depend on the goods and
services from the ecosystems (e.g. generation of water, wood and non-wood forest products, fuel,
cycling of nutrients, replenishment of soil fertility, prevention of erosion, carbon sequestration
and storage, recreation, etc) (Koziell and McNeil, 2002).
Women are generally more vulnerable to environmental hazards than men, due to closer
exposure to risks (e.g. contaminated water, long distances to collect water and fuel) (Cecelski,
2004; Pearce, 2005). In addition, use of biomass from farm to fire is not only a threat to
environment but also reduces the farm productivity due to the degradation of soil quality, which
is one of the major causes of food insecurity (Barnes, 2005; OECD, 2002; Thapa, 1994)). Such
deprivation restricts production opportunities of rural households adds to human poverty
especially of womens agency to achieve the well being.

Cultural Deprivation

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 Culture refers to the collective identity of group of people to follow a way of life of its
choice. Thus cultural freedom protects not only the group but also the rights of every individual
within it (Matilla and Sepilla, 2000). For instance, in rural areas of Nepal, women have very close
link with forest system as a survival strategy.
Given the existing patriarch culture of Nepalese society, women are fully responsible of
household chores such as carrying firewood, fetching water, cooking, and caring of children
(Acharya, 1989; Bhattacharya, 2000). Use of biomass adds work burden of women as women are
fully responsible for collecting and managing biomass for household energy. At the same time,
women have less access in decision making regarding the energy resources, and any new
interventions, while they provide their full labour for these work. It restricts womens agency to
function well towards their well being both because they have less opportunities with the cultural
impositions and because their values are undermined (Rajavi, 1999, 1998).

Strategic Model

The chart below for strategic model helps to operationalize the concept that I explained
earlier. In other words, how the better energy services (affordable, accessible and reliable) can
help to alleviate the deprivations and thereby promote the well being and agency freedom for
overall human development.
As UNDP has emphasized in MDG the need of better energy services for improving the
live qualities of rural population, the challenge is then to identify appropriate energy services
including the modern fuel to replace the traditional biomass energy that causes multiple
deprivations affecting the overall well being of the rural households. Especially, the opportunity
cost in terms of time and labour of women in collecting firewood is so huge and they have a
severe impact on human poverty ultimately affecting the well being of rural households.
Availability of better energy services help reduce ARI among young children and women
caused by domestic air pollution and other health problems caused by traditional energy
resources such as chest pain, miscarriages and uterus prolapsed. Especially the work burden of
women for collecting firewood can be reduced through the help of better energy options such as
improved biomass technology.

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 Well being +
Agency Freedom

Human
Human Increased Develop
Develo access to rights ment/free
pment/ and dom
freedom opportunities

Saved time
and Affordable Improved
labor for Accessible and health and
productive Reliable energy reduced
activities drudgery

increased
Human capabilities
Development Human
for Development/
/freedom
productive freedom
activities

Well being +
Agency
Freedom
m

Having access to better energy options, both men and especially women are free (more
time and labor) to be involved in other productive activities thus increasing their capabilities for
enhancing the well being of their families. In addition, both men and women can see more
opportunities in terms of energy based small enterprises to increase their income in order to
improve their well being. Especially, women and girl children can pursue their rights for self
enhancement through education and employment opportunities as they will become freer with
the better energy options. This can help both men and women to pursue well being freedom as
they achieve the wellbeing and the agency freedom that they value to achieve. For instance, as

7
women become educated and employed, they are more capable to participate in decision making
process at household as well as community level. With the increase in capabilities through the
freedom they enjoy, their own as well as the familys wellbeing can be achieved that can
contribute to overall human development (e.g. health, education, and income status). This in
turn, helps to improve the live qualities of the rural households again enabling to achieve higher
level of well being that they have a reason to value.
In addition, when the poor households had to rely less on firewood from the forest not
only for their own use, but for the purpose of selling to make income, there will be higher
chances of ecological balance as it has a least effect on the vegetation and the climate change.
This will help continue to sustain the ecological resources for promoting the sustainable
livelihood of rural population.
Hence, energy and poverty relations are both cyclical and hierarchical and address the
multiple deprivations especially those related to social and cultural.The challenges are then to
identify better energy options in order to initiate better energy services not only in terms of
providing better fuel for cooking for the majority, but also for addressing the overall human
development and the well being of rural households.

5. Reflection on The case Study

5.1 Research Design

My present research builds on my PhD data and a good theoretical framework that has been
built on from sufficient literature reviews. I also collected new data in order to obtain additional
information on social and cultural deprivations with biomass energy resources, analyze biomass
energy policies at national, and regional level and to come up with appropriate policy strategies in
relation to biomass energy options.
The fieldwork was undertaken in Kavre district of Nepal, where UNDP has initially
implemented rural energy program with a focus on micro hydro electricity. Kavre is one of the hilly
districts in Nepal comprising of population with diverse economic, ethnic and cultural backgrounds.
Agriculture is a major source of livelihood; however, people are also engaged in small trading, wage
labour, and fishing activities.

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 Two VDCs namely Mangaltar (27.35 km from district headquarter) and Katunjebeshi
(22.53 km from district headquarter) were selected as a base to continue my research that was taken
from PhD fieldwork. Participants were selected purposively to accommodate the research needs
as the key informant interviews were the major tools of my research. At village level the
participants were identified by discussing with some key people such as local health workers,
village heads and other village authorities who can provide some general information on the
socio-economic backgrounds of participants. Based on their information and through the
personal observations during the field visits, the participants (mostly women) were selected for
interviews who were found to be the key resource persons for my research. While selecting these
participants, gender, ethnicity, and class were taken into account.
At regional and national level, the participants were the representatives of different institutions
working in energy related fields that included implementing agencies, donors, and the
government authorities at the top. Semi structured interviews were conducted with policy makers
at regional (district) and national level and thus the biases on information were checked in both
ways.
One of the major limitations of my field research reflects the time constraints of participants
since the local women were always occupied with one or the other activities. It was hard to catch up
with womens time and I had to be very flexible to be accommodated according to their
convenience. In addition, it was a heavy agricultural season and locating the participants for my
research was a difficult task.

5.2 Analysis of Findings

My current research highlighted on human dimensions of energy deprivations and thus following
important issues related to biomass energy were analyzed.

Availability of Biomass

Firewood being a major source of household energy followed by the agricultural residue and
animal waste has a huge contribution in total energy system of the households representing an

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excessive reliance on traditional sources of energy (Table 1). There were no effective options for
household cooking due to the lack of development of other energy alternatives.

Table 1 presents the use of biomass by rural households in two villages of Kavre.

Table 1: Use of Biomass by Rural Households

(Percentage of Respondents)

Types of Fuel Qty. of Fuel Used

wood Used
Fuel wood 91 %

Agricultural residue 7%

Animal Waste 2%

Total biomass used 100 %

Source: Personal Observation, 2008

During the field visit, it was found that majority of the households in all community used
firewood for cooking although a few households had installed the biogas plant recently. In
addition, these households could not fully rely on the biogas plant for meeting their energy needs
as they still needed to use the firewood for ritual cooking as well as for space heating, and for
livestock feeding. Many households used the agricultural residue such as corn and paddy sticks
for preparing livestock feeding. Especially among Brahmin community, women also used
agricultural residue and animal dung for cooking their daily meals due to the lack of firewood as
they have a little time for collecting firewood.
The local women had to travel about 4 hours to collect a bunch of firewood from others
forest (private forest). In total, they would spend about 6 hours per day. Collecting firewood
from others forests was not an easy task. Sometimes women had to run and break their legs with
the fear of being caught and paying the penalties. Majority of women used to collect the fodder
grasses around their own field for livestock feeding and the fodders were still used for cooking as
they did not have time to go to the forest (Fig.1).

Figure 1 presents the peoples access to firewood in two villages of Kavre.

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 Figure 1: Access to Firewood by Rural Households
(Percentage of Respondents)

Source: Personal Observation, 2008

There was a community forest in the local area; however, the local people could collect only
the dropped woods and residues as it was protected. They would also buy the firewood once a
year when the community forests are opened for cleaning. Every villager had access to the public
forest (national); however, there were not enough firewood to meet the energy demands of the
local people.
Overall, it was observed that womens time was scarce than the availability of biomass in the
local area. Although firewood was not enough in the local forests, majority of the household
used their own fields for collecting fodder grasses and the residue sticks were used for cooking
as they did not have sufficient time to go to the forest.

Work Load

During the field observation, it was noticed that womens workload remained heavy even
with the availability of infrastructures such as road network and electricity. My research villages

11
located in the mid hill areas of Nepal features a huge work burden for women for collecting
firewood in order to meet cooking and heating needs. Since the houses made of mud and stones
would get very cold during the winter season, it was impossible for the local people to remain in
the house without using firewood for heating the houses. Apart from other household chores,
collecting and cooking with firewood involved a heavy work burden especially for women.
Table 2 below represents the gender roles in household energy management in two villages
of Kavre.

Table 2: Gender Roles in Household Energy management

(Percentage of Respondents)
Who cuts down Who collects fire Who stores it?
Trees? wood ?
Women 35 65 71

Men 44 5 3

Both 21 30 26
Total 100 100 100
Source: Personal Observation, 2008

Although some men in Tamang community shared this work, women took the major
responsibility for collecting and managing the firewood for cooking (Table 2). Men
especially from Brahmin community were however, involved in cutting trees as women were
considered not to be strong for this job.
Table 3 below presents the problems related to womens workload in collecting and
cooking with firewood at household level. Women were more concerned on their work load
regarding the collection of firewood, as it consumed long time to walk and to look for the
firewood. As stated earlier, women had spent almost a day to collect a bunch of firewood.
Their worries were also on catching up by the owners while stealing the firewood from the
private forest. Besides this, women were overwhelmingly concerned about the smokes
caused by biomass burning that affected their health in different ways (Table 3).

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 Table 3: Problems in Collecting and Cooking with Firewood
(Percentages of Cases)

Problems in Collecting % of Cases Problems in % of Cases

Firewood Cooking with
Firewood
Long distance to walk 86.2 More smoke 98.6

No time to go to forest 34.5 Dirty utensils 82.5

Lack of firewood 48.3 Dirty house 57.3

(long time to collect)
Hard to blow 28.0
Risky (falling down from 34.5
trees, paying penalties) Eye irritation 26.6

Costly to buy 15.5 Long time to cook 4.2

Other 13.8 High heat during 2.8

summer

Source: Personal Observation, 2008

The heavy work on cleaning utensils and houses caused by burning firewood has been
one of the major problems for women in rural villages of Kavre. It took a considerable time
for them in cleaning the houses, dishes and linens as they become dirty frequently while
cooking with firewood and other biomass resources.
With availability of diesel mills and micro hydro mills, womens work load was reduced
to some extent as they did not have to use their labor (human energy) in processing the
agricultural product. However, in rural areas of Nepal, the major problem with household
energy is related with household cooking and heating, which is the basic for living. Women
had spent a considerable time and energy both for collecting and cooking with firewood,
while bearing enormous losses, discomforts, and pains as indicated in the table above. As
women were always occupied with household chores including the management of
household energy resources, they have very little time for other economic and social
activities that could enable them to be empowered socially and economically. This is truer in
case of Brahmin community as there is less work ethos among the men and women in this
community unlike with Tamang community, in which men also take responsibility for
housework.

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 Health related problems

It was observed that the majority of the women in the villages had got eye problems and lung
disease, which is related to biomass cooking (Table 4). In the villages, the houses were built in
traditional ways having no exit for smokes. Thus smokes would spread inside the house causing
different kind of health and hygiene problems. A woman in an interview expressed that we are
used to with smokes even though we feel eye irritation and headaches so often, as we have no
other options (Personal interview, 2008). Domestic air pollution is found to be one of the major
reasons for maternal and infant mortality in rural areas of Nepal. There were few households that
used the improved stoves installing with the chimney for smoke outlet. However, the local
women were not made aware of the technical problems related to chimney and most of them
went back to use the traditional stoves that they find most comfortable with.
Table 4 presents the problems related to health caused by biomass energy at household level.

Table 4: Selected Health problems in Two Villages

(Percentage of Cases)

Health Problems Men Women

Eye problems 35 73.0

Lung disease 21 41.0

Asthma - 13.5

Uterus Prolapsed - 49.5

Source: Personal Observation, 2008

There were few women who mentioned about prolapsed uterus while carrying heavy firewood.
However, this problem was combined with other household chores that added their workload.
Especially in rural areas, women start going to the fields or forest within a month of maternity,
which caused the problems of uterus prolapsed. This problem was not very much identified by
the women themselves due to their unawareness about the association of the problem. In many
cases, women remained quiet not expressing this problem on their own as they felt shy. It was
noticed however, the majority of women in the past had suffered from this problem although not
mentioned directly. Such situations were explored through indirect conversation. A woman

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expressed that we never know that prolapsed uterus is caused by heavy workload, and we feel
shy to express this problem (Personal interview. 2008).

Wellbeing and Agency freedom

Wellbeing freedom is related with the live qualities of people. For instance, people must be
free to achieve the basic education, basic housing, basic health and quality foods. In the rural
areas of Nepal, people especially women are deprived of such well being. For instance, the girl
children are allowed to go to school only if they finish housework and they are dropped off from
school if they had to travel far from the villages to achieve basic education. Only the few girls
from richer households had gone to the adjacent villages to continue their higher secondary
education and the college education was very rare. Similarly, food habits of women are affected
by existing cultural circumstances as men often eat first and get enough good food and women
eat leftovers and not all varieties of food in many cases. Women often refuse to re cook even if
there is not enough food left for them (they feel tired of cooking) and they remain hungry whole
day while spending the same energy for household chores. This has caused numerous health
problems such as ulcer, and gastric. A woman interviewed mentioned that our elders especially
father-in-law, brother-in laws eat first and we women eat later all the leftovers. We do not care if we
have enough or not (personal interview, 2008). The local women expressed that they have very
little time and opportunity for education and health care and for participating in other economic
and social activities.
Agency freedom is related with the opportunities to exercise peoples wisdom and abilities
that works for achieving wellbeing. Every person has agency, every person analyses, decides,
and acts. Carrying out our own analyses, making our own decisions, and taking our own actions
involve the agency freedom. However, in rural villages of Kavre, women hardly exercise the
agency freedom. They have a little power to decide on their own if they want to participate in the
activities outside home. It was observed in the villages that women hardly participated in the
village level meetings organized for different activities such as rural energy program, and road
building program. Although women were the active contributors in constructing micro hydro
canals, and raising and mobilizing saving funds, their participation in community and village
level decisions was nominal. Men were the decision makers at village level. A woman mentioned

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that we do not have time to participate in such meetings and we also have a little
understandings of the subjects matter. On the other hand, some other women mentioned that
we are not encouraged by the family members to participate in such meetings (Personal
interview, 2008). It was a mix of ideas and thoughts about their participation. However, it was
observed that at village level, women have active participation in community forestry program
and to manage and preserve the forest for saving the village environment. They participated in
village level meetings and share the ideas with male members in the forest committee. However,
women hardly have time and opportunities to participate in other economic and social activities
that could enable them to be empowered economically as well as socially. In some cases, women
were involved in cash crops and livestock production at personal level and make their personal
income by selling those products. However, they still use the income for the welfare of the
family, although such incomes help their economic empowerment and raise their self esteem for
the well being of the whole family. In an interview a woman mentioned that Our life is around
the forest and the house, no matter whatever technologies are there. We can not be free from
firewood and fodder, and free from our house. Our work is waiting for us, who will let us go for
enjoying meetings and trainings (Personal interview, 2008).

Equity vs. Efficiency

Using biomass for cooking has many concerns for equity. For instance, only a few wealthy
households have used the quality fuel such as modern combusted biomass (biogas) for cooking,
while the poorer household had to rely on low quality biomass fuel such as agricultural residue
and animal dung. A woman in an interview mentioned that There are biogas plants in this
village for many years but it is no use for us as we can not have it because we cannot afford it
(personal interview, 2008). Similarly, women from poorer households had to walk long distances
for collecting firewood unlike the wealthy household who can also buy the firewood or other fuel
such as LPG. Such situations have brought the numerous health problems especially for women
and children. Many women in the villages were found to be affected by ARI apart from the other
health problems such as eye irritation, and prolapsed uterus.
While alternative technologies can have potential for reducing the drudgery and increasing
the income of a household, they have not been able to reach to the larger section of the society.

16
For instance, only 15% of the households have access to the solar lighting. Similarly, in each
village only a few households are able to install the biogas plants, while majority are out of reach
for such plants even with subsidies. This situation has created even more inequalities in the
villages creating a large socio-economic gap within a small community. Hence, unless and until
the technologies are designed for pro poor and subsidies are channelled accordingly, majority of
the poor remain out of reach with such technologies. In addition, the social and technical aspects
of technologies were rather neglected that has caused low adoptability of such technologies. For
instance, in many cases, women are not made aware of the technical problems, such as leakages
of biogas stoves, and process of cleaning chimney outlets etc. Hence, they feel uncomfortable
with these technologies and just turned down to the traditional stoves that they find most
comfortable with. A woman in an interview mentioned that we cook with biogas, but if it goes
wrong sometimes we do not know how to fix it. And there are no men around the house. So we
better use the firewood (Personal interview, 2008). Improved Stoves (ICS) program and Biogas
program without a package (e.g. monitoring the socio-economic impact, effectiveness of stoves,
and use of chimney and so on) has been less effective and less adoptable by many rural women
especially in the hilly areas of Nepal.
In addition, the AETs like solar plant, micro-hydro power have only been used for basic
lighting and no other potentials have been explored that could help to utilize the local resources
such as womens knowledge and skill and the local produce. AETs have large potentials to
initiate home based enterprises such as dairy production and handicrafts, where women can have
a good access, which could empower women both socially as well as economically.

7. Conclusion

It is unlikely that the poorer households in rural areas of Nepal will shift to the better fuels in
the near future due to their inability to afford the better energy services. Despite an attention to
increase the modern energy services to the poor, the emphasis is on electricity and not on the
cooking fuel. Womens drudgery related to household energy management remains unaddressed
until there is an intervention focusing on womens workload and domestic air pollution. Energy
planning without its integration with social indicators such as womens empowerment and
poverty reduction has a little effect on the overall development of the community especially of

17
women. There has been an effort to address the household energy issues by focusing on the short
term vs. long term energy policy plan that demands for increasing the coverage of biogas plant in
short term and integrating the micro hydro plant for cooking in the long term. However, such
plans need to be improvised with other sectors policies. Given the socio-economic conditions of
the rural households, even the subsidized plants are less reachable to the poorest section of the
society, unless the subsidies are made pro poor. Majority of households in rural areas are built of
mud and stones and roofed with straws and thatches without having strong base that makes it
difficult to have electric cables for household cooking.
In order to address the cooking related problems, there is a critical need for interventions that
effectively reduce the high level of indoor air pollutions including the continued development of
Improved Cooking Stoves. However, development of ICS and building of ICS is not the end for
solving the targeted problem, they have to be integrated with training on construction of ICS and
chimney related problem, and phase wise monitoring program, that ensures the effective
application of ICS. In addition, there is a need of sustainable harvesting of firewood in order to
ensure its continuous supply to meet the basic household energy needs. It is also a time to think
about the type of fuel technologies and its delivery mechanism that can possibly help to make a
large scale transition away from traditional biomass cooking for the majority of poor. As
mentioned earlier, managing biomass energy for cooking has a significant impact on womens
workload and their health, which have hindered their capabilities and opportunities for
participating in economic and other social activities. This has restricted their freedom both for
achieving their own well being and the family as a whole as well as the community and nation at
large.

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 References

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