The Veterinary Journal 189 (2011) 330335

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The Veterinary Journal

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tvjl

Ultrasonographic examination of the small intestine, large intestine

and greater omentum in 30 Saanen goats
U. Braun , K. Steininger, A. Tschuor, M. Hssig
Department of Farm Animals, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 260, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Accepted 7 July 2010

Keywords:
Goat
Small intestine
Large intestine
Greater omentum
Ultrasonography

a b s t r a c t
The small and large intestine of 30 healthy Saanen goats were examined ultrasonographically using a
5.0 MHz-linear transducer. The goats were examined on the right side, from the eighth rib to the caudal
aspect of the ank. The small and large intestine could be easily differentiated. The descending duodenum could be imaged in 19 goats, and the jejunum and ileum seen in all goats. The jejunum and ileum
were most often seen in cross-section and rarely in longitudinal section in the ventral region of the right
ank. The intestinal contents were usually homogenously echoic, and active motility was observed in all
the goats. The diameter of the small intestine was 0.82.7 cm (1.6 [0.33] cm). The spiral ansa of the colon
was imaged in all the goats, and in 21 the caecum was also seen. Both these sections of large intestine
were most commonly seen in the dorsal region of the right ank. The spiral ansa of the colon was easily
identied by its spiral arrangement of centripetal and centrifugal gyri, which had a garland-like appearance. Because of intraluminal gas, only the wall of the colon closest to the transducer could be imaged.
The diameter of the spiral colon ranged from 0.8 to 2.0 cm (1.1 [0.24] cm). Usually only the wall of the
caecum closest to the transducer could be imaged and it appeared as a thick, echoic, slightly undulating
line. The greater omentum could be seen in all the goats.
2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction
In cattle, ultrasonographic examination of the small intestine
(Marmier, 1993; Braun and Marmier, 1995) and large intestine
(Amrein-Schneider, 1999; Braun and Amrein, 2001) has been described in healthy cows and in cows with ileus of the duodenum,
ileum and jejunum (Braun et al., 1995, 2010; Braun, 2003, 2005;
Nuss et al., 2006; Streeter and Step, 2007; Lejeune and Lorenz,
2008) and caecal dilatation (Braun et al., 2002). Evaluation of the
contents of the small intestine in cattle is usually straightforward.
Because there is generally no gas, the intestinal wall closest to the
transducer as well as the intestinal contents and the wall furthest
from the transducer can be visualised. The different parts of the
small intestine can be clearly differentiated. The cranial part of
the duodenum is easily identied because it starts at the abomasum and is in close contact with the liver and gallbladder. The
descending duodenum can almost always be imaged and is identied as a horizontal structure running caudally between the two
serosal layers of the greater omentum immediately adjacent to
the abdominal wall. The jejunum and ileum cannot be differentiated ultrasonographically and represent the longest part of the
small intestine. In most healthy cows, using a 3.5 MHz-linear
Corresponding author. Tel.: +41 44 6358241; fax: +41 44 6358904.
E-mail address: ubraun@vetclinics.uzh.ch (U. Braun).
1090-0233/$ - see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tvjl.2010.07.003

transducer with a penetration depth of 17 cm, more than 10 loops

of small intestine are seen, usually in cross-section but sometimes
in longitudinal section, in the ank and 9th12th intercostal
spaces.
Intraluminal gas is usually a differentiating feature of the large
intestine (Amrein-Schneider, 1999; Braun and Amrein, 2001). Because of the gas, often only the wall of the large intestine closest
to the transducer can be imaged and it appears as a thick echoic
line. Parts of the proximal ansa, caecum and spiral ansa of the colon
can usually be seen. The proximal ansa and caecum appear as a
thick echoic continuous and slightly curved line. The spiral ansa
of the colon looks like an echoic garland because of the concentric
arrangement of the loops of intestine. To the authors knowledge,
there is no information on the ultrasonographic appearance of
the intestinal tract in goats. Reasons for this most likely are economic; the value of individual goats is generally low and ultrasound equipment is expensive. However, because ultrasound
machines are widely available in general veterinary practice, and
because owners of sick pet goats or expensive show animals are often willing to pay for an extensive diagnostic work-up, it is expected that the use of ultrasonography in goats, as in other small
ruminants, will become more widespread. Ileus and caecal dilatation attributable to various causes occur frequently in cattle and
to a lesser extent in goats. Transrectal palpation can be used to detect dilated loops of intestine or a dilated caecum in many bovine

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331

patients but this is not possible in goats for anatomical reasons. Instead, a tentative diagnosis of ileus or caecal dilatation may be
based on the absence of faeces in the rectum or the presence of
blood, mucus or brin in the faeces. Failure to diagnose either of
these conditions may result in conservative rather than surgical
treatment, which results in prolongation of the disorder and perhaps irreparable lesions. Abdominal ultrasonography appears to
be a promising tool for rapid diagnosis of ileus or caecal dilatation
in goats. However, diagnosis of these conditions requires a thorough knowledge of the ultrasonographic appearance of the normal
large and small intestines in goats. Thus, the goal of the present
study was to document the ultrasonographic ndings of the small
and large intestines in 30 healthy Saanen goats.
Materials and methods
The study was approved by an ethical committee of the canton of Zurich,
Switzerland.
Animals
Thirty, clinically healthy, non-lactating, female, Saanen goats, which were 2.0
6.5 year (mean [sd] 4.9 [1.10] years) old and weighed 4286 kg (61.8 [9.95] kg),
were used. The goats were not pregnant. They originated from two farms and
had been sold for slaughter. After purchase, all of the goats were deemed healthy
based on the results of a thorough clinical examination, a complete blood cell count,
biochemical prole, urinalysis, and examination of rumen juice and faeces. The results of these examinations have been described in detail (Becker-Birck, 2009).
Ultrasonographic examination of the small intestine and large intestine
A real-time ultrasound machine (EUB 8500, Hitachi Medical Systems) with a
5.0 MHz-linear transducer with a penetration depth of 9 cm (EUP-L53 Linear) was
used to examine the standing, non-sedated goats. The right side of each goat, from
the dorsal midline of the back to the linea alba and from the eighth rib to the caudal
aspect of the ank, was clipped. The 8th12th intercostal spaces were examined
from dorsal to ventral with the transducer held parallel to the ribs. The right ank
was examined from dorsal to the linea alba with the transducer held perpendicular
to the longitudinal axis of the body. For optimal localisation of the various parts of
the intestine, the ank was divided into four quadrants using a vertical line at the
level of the fth lumbar vertebra and a horizontal line at the level of the patella
(Fig. 1a).

Fig. 1. (a) Division of the ank region into four quadrants for localisation of
intestine during ultrasonographic examination. Q1 Craniodorsal quadrant, Q2
Caudodorsal quadrant, Q3 Cranioventral quadrant, Q4 Caudoventral quadrant.
(b) Position of the linear transducer for the ultrasonographic examination of the
various parts of the duodenum. 1 Position for the examination of the cranial part
of the duodenum, 2 Position for examination of the descending part of the
duodenum in cross-section, 3 Position for the examination of the duodenum in
longitudinal section, L Liver, G Gall bladder (black area), Lm Abomasum.

Small intestine

Postmortem examination

Ultrasonographic evaluation of the small intestine was carried out as described

for cattle (Marmier, 1993; Braun and Marmier, 1995; Braun, 2003) and goats (Steininger, 2009). The appearance, contents and intestinal motility were subjectively assessed. The diameter and the thickness of the intestinal wall were determined using
the in-built cursor system once the image was frozen. Visualisation of the cranial,
descending and ascending parts of the duodenum was then attempted (Fig. 1b).
The jejunum and ileum were evaluated in the 9th12th intercostal spaces on the
right ank. No attempt was made to differentiate between the jejunum and the
ileum, as such a differentiation is not possible in cattle (Braun and Marmier,
1995; Braun, 2003). The intercostal space and abdominal quadrant in which loops
of intestine could be visualised were determined. Then at each location, the number
of loops seen in cross and longitudinal section, the intestinal diameter and the
appearance of the intestinal contents were recorded.

After examination, the goats were slaughtered (n = 14) or euthanased (n = 16). A

macroscopic postmortem examination of the intestines was carried out in the
slaughtered goats. The euthanased goats, which were also used in other studies
(Becker-Birck, 2009; Irmer, 2009), were frozen and cut into 1.0 to 1.5 cm-thick
transverse sections. The intestine was examined on these sections.

Large intestine
Ultrasonographic examination of the large intestine was carried out as described for cattle (Amrein-Schneider, 1999; Braun and Amrein, 2001; Braun,
2003) and goats (Steininger, 2009). The size of the large intestine was determined
in the 10th12th intercostal spaces and in the ank (Fig. 1). Attempts were made
to differentiate the proximal loop of the colon, the spiral loop of the colon and
the caecum. The contents, thickness and various layers of the wall and motility of
the large intestine were evaluated. The diameter of the spiral loop of the colon
and the caecum were also determined.
Ultrasonographic examination of the greater omentum
The greater omentum was evaluated in the 8th12th intercostal spaces and in
the right ank. The thickness of the omentum was measured electronically using
the two cursors.

Statistical analysis
The statistical software program StatView 5.1 (SAS Institute, Cary, USA) was
used for analysis of the data. Frequencies, means and standard deviations were
calculated.

Results
Duodenum
The cranial part of the duodenum could not be visualised in any
of the goats because it was hidden by the liver (see also Fig. 1b),
and the ascending part of the duodenum could not be seen because
its distance from the abdominal wall exceeded the depth of penetration of the transducer. The descending duodenum could be distinctly differentiated from other parts of the small and large
intestine in 19 goats. Similar to cattle (Braun and Marmier,
1995), the descending duodenum was recognised because of its
location immediately adjacent to the abdominal wall and between
the two serosal layers of the greater omentum (Fig. 2). Its contents

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U. Braun et al. / The Veterinary Journal 189 (2011) 330335

Fig. 2. Ultrasonogram and schematic of the descending duodenum in the craniodorsal quadrant (Q1) of a 4-year-old Saanen goat. 1 Lateral abdominal wall, 2
Descending duodenum, 3 Greater omentum, 4 Large intestine, Ds Dorsal, Vt
Ventral, Md Medial.

were homogenously echoic. The descending duodenum could be

imaged from one examination location in all the 19 goats and in
two goats, it could be followed across several intercostal spaces.
The descending duodenum was seen most often (n = 13) in the craniodorsal quadrant (Q1; Table 1). It was also seen in one to two
goats in the 10th12th intercostal spaces and quadrants 2 and 3.
The thickness of the duodenal wall ranged from 0.5 to 1.7 mm.

Fig. 3. Ultrasonogram and schematic of the jejunum in longitudinal and crosssection in the cranioventral quadrant (Q3) of a 3-year-old Saanen goat. 1 Lateral
abdominal wall, 2 Empty intestine, 3 Longitudinal section, 4 Cross-section, 5
Large intestine, 6 Greater omentum, Ds Dorsal, Vt Ventral, Md Medial.

The largest diameter varied from 0.8 to 2.3 cm (1.3 [0.37 cm]),
and there were one to eight duodenal contractions per minute
(3.7 [2.05] contractions per minute).

Table 1
Visibility of the small and large intestine in the various abdominal quadrants and intercostal spaces in 30 Saanen goats (per cent in brackets).
Part of intestine

Intercostal spaces
9

Descending duodenum
Jejunum and ileum
Spiral colon
Caecum

0
4
1
0

(0.0)
(13.3)
(3.3)
(0.0)

Abdominal quadrants

10

11

12

1 (3.3)
12 (40.0)
1 (3.3)
0 (0.0)

2
8
5
0

2
7
4
0

13 (43.3)
2 (6.7)
19 (63.3)
8 (26.7)

2 (6.7)
1 (3.3)
25 (83.3)
8 (26.7)

2 (6.7)
29 (96.7)
13 (43.3)
6 (20.0)

0 (0.0)
29 (96.7)
12 (40.0)
3 (10.0)

(6.7)
(26.7)
(16.7)
(0.0)

(6.7)
(23.3)
(13.3)
(0.0)

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333

Jejunum and ileum

The jejunum and ileum could be seen in all the goats and were
most often imaged (n = 29) in the ventral quadrants (Q3 and Q4) of
the right ank (Table 1). They were less frequently seen (n = 712)
in the ventral part of the 10th12th intercostal spaces and only
occasionally imaged in the dorsal ank region. Loops of jejunum
and ileum were usually seen in cross-section and rarely longitudinally (Fig. 3). Although the number of intestinal loops seen in
cross-section in both ventral quadrants (Q3 and Q4) ranged from
one to nine, usually (n = 16) only four to six loops were seen
(Fig. 4). Intestinal loops were seen in longitudinal section in ve
goats, with 1 (n = 3) or 3 (n = 2) sections being observed (Fig. 5).
The intestinal loops were located immediately adjacent to one another with no free uid between them. In a few goats, loops of
empty intestine were seen between loops containing ingesta. Active intestinal motility was observed in all the goats. However, it
was not possible to determine the frequency of contractions because the intestines were constantly in motion. The intestinal contents were usually homogenously echoic. The diameter of the small
intestine ranged from 0.8 to 2.7 cm (1.6 [0.33] cm), although in the
majority of goats it varied from 1.2 to 1.8 cm, and was rarely greater than 2.5 cm (Fig. 6). The thickness of the wall of the jejunum and
ileum was 0.82.1 mm.
Large intestine
The large intestine was seen in all the goats, and in 21, the caecum could be imaged separately. These structures were most often

Fig. 6. Frequency distribution of the diameter of the jejunum and ileum in 30

Saanen goats (246 measurements).

seen in the dorsal region of the right ank (Q1 and Q2), sometimes
in the ventral quadrants (Q3 and Q4) and rarely (spiral loop of colon) or never (caecum) in the 9th12th intercostal spaces (Table 1).
The spiral loop of the colon was easily identied because of the
centripetal and centrifugal arrangement of the intestine giving it
an echoic garland-like appearance (Fig. 7). The spiral colon was often located medial to the small intestine and not immediately adjacent to the right abdominal wall. Because of intraluminal gas, only
the wall of the large intestine closest to the transducer could be
visualised. The wall of the large intestine furthest from the transducer and the intestinal contents could not be seen because of a
distal acoustic shadow created by the gas. Parts of the proximal
loop of the colon were usually seen during examination of the spiral loop of the colon. The thickness of the wall of the spiral loop of
the colon ranged from 1.0 to 2.6 mm and its diameter was 0.8 to
2.0 cm (1.1 [0.24] cm).
Only the wall of the caecum closest to the transducer could be
imaged. It appeared as a thick, echoic, slightly undulating line with
a length of 5.6 to 8.0 cm (6.6 [0.69] cm; Fig. 8). The thickness of the
caecal wall was 1.84.1 mm (3.0 [0.74] cm).
Greater omentum

Fig. 4. Frequency distribution of the number of intestinal loops seen in crosssection in the various abdominal quadrants and intercostal spaces in 30 Saanen
goats using a 5.0 MHz-linear transducer with a penetration depth of 9 cm. ICS
Intercostal space, Q1 Craniodorsal quadrant, Q2 Caudodorsal quadrant, Q3
Cranioventral quadrant, Q4 Caudoventral quadrant.

The greater omentum was seen in all the goats and appeared as
a homogenously echoic structure with small hypoechoic foci which
corresponded to blood vessels. It was located immediately adjacent to the abdominal wall, and visualisation of the omentum increased from cranial to caudal. The greater omentum was seen in
the 8th intercostal space in one goat and in the 9th12th intercostal spaces in 3, 9, 12 and 15 goats, respectively. It was seen in the
dorsal abdominal quadrants in 24 goats and in the ventral abdominal quadrants in 26 goats. The thickness of the greater omentum
ranged from 0.2 to 2.9 cm (1.0 [0.51] cm).
Postmortem examination
Postmortem examination of the small intestine, large intestine
and greater omentum of the examined goats revealed no abnormal
ndings.
Discussion

Fig. 5. Frequency distribution of the number of intestinal loops seen in longitudinal

section in the various abdominal quadrants and intercostal spaces in 30 goats using
a 5.0 MHz-linear transducer with a penetration depth of 9 cm. Key see Fig. 4.

Ultrasonography has become a routine diagnostic tool in many

domestic animal species including goats. Small ruminant practitioners should be familiar with the ultrasonographic anatomy of
healthy animals so as to be able to interpret abnormal ndings.
The results of this study indicate that transabdominal ultrasonography is suitable for assessing the intestinal tract and differentiating

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U. Braun et al. / The Veterinary Journal 189 (2011) 330335

Fig. 7. Ultrasonogram and schematic of the spiral colon in the caudodorsal

quadrant (Q2) of a 3-year-old Saanen goat. 1 Lateral abdominal wall, 2 Greater
omentum, 3 Spiral colon, Ds Dorsal, Vt Ventral, Md Medial.

the small and large intestine in goats. Generally, our ndings were
similar to descriptions of the small (Marmier, 1993; Braun and Marmier, 1995) and large (Amrein-Schneider, 1999; Braun and Amrein,
2001) intestine in cattle. The descending duodenum was seen between the serosal layers of the omentum, similar to ndings in cattle. However, the cranial part of the duodenum could not be imaged,
which was in contrast to ndings in cattle.
The jejunum and ileum were most often seen in the ventral region of the right ank and less frequently in the 9th12th intercostal spaces. This is in contrast to cattle in which they were always
seen in the 11th and 12th intercostal spaces (Braun and Marmier,
1995). The diameter of the jejunum and ileum ranged from 0.8 to
2.4 cm in 99% of the goats, whereas the diameter was 2.04.0 cm in
98% of cattle (Braun and Marmier, 1995). Other similarities to ndings in cattle included imaging the loops in cross-section more often than longitudinally, and the active motility. Assessing

Fig. 8. Ultrasonogram and schematic of the caecum in the caudodorsal quadrant

(Q2) of a 3-year-old Saanen goat. 1 Lateral abdominal wall, 2 Greater omentum,
3 Caecum, Ds Dorsal, Vt Ventral, Md Medial.

intestinal diameter and motility is important for diagnosing ileus

in cattle (Braun et al., 1995) and probably goats as well. Dilated,
non-motile loops of intestine are suggestive of ileus (Braun,
2003; Braun et al., 1995).
Because of intraluminal gas, the large intestine could be easily
differentiated from the small intestine in all the goats; this nding
was similar to results in cattle (Braun and Amrein, 2001). Because
of intraluminal gas, usually only the wall of the large intestine closest to the transducer could be imaged as a thick echoic line. Similar
to ndings in cattle, the spiral colon had the appearance of a
garland.
The greater omentum was of special interest because in the
majority of goats it was easily identied as a prominent echoic
structure, up to 2.9 cm in thickness, immediately adjacent to

U. Braun et al. / The Veterinary Journal 189 (2011) 330335

the abdominal wall in the ank region. The greater omentum

does not appear as prominently in sheep or cattle. In cattle,
the greater omentum appears as a very thin structure mainly
when the abdomen contains uid (Braun et al., 2004). Visualisation of the greater omentum was excellent because in goats fat
deposition occurs mainly in the abdomen, especially in the
greater omentum (Warmington and Kirton, 1990; Lima et al.,
2009). Of all the ruminants, goats have the highest amount of
fat in the greater omentum (Brandt et al., 1983). This also explains why the weight of the goats used in this study had such
a wide variation despite the fact that their size was relatively
uniform, and all belonged to the same breed. In contrast to other
domestic animal species, goats generally deposit less fat subcutaneously, which is why the body conditions appeared similar
despite the large variation in body weight (Warmington and Kirton, 1990; Lima et al., 2009).
Conclusions
Ultrasonographic examination of the small and large intestine
is a useful adjunct to the clinical examination and is an important tool for diagnosis of intestinal disorders. This imaging
modality is a unique method for non-invasive evaluation of the
location, diameter, motility, wall and intraluminal contents of
various parts of the intestine. Furthermore, ultrasonography is
a goat-side technique that can be carried out almost anywhere.
Because many of the ndings in goats were similar to those in
cattle, it is likely that ileus can be diagnosed by ultrasonography
in goats.
Conict of interest statement
The authors of this paper have no nancial or personal relationship with other people or organisations that could inappropriately
inuence or bias the content of the paper.

335

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