BY SPEED POST

DRAFT IN WIDE
CIRCULATION
OUR REF.
WRD 10/ T- 10

DATE
11th Jan11

TECHNICAL COMMITTEE: RESERVOIRS AND LAKES SECTIONAL COMMITTEE, WRD 10

ADDRESSED TO
a) ALL MEMBERS OF WATER RESOURCES DIVISION COUNCIL (WRDC)
b) ALL MEMBERS OF RESERVOIRS AND LAKES SECTIONAL COMMITTEE, WRD 10
c) OTHERS INTERESTED
Dear Sir(s),
As per the decision taken in the 11th meeting of the sectional committee, we are posting
the draft as mentioned on our website www.bis.org.in below for your ready reference:
Doc No.

Title
Sedimentation In Reservoirs- Method Of Measurement (First Revision of
WRD 10(491)
IS 13665:1993)
Kindly examine this draft and forward your views stating any difficulties which you are likely
to experience in your business or profession, if it is finally adopted as a National Standard.
Last date for comments: 12th March 11
Comments, if any, may please be made in the enclosed format and mailed to the undersigned at
the above address. Comments will be appreciated in electronic form either as soft copies (MS
Word) or can be mailed to wrd.bis@gmail.com. In case you have any difficulty in accessing the
document at our website, please write to us for a hard copy.

In case no comments are received or comments received are of editorial nature, you will kindly
permit us to presume your approval for the above document as finalized. However, in case of
comments technical in nature are received then they may be finalized, either in consultation with
the Chairman, Sectional Committee or referred to the Sectional committee for further necessary
action, if so desired by the Chairman, Sectional Committee.
Thanking you,

Yours faithfully,
[J.C. ARORA ]
Head (Water Resources)

Encl: As above.
1

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Draft for Comment Only

Doc. WRD 10(491)

BUREAU OF INDIAN STANDARDS
Draft Indian Standard

SEDIMENTATION IN RESERVOIRSMETHOD OF MEASUREMENT

(First Revision of IS 13665:1993)
(Not to be reproduced without the
Last date for receipt
permission of BIS or used as a
of comments is 12th March11
STANDARD)
FOREWORD
(Formal clause of the foreword will be added later)
Reservoirs are traditionally planned, designed, and operated on the assumption that they
have a certain life. Periodic evaluation of sediment rate and deposition pattern and the
assessment of available live storage capacity in a reservoir is an integral component of
optimum water resources management. Although sedimentation surveys of reservoirs in
India dates back to 1870, systematic surveys started only in 1958 when the Central Board
of Irrigation and Power undertook a coordinated scheme of reservoir sedimentation
assessment and entrusted this task to several research stations in the country.
Due to the dynamic nature of water use planning, a periodic review of the storage
capacity is essential from the point of view of optimum utilization and guaranteed
performance. Besides storage loss, which is of much economic significance, there are
planning and operational problems, which require correct estimation of sediment deposit
and its quantity and distribution in the entire body of the reservoir. The principal
objectives of measurement of sedimentation in a reservoir are:
(i)

updating capacity chart for effective operation,

(ii)

collection of data for realistic project planning with respect to storage

allocation,

(iii)

location of suitable areas for sediment extraction, outfall locations, economic

implications and service expectancy, and also for identification of priority
areas within the catchment from soil conservation point of view, and

(iv)

making suitable allowance in the design of future projects at the time of their
planning.

Of the various factors influencing the pattern of sediment deposition the most
predominant are rainfall characteristics, catchment characteristics and reservoir operation.
To evaluate the effect of each of these and to serve as a guide for future planning,
systematic capacity surveys of reservoirs should be undertaken at regular intervals.
This standard was first published in 1993. This revision is being undertaken as the
conventional techniques of sedimentation quantification in a reservoir have improved
upon and economical, time-saving and less cumbersome methods are now available. The
important changes made in this revision include the following:
3

a) Deletion of Stream flow Analysis/Inflow Outflow method.

b) Inclusion of Remote Sensing Method as a method of measurement of
sedimentation in reservoirs.

Draft for Comment Only

Doc. WRD 10(491)

BUREAU OF INDIAN STANDARDS
Draft Indian Standard

SEDIMENTATION IN RESERVOIRSMETHOD OF MEASUREMENT

(First Revision of IS 13665:1993)
(Not to be reproduced without the
Last date for receipt
permission of BIS or used as a
of comments is 12th March11
STANDARD)
1 SCOPE
This standard lays down guidelines for methods and techniques of measurement of
sedimentation rate in reservoirs in order to assess the volume of deposit and its
distribution.
2 METHODS OF ASSESSMENT OF SEDIMENTATION IN RESERVOIR
The methods to assess sedimentation in a reservoir can be classified in the following
groups:
(a)

Capacity survey methods, and

(b)

Remote Sensing methods.

3 CAPACITY SURVEY METHODS

3.1 General
Capacity survey is a direct measurement carried out periodically to assess the volume of
deposit along with its location in the reservoirs. Other valuable information gathered in
these surveys includes data regarding the distribution of sediment deposits in the
reservoir. The survey should be completed in minimum possible time preferably in the
same water year.
3.2 The volume of the sediment that has accumulated in a reservoir is computed by
subtracting the revised capacity from the original capacity at a reference reservoir
elevation (usually the FRL). Since this is the difference of two large numbers, an error,
even by a few percentages in either of the two numbers will significantly influence the
results.
3.3 Sedimentation rate is computed from the difference between volume assessments
from two surveys over a period of time. The frequency of surveying the reservoirs
depends on the sediment accumulation rate. Reservoirs that have high accumulation rates
should be surveyed more often than those with lower rates. The cost of running a survey
also plays a critical part in deciding their frequency. Special circumstances may
necessitate a change in the established schedule. For example, a reservoir might be
surveyed after a major flood that has carried heavy sediment load in the reservoir. A
survey may also be run following the construction of a major dam upstream in the same
catchment since the reduction in the free drainage area leads to a reduction in the
5

sediment accumulation rate of the downstream reservoir. The main survey methods are
the contour method and the range line method (see 5 and 6). In some situations, a
combination of both is used. The selection of a method depends on the quantity and
distribution of sediment indicated by field inspections, shape of the reservoir, purpose of
the survey, and desired accuracy.
3.4 The minimum survey interval depends on the precision of the survey technique and
the rate and pattern of storage loss. For instance, if a survey technique incorporates an
error on the order of 2 percent of the total reservoir volume, and if the reservoir is losing
capacity at 0.25 percent per year, a 4 year survey interval may be too short to produce
reliable information unless most sediment inflow is focused into a small portion of the
impoundment.
3.5 Sediment data collected during the surveys is also analyzed to determine the specific
weight of the deposits, their grain size distribution, sediment accumulation rates, and trap
efficiency. Maximum information about the reservoir bed profile is obtained when the
reservoir water level is high.
3.6 It is essential to have an accurate map of the reservoir at an appropriate scale, e.g.,
1:10,000 scale prior to commencement of the hydrographic survey. Important reservoir
features, such as the Maximum water level (MWL), Full reservoir level (FRL) along the
periphery, position of dam, outlets, location of inflowing streams etc. should be precisely
marked on the map. Other topographic details, such as position of islands, permanent
structures, bridges, roads, villages, etc., should also be recorded. Control points should be
marked prior to commencement of the survey. Horizontal and vertical control points are
fixed at a suitable interval (for eg. 5 km in horizontal and a few meters in vertical) on the
circumference of the reservoir. After fixing the control points in the outer boundary of the
study reach, x-sections should be planned at suitable intervals depending on the reservoir
size.
3.7 Advantages
The advantages of capacity surveys are:
a) The reservoir survey can be less costly than continuous sediment measurement at
several locations in the catchment;
b) The accuracy of these surveys is usually very high and the time required is
considerably shortened, particularly if advanced equipment is used;
c) It is possible to estimate the total sediment load being carried by the river; and
d) The survey can be carried out at any convenient time to get the total
sedimentation after the last survey.
3.8 Limitations
The limitations of capacity surveys are:
a) The unit weight of sediment is required to estimate sediment yield. This weight is
estimated using samples from selected locations within the reservoir. If limited
samples are taken, spatial variation may not be properly estimated. Further, due to
compaction, the weight changes with time and this may introduce errors in the
results.
6

b) Such surveys do not provide any information about the variation of sediment yield
with time and give only the total sediments accumulated since the last survey.
c) This method does not provide sub-catchment wise sediment yield which can only
be obtained by sediment sampling and stream flow measurements on different
streams.
d) This approach is not very effective where sedimentation is small, as the error of
measurement may mask the true sedimentation rate.
e) In order to find the total sediment inflow, sediment outflow data is also needed.
4 SURVEY EQUIPMENT FOR CAPACITY SURVEY
4.1 The basic items of survey are:
a) Horizontal or distance measurement; and
b) Vertical or depth measurement.
The principal equipment and instruments required for the hydrographic and topographic
coverage in relation to the measurements are detailed in the subsequent paragraphs.
4.1.1 Distance measuring equipment
Survey equipment like chain, tape, plane table, theodolite, electronic theodolite, transit
sextant, range finder, electronic distance meter, distance wheel, and other electronic
equipment can be used.
4.1.2 Depth measuring equipment
Equipments like sounding poles, dumpy level, theodolite, electronic theodolite,
hydrographic equipment like echo-sounder, etc. can be used.
4.1.3 Movement facilities such as truck with trailer, motor launch, small boats.
4.1.4 Signalling and shore contact equipment such as Walkie-Talkie, radio telephone, day
light signalling, lamp, etc.
4.1.5 Accessories such as ranging rods, range monuments and bench mark pillars etc,
floating buoys, life buoys, tents etc.
4.1.6 A sediment depth measuring equipment called Spud is sometimes used in
reconnaissance type work for a quick estimation of sediment depth. This device is also
used in roughly tracing out the original profiles of the reservoir bottom in case it is not
already available.
4.2 Sediment Samplers and Density Measurements
4.2.1 Sediment bulk density can be measured by two methods namely, using a gamma
density pole, or by removing a sample of known volume.
4.2.2 Density measurements and sediment samples are taken along range lines. The
number of sample and measurement locations depends on the accuracy desired and the
variability of the sediment. The entire depth of the sediment deposits needs to be sampled
and its volume weight measured accurately for determining sediment accumulation.
Consolidation continues to occur throughout the entire sediment depth
5 CONTOUR SURVEY METHOD
7

5.1 The basic objective of this method is to prepare a contour map of the reservoir bed by
using more complete topographic and/or bathymetric information. This is a good method
for determining volume and also provides more complete information on sediment
distribution.
5.2 Recent advances in automated survey techniques have made hydrographic contour
surveying economical in smaller and midsize reservoirs, which significantly reduces the
time spent in the field by using automated depth measurement and positioning systems to
perform the tightly spaced data-collection traverses required by contouring software.
5.2.1 Hydrographic Survey
Integrated Bathymetric System using real time Differential Global Positioning system
(DGPS) is also used for hydrographic survey for digital mapping of the entire reservoir
bottom. The survey system basically comprises of three components:

a) Positioning system

GPS in Differential mode for proper positioning of

moving survey boat.

b) Depth Measuring Units

Digital Echosounder/ Bathymeter/ Transducer for

Depth measurement

c) Computer Interface

It includes software for data logging & post processing

of positioning data plotter, printer, monitor etc

The survey is carried out in a rapid and efficient manner by use of Global Positioning
System (GPS) in differential mode for hydrographic surveys using state-of-the art
technology and use of Total Station for topographic surveys on ground. A boat is
equipped with the bathymetric equipment, the GPS mounted on board and a computer
used for bathymetric survey while its reference station is positioned on a known
geographical benchmark. The survey software enables fixing of grid lines, interfacing of
the bathymeter and DGPS and taking of X, Y, Z values at required interval/grid. Boat
navigation is also controlled by the software so that boat tracks the grid line accurately.
The survey can also be carried out at random mode. The data collected is then processed
and analysed using specially developed software to obtain the results in various forms
e.g. point plots, contour and three dimensional maps of reservoir bed, area capacity
elevation tables and cross-sections of reservoir. (see 8.1 and 8.2)
5.2.1.1 Line spacing
The line spacing for the bathymetry survey depends on various factors like intended use
of the data, complexity of the bottom, time and effort available etc. Hydrographic survey
is carried out within the water spread area usually at 100m line spacing. Data is available
all along the lines and hence entire survey area is covered as desired. Few tie lines in the
other direction are also carried out.
5.2.2 Topographic Survey
Topographical survey should be conducted in the area between existing water level at the
time of survey and MWL. The survey is carried out around the periphery of the reservoir
in a 200m x 100m grid. The complete work is carried out using electronic computerized
Total Station, Auto level and other advanced survey equipments.
5.2.2.1 Instruments
8

a) Total station- The system incorporates an electronic theodolite, electronic distance

measurement device, a computer etc. as one unit. The capability of the system to
retain data in memory, carry out calculations using its own processor, and finally
its ability to create output files directly transferable to the computer, makes the
survey process fast and accurate.
b) Auto level- Auto level is used to accurately transfer the Z coordinate from a bench
mark to the control points, for controlling the vertical accuracy of the total station
during topographical survey.
5.2.2.2 Transfer of level from bench mark to control points
The first step is to transfer accurately the levels from bench mark to the control points
established all around the periphery of the reservoir. These vertical controls are used for
accuracy of Z coordinate in total station survey.
5.2.2.3 Total station survey
Total Station survey starts at the reference point used for Differential Global Positioning
System (DGPS) reference station, using the same coordinates, as used for the
hydrographic surveys. Two points should be established using Differential Global
Positioning System (DGPS) nearby, and these points should be used for calculating angle
(northing) for the topographical surveys. The survey should then be conducted to cover
the land area of the reservoir between existing water level at the time of survey and
MWL. Topographical survey should also be used to pick location and coordinates of
other features like dam axis, dykes etc. within the MWL level. The entire data from Total
Station and Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS), available in digital format, is
merged with the bathymetric data with necessary formatting for generating the final
contour map of the reservoir.
6 RANGELINE SURVEY METHOD
6.1 Rangeline method of capacity survey consists of carrying out levelling or sounding
along a fixed set of rangelines. The object is to compute the areas at different cross
sections and carry out volumetric computation on that basis. While contour method of
survey is generally applicable for all types of reservoir shapes, use of range method
should be limited to relatively straight reaches. A suitable combination may often prove
justified in a cost-accuracy trade-off.
6.2 The range layout should be carefully planned and the reference monuments should be
connected with a triangulation network supplemented by plane table or traverse survey, if
necessary. Subsequent capacity surveys should use the rangelines laid in earlier surveys,
if any. A typical pattern of range locations above the dam is shown in Fig. 1. Sounding
along the range should be carried out from a raft or a boat of suitable size preferably with
echo sounding equipment. The boat should be kept in alignment with the help of range
targets and wireless communication providing shore contact. Correction in depth
measurements should be applied on account of variation in water temperature and salinity
as per the directions of manufacturers of the equipment. The recorded depth from the
transducers bottom should be suitably adjusted to give depth below the mean water level
of the reservoir.
6.3 In places where continuous recording is not necessary a visual indicator type echo
sounder should be used. The depth limitations in these equipments are about 30 m. The
9

recording type is suitable for larger depth and continuous recording. Proper phase
adjustment and recording should be ensured. The speed of the boat should be kept low
(generally below 10 km/hour) while carrying out echo sounding.
6.4 Layout of Rangelines
6.4.1 Before the reservoir is filled, proper location of rangelines should be made in
sufficient number so that subsequent soundings on these rangelines furnish the necessary
data for computation of silt volume. The rangelines should first be located on a paper, in
order to get a comprehensive idea as to how the rangelines should lie with reference to
each other and the reservoir as a whole. The points may need modification at site
depending on topography etc. While fixing the rangelines, the following points should be
considered:

Fig. 1 Typical pattern of range locations above the dam

a) The rangelines should be carefully located and the rangelines should be
monumented as per 6.4.3.
b) As the location of the tributaries with its sediment characteristics is to be
ascertained, closer ranging in this area is generally preferred.
c) Closer spacing of rangelines is preferable in the upper and shallower reaches
than in the lower and deeper reaches.
d) If the reservoir is subject to heavy drawdown, the reaches between the
drawdown level to the maximum water level should be more closely spaced,
10

as the deposits and movement of silt throughout this range is greater than
other parts of the reservoir.
e) Ground survey above the water level along these rangelines is essential.
f) The rangelines should preferably be spaced parallel.
g) If it is not practicable to layout the rangelines parallel to one another, a
divergence of 10 between the rangelines may be permitted for the
convenience of location, but not more than 30 may be permitted.
h) The range spacing should not be more than 1 km.
j) If the reservoir has impoundment on the tributaries joining the main river, this
portion should be separately ranged and the rangelines may have different
orientation from the main rangelines.
k) Rangeline monuments may be fixed above the maximum water level.
m) Rangeline monuments should not be located on the point of a short hill or
abrupt change in reservoir section. At such places the elevation of the ground
may show a variation within a relatively short distance away from the central
line of the range so that the sounding which may-vary a few metre off the
central line may lead to erroneous result with regard to deposition.
n) Rangelines should cover the mouth of the tributaries joining the main river.
p) In case the presence of bends or curves in the river makes it impracticable to
rigidly adhere to the divergence limit set. The stretch should be divided into
short reaches where the limits of divergence are maintained in each reach. In
the segments between the reaches, the reaches may have any divergence not
greater than 90. In these transition segments, the end rangelines may be set
very close to one another, or starting from a common point with a view to
concentrate the irregularity into the smallest area so that it will have the least
effect.
q) Where a tributary enters, or an arm of the lake is cut off, a new series of
rangelines may be started without any regard to the direction of the two main
rangelines of the segment. The first range should be across the mouth of the
tributary and perpendicular to its general direction or near to this as practical
considerations would permit.
6.4.2 Range monuments
The ends of the proposed ranges should be monumented in the field with a permanent
type of monument. They may be of cement concrete or masonry, depending upon the
availability of the material in the locality. The end of ranges should be monumented in
the field so that the range monuments may be traceable at the time of subsequent surveys.
For properly referencing the range monuments, a network of triangles should be
established with reference to an accurate base line preferably taking the base line on the
dam itself, where accurate linear measurement is possible. Establishment of benchmarks
along the periphery of the reservoir at suitable intervals is necessary for establishing
vertical controls. All triangulation stations, bench mark pillars, and range monuments
should be properly indicated so that they may be identified easily. Some of the permanent
objects on the shore should also be properly located so that they are useful for horizontal
11

control during the actual sounding work. All the range monuments should be properly
numbered starting from the dam. Correct location of rangelines on a contour map is
necessary for obtaining the original capacity between the ranges. The average triangular
error may range from 3 seconds to 15 seconds and the probable error of computed sides
may lie between 1 in 5000 to 1 in 20 000" covering both sides of spectrum
6.4.3 Base line of rangelines
After the range monuments have been located in the field, base profile, that is, cross
section along the range; is necessary for future comparison at appropriate intervals of
resurveys. This may be done either by topographic survey before filling of the reservoir,
or by means of echo-sounding immediately after filling. It is recommended that in deep
reservoirs with steeper valleys, an accurate profile should be taken by surveying along the
reach before first filling of the reservoir. In shallow and wide reservoirs, the profile along
the rangelines could also be determined by sounding immediately after the reservoir is
filled. However, to supplement the soundings along the range, land survey above the
water level will be necessary.
7 COMPUTATIONAL PROCEDURES FOR CAPACITY SURVEY
The two basis approaches for computation of volume of deposit are based on: (i) Surface
area/contour method, and (ii) Sectional area/range method.
7.1 Surface Area Approach
If the survey is done by the contour method, the contour map of the reservoir is prepared
and by planimetering the successive areas enclosed by the contours, starting from the
lowest contour a submergence area-elevation curve is first prepared. From this curve the
area covered at different elevations can be obtained. The capacity may be calculated
using the following methods:
a) Contour area interval method, and
b) Modified prisomoidal formula.
7.1.1 Contour Area Interval Method
The capacity between the successive unit elevations can be computed arithmetically by
taking the average submergence area and multiplying by the unit height.
7.1.2 Modified Prismoidal Formula
The capacity between the successive unit elevations can also be calculated by the
modified prismoidal formula:

Vs =

2H
( A + 4 B + C ) Vy
6

where
Vs = capacity between middle and top contours,
H = contour interval between A and B contour,
A = area of the bottom contour,
B = area of the middle contour,
12

(1)

C = area of the top contour, and

Vy = capacity between middle and bottom contours previously determined.
The capacity below the lowest contour may be computed by the contour area interval
method which provides Vy. After finding the volume below the lowest contour this
formula can be used progressively for each succeeding higher contour.
7.1.3 The cumulative value of the capacity between the successive unit elevations,
obtained by any of the above two methods, starting from the lowest elevation, will give
the new capacity of the reservoir at different elevation. The difference between the old
capacity and the new capacity at any elevation will provide the accumulation of silt
deposit between the surveys.
7.2 Sectional Area Approach

The basic requirement in this approach is the evaluation of cross sectional areas of
different rangelines in the reservoir. Based out the bed levels obtained on each range line,
the cross-section of the reservoir for all range lines is generated. Then the cross sectional
area at each range line for all required elevations upto FRL is calculated. The capacity at
a particular elevation between two successive range lines may be calculated using any of
the following methods:
a) Average end area length method,
b) Prismoidal formula, and
c) Constant factor method.
7.2.1 Average End Area Length Method

The capacity between two successive range lines at any elevation up to FRL is calculated
using the formula:
V =

L
( A1 + A2 )
2

(2)

where
V= the capacity at elevation X between two successive range lines,
A1, A2= area of successive cross-sections at elevation X, and
L = distance between the range lines.
7.2.2 Prismoidal Formula

The capacity between two successive rangelines at any elevation may also be calculated
using the prismoidal formula:
V =

L
A1 + A2 + A1 A2
3

where
V= the capacity between two successive range lines at elevation, X,
L = distance between the range lines, and
A1, A2= area of successive cross-sections at elevation X.
13

(3)

7.2.3 Constant Factor Method

This method is a modification of the average and area length method. In this method the
initial capacities of any given reach and its end areas are calculated based on the initial
survey. The ratio of original capacity of the reach and its average end area at different
elevations remain constant throughout the life of a reservoir and is known as constant
factor. The new capacity between successive cross-sections at any elevation may be
calculated using the following equation:
VS =

VO
An
AO

(4)

where

VO
= constant factor,
AO
VS = new capacity in the reach,
VO = original capacity in the reach,
AO = original average end areas of the reach, and
An = new average end areas of the reach
7.2.4 The new capacity of the reservoir at any elevation may be calculated by summing
up the capacities between the range lines obtained from any of the three methods
mentioned above. The difference between the old capacity and the new capacity at any
elevation will provide the accumulation of silt deposit between the surveys.
8 RESERVOIR SURVEYS USING HI-TECH SYSTEMS
8.1 Using Global Positioning System (GPS)
8.1.1 GPS is a satellite-based global navigation system that enables users to accurately
determine 3-dimensional positions (x,y,z) worldwide. GPS receivers calculate its position
from distance measurements to the satellites that are determined by how long a radio
signal takes to reach the receiver from the satellite. Position accuracy depends on the
receivers ability to accurately calculate the time it takes for each satellite signal to travel
to earth.
8.1.2 There are primarily four sources of errors which can affect the receivers
calculation. These errors consist of the following:

(i)

time, because of clock differences,

(ii)

ionosphere and troposphere delays on the radio signal,

(iii)

signal multi-path,errors caused by signal arrival by different paths usually due

to signal reflecting from obstacles, and

(iv)

quality of GPS receiver.

The combination of these errors, can limit GPS accuracy to 10 to 16 meters. These errors
are eliminated through a technique known as Differential.

14

8.1.3 The GPS can also be used for vertical measurement allowing not only greater
accuracy in the hydrographic survey, but also more productive data collection. The
antenna is mounted a fixed distance above the transducer. This provides absolute
positioning for the depth measurement without the need for a water surface measurement
to define a reference datum. It also eliminates the concern for a changing water surface
elevation or boat heave (vertical displacement) due to wave action during the survey.
8.2 Using Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS)
8.2.1 DGPS determines the position of one receiver in reference to another and is a
method of increasing position accuracies by eliminating or minimising the uncertainties.
In differential positioning the absolute position of each unit is irrelevant, and the stress is
on the relative difference between the positions of the two units, which are
simultaneously observing the same satellites. The basic principle being that, errors
calculated by GPS receivers in a local area will be common to both. The inherent errors
are mostly concealed because the satellite transmission is essentially the same at both
receivers. One GPS receiver is programmed with the known coordinates and is stationed
over a known geographical benchmark. This receiver, known as the master or reference
unit, remains over the known benchmark, monitors the movement of the satellites, and
calculates its apparent geographical position by direct reception from the satellites. The
inherent errors in the satellite position are determined relative to the masters
programmed position and necessary corrections or differences are applied to the mobile
GPS receiver on the survey vessel.
8.2.2 There are different ways to apply DGPS collection methods to hydrographic
surveying which includes real time and post processing GPS. Real time surveys require a
constant link between the base station and rover either through radio signals or other
communication techniques so that differential correction is applied to the rover via radio
contact. The major disadvantage with real-time collection systems is that communication
problems can occur between the master and mobile GPS receivers when surveying in
areas with obstructions such as mountains, cliffs, vegetation etc. In these situations the
master receiver will have to be shifted to new locations, which is generally costly and
time consuming.
8.2.3 Post-processing DGPS applies the differential correction to the rover after the days
survey is completed. The GPS survey information is stored in each receivers memory
and downloaded to a computer at the end of the day. Once both receivers have been
downloaded, the correction factors are applied to the rovers data and an accurate position
obtained. The limitations of a post-processed survey include uncertainty of real-time
positional accuracy and the inability to accurately navigate a precise pre-planned survey
route.
8.2.4 A minimum of four satellite observations are required to mathematically solve for
the four unknown receiver parameters (latitude, longitude, altitude and time). For
hydrographic surveying the altitude, the water surface elevation parameter, is known
which realistically means only three satellite observations are needed to track the survey
vessel. But to obtain highest accurate positioning the survey vessel tracks all available
satellites and monitors geometric accuracy of its positions.
8.3 Advantages of GPS survey over other hydrographic survey techniques

15

The advantages of GPS survey over other conventional hydrographic survey techniques
are as follows:
a) In DGPS hydrographic surveying the observations are taken from a moving
survey vessel, which allows faster data acquisition with better accuracy;
b) The line-of sight from the base station to the boat is not necessary, as required in
the conventional surveys;
c) A GPS survey can be completed between control points (even on opposite side of
a mountain) without having to traverse or even see the other point.
d) Requirement of lesser number of control stations along the periphery of the
reservoir as compared to conventional surveys;
e) This technique has the ability to achieve greater accuracy and to efficiently collect
large amounts of data. For data collection, the grid generally adopted for a very
large reservoir in a conventional survey is 1000x100m, and in GPS survey a
50x50m grid is adopted hence it may be concluded that the intensity of data
collection in GPS survey is 50 times in a conventional survey.
f) By using this technique the hydrographic survey can be carried out at random
mode without specifying range lines.
g) The data collecting system with GPS is compact and can be accommodated in
smaller boats.
h) This technique is not labour intensive.
8.4 Methodology for Hydrographic survey

The basic equipment required for a GPS hydrographic survey are a boat, two GPS
receivers, sounding equipment, and a laptop computer with data-logging software. The
boat is equipped with the bathymetric equipment, the GPS system mounted on board and
a lap-top computer while its reference station is positioned on a known geographical
benchmark. The survey software enables fixing of grid lines and interfacing of
bathymeter and DGPS and taking X, Y, Z values at required interval/ grid. Boat
navigation is also controlled by the software so that boat tracks the grid line accurately.
The surveys can also be carried out at random mode, rather than attempting to locate and
survey pre-defined sediment range lines. The GPS receivers output position information
is available at every two seconds for hydrographic survey works. Survey grade
fathometers take soundings at much higher frequencies, as high as 20 times per second.
Therefore, the survey software monitors the GPS serial port for incoming data, and every
time a GPS data string is received the program immediately retrieves a depth reading
from the second serial port. Alternatively, to collect the data simultaneously each port can
be monitored continuously and data values time-stamped. The programme then uses
interpolation to define simultaneous data from each port.
8.5 Methodology for Topographic survey

For accurate land survey, control points were established using DGPS all along the
periphery of the reservoir. Land survey covered the entire area between water spread area
and MWL. The survey is carried out using Total Station having internal memory to store
up to 3000 points and facility to transfer data on PC.
8.6 Data Reduction and Analysis
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The bathymetric data is first transferred to reduced levels format, after removing all
collected points without differential correction. Entire data from Total Station available in
digital format is then merged with bathymetry data, after doing required formatting.
Contours for the reservoir areas are computed from the compiled data using the TIN
(Triangular irregular network) surface modeling package. A TIN is a set of adjacent, nonoverlapping triangles computed from irregularly spaced points with x, y coordinates and
z values. In this method triangles are formed between all collected data points including
all boundary points preserving all collected survey points. The contour surface areas for
the reservoir are computed from the TIN at selected elevation intervals for the complete
vertical elevation of the reservoir. Grid interpolation method can also be used for working
out contour surface areas. The basic elevation verses surface area data developed from
the survey become the input data for the computation of revised detailed area and
capacity tables. The following outputs can be obtained using suitable software.
a) Cross-sections at required locations.
b) Area-elevation capacity table at any required interval from the lowest bed level to
MWL.
c) Contour maps with contours at any required interval.
d) Longitudinal section of the reservoir.
Further, analysis of data for obtaining average annual sedimentation and sedimentation in
various zones of the reservoir and mathematical modelling studies etc. are also carried
out.
9 REMOTE SENSING METHOD
9.1 General

The satellite imagery method utilizes the fact that water spread of a reservoir, at any
given elevation, decreases in course of time due to sedimentation. The water spreads of a
reservoir at different water levels between Full Reservoir Level (FRL) and Minimum
Draw Down Level (MDDL) are computed from satellite imageries.
9.2 Advantages

Remote sensing approach has the following advantages:

a) Satellite data through its spatial, spectral and temporal attributes can provide
synoptic, repetitive and timely information regarding the revised water spread
area in a reservoir.
b) By using the digital analysis techniques and GIS in conjunction, the sediment
deposition pattern in a reservoir can be determined.
c) Remote sensing approach is highly cost effective, easy to use and requires little
time in analysis as compared to conventional methods.
d) Sedimentation data can be easily assessed for inaccessible areas.
e) Accuracy is better for fan shape reservoirs with large variation in water surface
area for relatively small change in water level.
f) Sedimentation can be assessed for earlier years also, subject to availability of
imageries.
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9.3 Limitations

Remote sensing approach has the following limitations:

a) The amount of sediments deposited below the lowest observed water level cannot
be determined through remote sensing. Thus, it is not possible to estimate the
actual sedimentation rate in the whole reservoir.
b) Presence of clouds poses a problem in correctly demarcating the reservoir water
spread area.
c) This technique is not suitable for reservoirs that have been constructed in narrow
valleys with steep slopes.
d) Errors may arise during analysis of boundary pixels.
e) The accuracy of assessment depends on the spatial resolution of satellite
imageries used for the purpose of study.
f) Floating vegetation on periphery poses problem in delineating the land water
boundary.
9.4 Methodology
9.4.1 Selection of Period of Analysis

If the analysis is to be carried out for a specified period then the corresponding data has
to be used. Otherwise, it is best to use the data of such a period when there is large
variation in the reservoir water level. If the historical records of maximum and minimum
water level in each year are available, the water year of maximum variation is a better
selection for undertaking a sedimentation analysis. A wet year followed by a dry year is
considered to be the best period for such a type of study since for such a sequence; the
reservoir water level is likely to fluctuate from the maximum to the minimum level. The
remote sensing data series of the same water year or continuous water years must be
selected in sequence to the extent possible. The availability of the satellite data and its
cost are additional factors, which govern the selection of period of analysis. In general,
sedimentation assessment should be made for major reservoirs after a gap of 5 to 10
years.
9.4.2 Selection of Suitable Satellite and Sensor

A number of satellites are available for acquiring remote sensing data and the most
common among them are listed in table 1 given below. Multi-spectral information is
required for the identification of water pixels and for differentiating the water pixels from
the peripheral wetland pixels. It is necessary to ascertain that good quality and cloud free
satellite data are available. It is also desirable to use high-resolution data for better
results. The data of a number of satellites are available these days and a choice is usually
made based on the frequency of satellite pass, spatial resolution, and cost considerations.
However, the use of PAN sensor data is not suggested because it lacks spectral
information. At present, the remote sensing data of IRS satellites is the best selection in
India from the cost and resolution considerations. The availability of cloud free satellite
imageries during the period of interest is required to be checked. About 15-20 imageries
are desirable for different water levels between FRL to MDDL. Accuracy of analysis
improves with increase in number of imageries of closer interval of reservoir water
levels.
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TABLE 1 SATELLITE DETAILS

Revisit
period
(days)

Coverage, km

Satellite

Sensor

Resolution
(m)

IRS - 1A
IRS - 1B

LISS - II

36.25

22

74 X 87

LISS - III
(V, NIR)
LISS - III
( V, NIR )
LISS - III
LISS - IV
(MX)

23.5

24

141 X 141

21.2 - 23.5

25

23.5
5.8

24
5

142 X 141
23 X 23

20
30
30
30
30

26
16
16
16
16

60 X 60 - 90
184 X 185
184 X 185
184 X 185
180 X 170

IRS - 1C

IRS - 1D
IRS - P6
IRS-P6
SPOT
Landsat-4
Landsat-5
Landsat-6
Landsat-7

MLA
TM
TM
TM
TM

141 X 142.1

9.4.3 Identification of Water Pixels

The basic output from the analysis of remote sensing data is the water spread area of the
reservoir. The two techniques of remote sensing interpretation; viz., visual and digital;
can be used for water spread delineation. Visual techniques are based purely on the
interpretive capability of the analyst and it is not possible to use the information of
different bands, after the visual product is generated. Around the periphery of the water
spread area, the wetland appears very similar to the water pixels and it becomes very
difficult for the eye to decide whether a pixel near the periphery is to be classified as
water or land. Moreover, in case of clouds or noise in the scene around the periphery, it is
not visually possible to distinguish the water pixels. Visual interpretation is not
commonly used these days.
Using digital techniques, the information of different bands can be utilised to the
maximum extent and consistent analysis can be carried out over the entire range of
variation of reservoir water level. The information about the features hidden by the
clouds can be indirectly obtained using the series of interpreted imageries. The noise in
the imagery can be removed using special algorithms. It is also easy to calculate the water
spread area. For these reasons, digital techniques are superior and are gaining recognition
nowadays. For the calculation of water spread area, it is required to find the number of
continuous water pixels in the satellite imagery.
The variation of soil reflectance with moisture content and the reflectance of water in
different conditions is shown in Fig. 1. In the visible region of the spectrum (0.4 - 0.7
m), the transmittance of water is significant and the absorptance and reflectance are low.

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Figure 1 Spectral reflectance of vegetation, soil & water

The absorptance of water rises rapidly in the near-infrared region (NIR) (0.77 - 0.86 m)
where both the reflectance and transmittance are low. Due to transmittance of visible
radiation through water, if depth is shallow, the radiation is reflected by the bottom of the
water body, transmitted through water and detected by the sensor. In such situations, it
may not be clear from the visible bands whether there is a thin water layer above ground
surface. To resolve this, the image in the NIR band must be inspected. In the NIR band,
water apparently acts as a black body absorber and the boundary between the water and
other surface features is quite prominent.
The reflectance from the wetland along the reservoir periphery may be quite similar to
the reflectance from the adjacent shallow water. The reservoir water may be muddy. A
pixel at the soil-water interface may represent mixed conditions (some part water and
other part soil). To differentiate water pixels from the adjacent wetland pixels,
comparative analysis of the digital numbers in different bands is carried out. The
behaviour of the reflectance curves of water and soil is different from the blue band (0.53
- 0.59 m) onwards. Beyond the blue band, with increase in wavelength, water
reflectance curves show downward trend while soil curves show an upward trend. This
characteristic can be used to differentiate the water pixels from the peripheral wetland
pixels.
9.4.4 Analysis of Imageries

The imagery needs to be imported in the digital image processing software system before
analysis can commence. While using the temporal satellite data of the same area, it is
necessary to geo-reference the imageries acquired at different times. The geo-referenced
imageries can be overlaid and changes in the water-spread area can be detected. Georeferencing also helps to manipulate the information below the clouds and under the
noise pixels. An imagery that is sharp, clear, cloud- and noise-free is chosen as the base
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(master). The imageries of other dates are considered slaves and geo-referenced with the
master. Although the reservoir area may be covered in a small part of the scene, the full
scene should be utilised for geo-referencing to improve accuracy. Clearly identifiable
features, such as crossing of rivers, roads or lineaments, sharp turns in the rivers, bridges,
the rock outcrops, are selected as control points. At least 10 control points should be
selected. The geo-referencing statistics is examined and the points, which generated large
errors, are edited/ deleted/ replaced to obtain satisfactory results. Typically, the final error
should be less than the size of a pixel.
Depending on the areal extent and spatial resolution, the file size of each scene can be
very large. Since the area of interest is only the reservoir area, the reservoir water spread
area and its surrounding can be extracted from the full scene before proceeding with
analysis. This will result in less consumption of disk space, easy handling of files, and
reduction in the analysis time. This will also reduce the efforts for display and editing
files. Most image analysis packages contain utilities for this purpose.
9.4.5 Demarcation of Water Spread Area

Density slicing of the NIR band is one of the many methods available for demarcating
water pixels. Although density slicing can separate most of the water pixels out, it may
fail under certain conditions. The sliced pixels may include some saturated soil pixels
also since the reflectance value of the saturated soil is very low in the NIR band.
Supervised classification is another method used for available for demarcating water
pixels. Although clearly distinguishable water pixels can be easily separated out by this
technique, sometimes it is difficult to provide accurate training sets for peripheral pixels.
Another approach is to apply a model that uses multi-spectral data and tests multiple
conditions to ascertain whether a pixel represents water or not. Most modern packages
have a provision to write algorithms to differentiate water pixels by processing the data of
multiple bands.
After the water spread area is separated out, the resulting imagery can be compared with
the NIR imagery and the standard FCC (False Color Composite). Depending on the area
covered by the water or soil in a mixed pixel, classification of some pixels as pure water
and some as pure soil can mutually counterbalance the effect of misclassification to some
extent. The estimation of sedimentation by remote sensing is highly sensitive to
determination of the water-spread area. The data of high-resolution sensors helps in
reducing the error in remote sensing analysis.
9.4.6 Accounting for Cloud Effect, Noise and Tails

If the imagery has clouds, their shadows might fall over the reservoir area and its
periphery. It is necessary to determine whether the pixels occupied by clouds and
shadows correspond to water or not. If clouds and shadows are present over the reservoir
area or around the periphery in an imagery taken during the drawdown cycle, the imagery
for the next cloud-free date is examined. If the area covered by the cloud in a particular
imagery has water at the same location on the next date's imagery, the pixels below the
cloud are classified as water pixels. The reason is that the reservoir water surface area
decreases with time during the drawdown cycle and so the pixels having water on a given
date will necessarily have water on the previous date.
Some pixels may be affected by noise in the data and are edited in a similar way using the
imagery of previous or subsequent date. Due to the presence of local depressions around
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the reservoir periphery, a few water pixels might be present near the reservoir area. Such
pixels that do not form part of the continuous water spread should be removed. Many
streams join the reservoir from different directions around the periphery. Beyond a
certain point, these do not form a part of the reservoir. The imagery should be edited to
suitably remove such tails.
9.4.7 Computation of revised reservoir capacity

After finalizing the reservoir water spread by correcting all the images, the histograms of
pixels are analyzed to decide number of water pixels in each image. Water spread area is
obtained by multiplying the number of water pixels by the size of a pixel for each
imagery.
Using the reservoir water spread areas at different elevations the reservoir volume
between any two successive elevations is estimated using prismoidal formula (see 7.2.2).
After computing volumes between successive elevations, cumulative volumes at different
reservoir levels are computed to develop revised Elevation- Area- Capacity curve.
9.4.8 Assessment of sediment deposited at different levels

Comparison of newly established Elevation-Area-Capacity curve with the original curve

or curve established from previous survey facilitates in assessment of sediment
deposition. By using the digital analysis techniques and GIS in conjunction, the sediment
deposition pattern in a reservoir is determined.

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