GEOTECHNICAL POLICIES AND PROCEDURES MANUAL

CHAPTER 10
FIELD INSTRUMENTATION

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
7.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
8.
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

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PURPOSE.............................................................................................................. 1
INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................... 1
USES OF INSTRUMENTATION ............................................................................ 2
PLANNING INSTRUMENTATION PROGRAMS.................................................... 3
INSTRUMENTATION, MONITORING, AND DATA INTERPRETATION ............... 4
GROUNDWATER LEVEL AND PORE PRESSURE MEASUREMENT ................. 5
Observation Wells .................................................................................................. 6
Open Standpipe Piezometers ................................................................................ 6
Vibrating Wire Piezometers .................................................................................... 7
Pneumatic Piezometers ......................................................................................... 7
LATERAL GROUND MOVEMENT INSTRUMENTATION ..................................... 8
Telltale Stakes........................................................................................................ 8
Survey Hubs........................................................................................................... 8
Portable Crack/Deformation Gauges...................................................................... 8
Inclinometers .......................................................................................................... 8
ShearPl
aneI
ndi
cat
oror
Poor
-Man
sI
ncl
i
nomet
er
............................................... 9
Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) ...................................................................... 10
Lateral Extensometers ......................................................................................... 10
Webcams ............................................................................................................. 10
SETTLEMENT/HEAVE MONITORING ................................................................ 11
Settlement Plate/Platform..................................................................................... 11
Remote Settlement (Gauge Monitoring Tubes) .................................................... 11
Inductive Coil Gauge (Deep Settlement Monitoring) ............................................ 12
Borehole Extensometer (Deep Settlement Monitoring) ........................................ 12
Horizontal Inclinometer (Settlement Monitoring)................................................... 12
TILTMETERS ....................................................................................................... 13
LOAD CELLS AND STRAIN GAUGES ................................................................ 13
EARTH PRESSURE CELLS ................................................................................ 13
VIBRATION MONITORING.................................................................................. 13
GROUND TEMPERATURE ................................................................................. 14
SPECIFICATIONS AND STANDARDS................................................................ 14
REFERENCES..................................................................................................... 15

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FIELD INSTRUMENTATION
1.

10-1

PURPOSE

Field instrumentation is used for two primary purposes: to determine ground in situ
conditions for design, and to monitor performance of critical elements of a project. During
the investigation and design phase, instrumentation can be used to determine ground in
situ conditions. Instrumentation monitoring can be extended over several months, as
needed, to measure seasonal effects. During construction, instruments can be used to
monitor in situ conditions to verify design assumptions and to warn of possible changed
conditions or impending hazards. In addition, instrumentation may be used to monitor
performance of embankments, slopes and foundation soils in response to construction
(such as stability and the magnitude and time rate of settlement of new embankments).
2.

INTRODUCTION

Geotechnical instruments are used to characterize site conditions, verify design

assumptions, monitor the effects of construction, enforce the quality of workmanship, and
provide early warning of impending failures. In these regards, they are used to augment
standard investigation practices and visual observations where conditions would otherwise
be difficult to evaluate or quantify due to their location, magnitude or rate of change. Ralph
Peck
spaperont
he
Obser
v
at
i
onalMet
hod(
Ni
nt
hRanki
neLect
ur
e,1969)
,descr
i
beshow
instrumentation should be utilized during critical parts of construction to supplement the
observations.
Instruments should be used to answer specific questions and provide engineering
insight to a problem. There are a multitude of instruments available that can be grouped
into the following functional applications:

Groundwater Level and Pore Pressure

Lateral Ground Movement and Deformation

Settlement/Heave

Tilt/Rotation

Load/Stress on Structural Members

Earth Pressure

Vibration

Ground Temperature

The Geotechnical Engineer should become familiar with the different types of
instrumentation available in order to understand their uses; how they are installed and
operated; instrument accuracy, precision, and sensitivity; monitoring requirements;
potential errors; environmental limitations, and the effects of nearby activities. Consultation
with equipment suppliers and instrumentation Consultants is advisable when complex types
of instruments are required. References providing detail and schematics regarding
instrumentations include:

FHWA,Manual
on
Geot
ec
hni
calI
ns
t
r
ument
at
i
on
,(
NHICour
se132041,Modul
e11)

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AASHTO,Manual
on
Subsur
f
aceI
nv
est
i
gat
i
ons
,Appendi
xG Instrumentation

Geot
ec
hni
calI
nst
r
ument
at
i
onf
orMoni
t
or
i
ngFi
el
dPer
f
or
mance(
Dunni
cl
i
f
f
)

3.

USES OF INSTRUMENTATION

In the design phase, instrumentation can be used to determine groundwater

levels/pressures at various depths, or to obtain data on existing slopes, landslides,
structures or embankments. For example, piezometers and inclinometers, placed within an
unstable area of an existing slope, can provide the Geotechnical Engineer with information
that is valuable in assessing the cause of the problem and in designing the necessary
remedial measures. The following list describes examples when instrumentation can be
useful in the design phase:

Testing constructed embankments to assist settlement prediction (survey hubs,

settlement plates, piezometers)

Evaluating landslides (inclinometers and piezometers)

Evaluating excavations and earthworks including cuts and fills (observation wells)

Mitigating rockfall (crack monitors and strain gauges)

On projects where analysis has indicated potential problems with embankment or

structure settlement or stability, geotechnical instruments should be used to monitor,
evaluate and control construction progress. The location and types of instrumentation
should be well defined as an integral part of earthwork and foundations. The contract
documents should include special provisions regarding the application of instruments and
construction requirements. For example, instrumentation allows the engineer to evaluate
settlement rate and stability as construction proceeds. The Geotechnical Engineer should
install these instruments and interpret the obtained data in consultation with the Resident
Engineer. The following list describes examples when instrumentation can be beneficial:

Monitoring the effects of blasting or heavy construction (vibration monitoring of

adjacent facilities)

Monitoring movements in adjacent slopes and structures (survey hubs, tiltmeters)

Monitoring ground stability during and after construction (piezometers, survey

hubs/stakes, and inclinometers)

Monitoring embankment settlement and confirming improved ground conditions

bef
or
epr
oceedi
ngt
osubsequentst
agesoff
i
l
l
i
ng,usi
ngt
he
Obser
vat
i
onalMet
hod
(settlement plates and piezometers)

Monitoring applied loads in reinforced wall systems, such as ground anchors, soil
nails, and MSE wall reinforcing strips (load cells, strain gauges, extensometers)

Monitoring deflection, displacement, and loads of flexible wall systems, such as

sheetpiles (inclinometers, survey points, earth pressure cells)

Monitoring loads and deflections at the base of drilled shafts (load cells,
extensometers)

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Monitoring the effectiveness of dewatering (piezometers or observation wells to

determine drawdown at various distances from the dewatering wells)

Monitoring temporary stability during excavations for landslide stabilization (survey

hubs, stake lines, inclinometers)

Monitoring stability of tunnel cuts, rock slopes, and rockbolts (extensometers, load
cells, strain gauges)

4.

PLANNING INSTRUMENTATION PROGRAMS

When ordinary inspection, investigation, and testing are insufficient to verify the
intended performance, there may be a need for instrumentation. A successful
instrumentation program involves creating a plan that matches appropriate instruments to
the project needs and the resources available for implementation, monitoring and data
reduction. The instrumentation plan should take into consideration the anticipated
construction process/schedule from beginning to end. The planning task should consider
several factors, which include the following:

Objectives for instrumentation (What is the performance, property, or behavior that

needs to be known?)

Identification of instruments (What instrument functional applications are needed?

Which instruments provide measurement of the desired objectives? What accuracy
and reliability are needed?
What are the simplest instruments that meet the
objectives and get the job accomplished?)

Location (Determine instrument locations in safe places. Identify installation depths.

Determine if monument covers and other warning/protection devices are needed to
protect instruments.)

Acquisition of instruments (Will the Department acquire the instruments directly or

will the construction contractor or a Consultant be asked to provide instruments?
Providing specifications may be necessary to acquire equipment or results desired.
Cost considerations could affect the types and extent of instrumentation selected.)

Calibration (Is this necessary for the selected types of instruments?)

Installation (Identify who will perform and supervise the installations. Are there
installation procedures that are unique for this project? Verify that the installation
approach will not compromise the quality of the expected data. Are protective
measures needed?)

Training personnel (Will the new instrumentation require training by the Geotechnical
Engi
neer or manuf
act
ur
er

sr
epr
esent
at
i
v
e? Ar
e t
he av
ai
l
abl
e Depar
t
ment
technicians familiar with the selected instruments?)

Monitoring (Determine the monitoring requirements and frequency, which could be

variable depending on construction progress and ground behavior. Determine the
means of collecting and storing data. Should monitoring be done manually each
time, or should continuous data collection systems be used?)

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Data analysis (Determine how the data will be reduced, evaluated, and plotted.
Identify the types of plots that are relevant to meet the objectives of the engineering
evaluation.)

Documentation (Determine how the data and interpretations, including graphical

plots, should be prepared and displayed. Determine the scheduling and recipients of
reports/memorandums.)

Follow-Up (Plan to verify construction practices in response to instrumentation

results, and be prepared to respond to potential concerns.)

5.

INSTRUMENTATION, MONITORING, AND DATA INTERPRETATION

Proper installations are important to getting useful results that can be readily
interpreted for the intended pur
pose.Thei
nst
r
umentmanuf
act
ur
er

si
nf
or
mat
i
onshoul
dbe
r
ev
i
ewed and,i
fnec
essar
y
,t
he manuf
act
ur
er

sr
epr
esent
at
i
v
e shoul
d be cont
ac
t
ed t
o
obtain advice for less frequently used instruments. Unfortunately, many instruments have
been installed improperly and have resulted in obtaining questionable and misleading data.
Installation requires significant attention to details and using the procedure suitable for the
geologic conditions and the instrument program objectives. Some instruments need to be
calibrated, such as load and pressure devices, inclinometer probes, vibrating wire
pi
ez
omet
er
s. (
Ref
er t
o t
he manuf
act
ur
er

s r
ecommendat
i
ons)
. The i
nst
al
l
at
i
on of
instruments should be under the direction of the Geotechnical Engineer or trained and
experienced technician.
Instruments are often exposed to the environment and are susceptible to damage
due to accidental impacts (human, animal, and equipment) or vandalism. Environmental
factors can affect instrument performance. Therefore, consider the installation location and
whether the instrument may be affected by conditions such as water, melting snow, heat, or
subfreezing temperatures. Many instruments having equipment such as inclinometer
casing, settlement platform risers, or junction boxes, which protrude above ground in the
construction area, are particularly susceptible to damage from construction equipment. The
requirement for the Contractor to protect and maintain them, as needed, throughout contact
period should be clearly described in the contract documents.
Protective casings and monument covers may be installed for protecting instruments
that are exposed near the ground surface. In addition, placing barricades, posts and
warning flags around the instrument location can achieve further protection. The
Geotechnical Engineer must work with the Resident Engineer to ensure that the Contractor
understands the importance of these instruments, the need to protect them, and the
possible impacts to construction, such as work stoppage near damaged instruments.
Maintenance of instruments and readout devices should be performed at
recommended intervals in order to maintain accuracy and dependability. Electrical and
pneumatic systems need to be free of moisture, dirt and dust. Deteriorated or damaged
components should be immediately repaired. Periodic calibrations are required for some
instruments and readout devices.
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Most instruments require initial readings to be repeated (duplicate set) to crosscheck

that the reference data set is accurate and dependable. The monitoring frequency should
be determined by the Geotechnical Engineer to fit the anticipated construction schedule
and ground behavior. The Geotechnical Engineer should reevaluate the monitoring
program, as construction proceeds, to determine if monitoring frequency should be
changed.
The data will need to be stored in digital and/or hard copy. When using portable
electric data systems, the data should be immediately transferred to a workstation
computer. It is advisable to print a back-up copy to provide a redundancy in the stored data.
Data analysis should usually be performed immediately, according to the most
recent guidance provided by FHWA, AASHTO, geotechnical instrumentation publications,
and the manufacturer. Comparing them to previous data sets and known site conditions, as
well as performing error checks should verify the reasonableness of the data and the
analysis results. Compare the results to previously projected scenarios and determine if
there are any concerns. Apply correction factors, if necessary, to make the data relevant
and usable.
Data results are most useful when plotted in a form that is easily understood and
relates to the construction and instrumentation program objectives. Typically, graphs
compare the specific measured results against time; however, results can be shown in
other ways. For example, for settlement monitoring, graphs can relate and compare such
things as fill placement height versus settlement, static groundwater level or pore pressure
head versus fill placement height, or settlement versus time.
Trends in the data should be evaluated to determine if there is an unusual condition
or a common theme demonstrated by the results. A determination should be made if there
is a performance hypothesis that is consistent with the instrumentation results. This will
help evaluate the validity of data and interpretations. Results should be reviewed by
experienced personnel to recommend changes in construction, if necessary.
Instrumentation results should be documented promptly. The timing of the
reports/memorandums should be established to fit the construction schedule in order to be
of value. Sometimes, the reports may need to be made the same day as the readings, or
possibly the next morning. If concerns or issues arise that could affect construction, they
should be immediately communicated by the Geotechnical Engineer to the Resident
Engineer or Inspector.
6.

GROUNDWATER LEVEL AND PORE PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

Piezometric pressures influence the strength of soil or rock. Critical pore water
pressures should be estimated during design of embankment fills and other structures.
During construction, piezometers can be installed to monitor the pore water pressures. The
dissipation of the pore water pressure over time is used as a guide to consolidation rate.
Thus, piezometers can be used to control the rate of fill placement during embankment
construction over soft soils. Piezometers should be placed prior to construction in the
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strata/zones that contribute to settlement or shear strength. If the strata or zones are more
than 10 feet thick, more than one piezometer should be placed to provide adequate
coverage with depth. It is possible to install several piezometers in the same borehole;
however, this requires more complex installation and introduces the possibility of crossflows from inadequate seals. Single piezometer installations are generally recommended.
The pore water pressure should be measured often during embankment
construction. After the fill is in place, and critical conditions have passed, pore water
pressures can be monitored at a decreasing frequency. The data should be plotted (as
pressure or elevation of water head) as a function of time. A recommended practice is to
plot pore water pressure, settlement, and embankment elevation on the same time-scale
plot for comparison.
Instruments commonly used to measure groundwater pressures include observation
wells, open standpipe piezometers, vibrating wire piezometers and pneumatic piezometers.
6.1

Observation Wells

An observation well consists of a perforated section of pipe attached to a riser pipe

installed in a borehole backfilled with sand. A pipe cap on top of the riser pipe and,
typically, a cement seal around the top of the pipe are used to prevent surface water from
entering the monitoring system. A vent is required in the cap to allow pressures in the pipe
to equalize.
Groundwater levels in standpipes and wells are read using an electronic dipmeter,
which emits an audible (beep) and visible (red light) signal when the surface of
groundwater is encountered. The red light signal can be very handy when working around
noisy equipment. The depth is measured using a graduated cable.
Observation wells are used for monitoring the groundwater levels. Observation
wells are also used to monitor the changes of ground water levels due to conducting a
pump test to determine permeability. If an observation well is installed across several zones
of permeability, the measurement will correspond to the zone of highest permeability.
Observation wells should preferably be installed in materials of high permeability so that the
lag time related to changes in groundwater levels is minimized and reasonably accurate
results are obtained. Observation wells in silt and clay soils could experience long lag times
and therefore should be used cautiously. Where these conditions exist, it is advisable to
use an alternative type of piezometer.
6.2

Open Standpipe Piezometers

Open standpipe piezometers are similar to observation wells, except that the
perforated portion of the pipe and sand filter region (backfill) is sealed in a discrete zone
and the riser pipe is much smaller in diameter. The smaller diameter of the pipe reduces
the lag time related to changes in ground water levels. Above the sand filter, the remaining
backfill should include a seal (either cement/bentonite or bentonite pellets). Surface runoff
should be prevented from entering the standpipe by installing a box or monument that does
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10-7

not restrict the pipe from venting. Groundwater levels in standpipes are read using an
electronic dipmeter which signals when the water surface inside the pipe is encountered.
The depth is measured using the graduated cable.
Open standpipe piezometers have a long successful performance record and are
preferable to observation wells in most applications. Open standpipe piezometers should
be used only in materials of high to moderately high permeability so that lag time remains
relatively short. Standpipe piezometers are less effective in low-permeable silts or clayey
soils to measure fluctuations in groundwater levels.
6.3

Vibrating Wire Piezometers

Vibrating wire piezometers are pressure transducers that operate using the
frequency of vibration of a wire connected to a flexible metallic diaphragm. As the pressure
changes, the length of the wire changes, resulting in a different vibrating frequency, which
can be correlated to a specific water pressure. Each uniquely calibrated piezometer is
contained in a protective housing with a porous filter. There are several manufacturers of
vibrating-wire piezometers. Each manufacturer sells readout devices that are generally able
to read other brands of piezometers as well.
Vibrating wire piezometers are installed in a similar manner as open standpipe
piezometers. It is recommended that the wire leads be kept taut during installation,
especially when using hollow-stem auger drilling systems, to avoid abrasions and
breakage. This can be performed by taping the leads to a solid rod or PVC pipe.
Vibrating wire piezometers have several significant advantages over open standpipe
piezometers including: (1) require very short lag time related to changes in groundwater
levels in all types of soils, (2) cause minimum interference to construction equipment due to
flexibility of wire placement, and (3) are easily adapted for use with an inexpensive datalogger for automated readings. Disadvantages include: (1) more care is required to assure
proper installation, and (2) the electronic units are susceptible to damage by lightning,
transient electricity, and shorting if the leads become abraded and the wires are exposed to
moisture. The power source needs to be maintained (i.e., periodic replacement of
batteries).
6.4

Pneumatic Piezometers

Pneumatic piezometers consist of a sensor body with a flexible diaphragm, and inlet
and outlet tubes. The junction box outlet is connected to a readout unit and pressurized gas
is applied to the inlet tube. As the applied gas pressure equals and then exceeds the pore
water pressure, the diaphragm deflects allowing gas to vent through the outlet tube. The
gas supply is then turned off and the diaphragm returns to its original position. The
pressure in the inlet tube equals the pore water pressure and is measured and recorded.
Pneumatic piezometers are installed in a similar manner as vibrating wire piezometers.
Pneumatic piezometers have many of the same advantages that vibrating-wire
piezometers have. Disadvantages include: (1) require more equipment, (2) require more
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complex setup and operator training, and (3) the quality of the readings is more operatordependent.
7.

LATERAL GROUND MOVEMENT INSTRUMENTATION

Movements can be identified by visual observations, or can be measured using

surveying equipment to monitor tag lines comprised of hubs/stakes, or
permanently/temporarily installed reflectors. Movements can also be measured by more
sophisticated instruments such as inclinometers. Survey instrumentation, telltale stakes,
and crack monitoring devices measure movements only on the surface, whereas
inclinometers measure movements below the ground surface.
7.1

Telltale Stakes

The simplest means of monitoring ground movement is a row of stakes along a lineof-sight. If any of the stakes are observed to veer from the line-of-sight, ground movement
may be occurring. This system serves as an early warning method and can be checked
frequently with ease. For this system to be effective, the stakes at each end must be on
stable ground and safe from being disturbed.
7.2

Survey Hubs

Survey hubs (stakes or pins) could be used to monitor horizontal and vertical
movement of the ground surface George, this is in Lateral Ground Movement
Instrumentation Section so I crossed it out, where the hubs can be installed and maintained
with essentially no disturbance. Surveying of one or a series of hubs (tag line) can help
determine rates and direction of ground surface movement, and the lateral extent of
landslides.
Typical hubs survey monitoring can identify gross movements of inch or more. For
greater dependability, use deeply installed steel pins/rebar that are not as easily disturbed
by surface activities and freeze/thaw. The reference datum (benchmark) should be located
where it is not subject to movement.
7.3

Portable Crack/Deformation Gauges

Cracks on rock slopes, buildings, walls, and slides can be monitored using a strain
measuring tool. Tools include: A transparent graduated grid/scale, calipers, survey tape,
micrometer, dial gauge, mechanical strain gauge, or electrical crack gauge. One simple
monitoring method is to firmly place a stake/hub on each side of a crack and then measure
the distance between the two. The magnitude and time rate of movement is monitored.
Commonly, as the rate of movement accelerates, the likelihood of an imminent failure
increases and concern should be raised.
7.4

Inclinometers

Inclinometers are used to monitor ground deformation below the ground surface.
The installation includes placing a grooved plastic tube (inclinometer casing) within a
borehole and backfilling the annular space outside the casing. To accurately measure
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lateral displacements, the bottom of the tube must be socketed at least ten feet below the
failure zone where the bottom of the tube does not experience any movement, thereby
achieving a stable point of fixity.
An inclinometer probe contains two transducers for taking measurements. The probe
should be carefully handled and periodically calibrated and verified for proper performance.
The inclinometer probe is lowered down to the bottom of the tube with the probe wheels
following the grooves within the tube. The orientation of the tube (degree of tilt) is
measured as the probe is pulled up (usually in 2-foot increments). The measurements are
taken with a portable electronic readout device.
Readings are plotted relative to an initial set of readings taken immediately after
installation to show any displacements that have occurred versus depth. Subsequent
readings can be included on the same plot to show the rate of displacement over time.
Vector sums can be used to determine the direction of movement. Depending on the rate of
landslide movement, it is important to take readings often enough to pick up the depth(s) of
slide movement before the casing pinches off, becoming unusable.
Inclinometers are routinely used to monitor landslides. Inclinometers are placed at
several locations along the length of the slide to develop a cross-section showing the depth
and orientation of the slide shear zone. The cross-section should be aligned along the axis
of landslide movement based on the calculated direction of movement. Inclinometers can
also be installed to monitor critical embankment and excavation slopes where stability is a
concern. Fill operations should be halted if unacceptable movements (as determined by the
Geotechnical Engineer) are detected.
In installation of an inclinometer, the annulus space between the borehole wall and
the casing should be backfilled with a firm grout as recommended by the manufacturer. The
grout should be placed either by Tremie tube into the annular space starting at the bottom
of the hole, or pumped through a pipe connected to a one-way valve at the bottom of the
inclinometer casing. In some cases, sand or gravel is used as a backfill material. However,
granular material can bridge within the hole, or result in loose backfill zones, which could
cause casing deflections that are not related to ground movement. Granular fill should only
be used in boreholes that cannot be grouted, or where the rate of movement is high
enough to be readily distinguishable from other casing disturbances. For installations in
highly compressible soils, telescoping couplings should be used to prevent damage to the
casing due to ground settlement.
7.5

ShearPl
aneI
ndi
cat
oror
Poor
-Man
sI
ncl
i
nomet
er

A shear plane indicator consists of a plastic pipe installed in a borehole, similar to an

observation well. Depending on the size of the plastic pipe, a short steel rod is lowered into
the pipe on a fishing line, wire or cable. Typically, rod lengths range from six inches to two
feet. Monitoring consists of pulling the rod up from the bottom of the hole to see if it begins
to bind up in the hole where the pipe is bent by slide movement. Often, slide movements
occur within a zone, not as a discrete failure plane. In this case, the rod typically binds up at
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the bottom of the failure zone. To determine if the failure is occurring discretely or as a
failure zone, a second steel rod could be lowered into the pipe (top-down) to determine the
upper limit of slide movement. This instrument is an approximating tool, which could be
considered where funds are limited; however, it is not as accurate or dependable as the
regular inclinometer.
7.6

Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR)

This relatively new method provides a basic subsurface movement identification

system. The TDR instrument utilizes a coaxial cable installed in a borehole, which is
monitored by applying a voltage pulse. Wherever there is a change in electrical properties,
such as the one caused by deformations of the cable due to ground movements, a portion
of the voltage is reflected back to the source and relative magnitudes of distortion are
measured for interpretation. The depths to possible deformation zones can be
approximated.
Use of TDR is most valuable in cases where the location of the instrumented boring
is in the roadway, where setting up and reading an inclinometer may be unsafe. The TDR
cable can be routed in a narrow trench to beyond the edge of pavement and the readings
can be made at that location. Advantages over an inclinometer are that the TDR cable may
continue to function for a longer period than an inclinometer casing, (which may become
too distorted for the probe to be inserted after only several inches of movement), and
multiple zones of movement can be detected over time.
Disadvantages to use of TDR are that accurate movement magnitudes, rates, and
direction cannot be determined; that the system is complex; and the supply and technical
suppor
tar
el
i
mi
t
ed.Ref
ert
ol
i
t
er
at
ur
ebyKaneandO
Connerf
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or
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i
on.
7.7

Lateral Extensometers

Extensometers can be used to measure displacement and deformations of rock

cuts, tunnel cuts, and retaining systems. The extensometer rods or cables are placed in
holes that are generally perpendicular to the cut or wall surface to determine whether
material or blocks of rock are being displaced. Relative displacements of the extensometer
rods in relation to each other or to the ground surface can be measured with strain gauges.
7.8

Webcams

Webcams have been used as warning devices for real-time monitoring of areas that
have high risks of sliding, rockfall or other geotechnical problems that can be identified
visually. The objective is to spot a problem occurring and to take action before significant
harm occurs. It is typically not feasible to have inspectors or maintenance staff on site all
the time, particularly during evenings and weekends. The benefits of the webcam
instrumentation are that high risk areas can be monitored remotely around the clock
(possibly by maintenance staff in traffic control centers). Limitations include: (1) visibility
can be hindered during dark, rain and fog conditions, (2) small movements/events may not
be detected, and (3) potential delay time before staff recognizes that a problem condition is
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occurring or has occurred. This application is a reactive method, but could help prevent
greater problems from occurring. The Geotechnical Engineer should determine when
geologic conditions are too hazardous or dangerous to require a full-time watchperson,
warning signs, and possibly control and/or restriction of traffic, in addition to remote visual
monitoring.
8.

SETTLEMENT/HEAVE MONITORING

The most common settlement monitoring instrumentation is the settlement plate.

Less common instruments include the inductive coil gauge, the borehole extensometer,
and inclinometer casing installed horizontally on the embankment foundation. To augment
settlement deformation measurements, piezometers are used to provide a measure of the
dissipation of pore pressure associated with consolidation.
8.1

Settlement Plate/Platform

Settlement instruments record elevations, which are used to calculate the amount of
settlement under a load. They are most commonly used on projects with high fill
embankments, where significant settlement is predicted. The simplest device is the
settlement platform or plate, which consists of a square wooden platform or steel plate
placed on the existing ground surface prior to embankment construction. A reference rod
and protecting pipe are attached to the platform. As fill operations progress, more
segments of l rods and pipes are added.
Settlement is determined by periodically measuring the elevation of the top of the
reference rod. The platform elevation must be measured before embankment construction
commences. . Subsequent readings should be taken periodically during embankment
construction and whenever additional riser pipes are attached. Stable benchmarks should
be used for a reference elevation datum, and should be located away from all possible
vertical movement or other disturbance. The Geotechnical Engineer should determine
locations of the benchmarks. It may be necessary to use multiple benchmarks for
redundancy and to survey elevations between them at regular intervals for confirmation.
Settlement plates should be placed at locations under the embankment where
maximum settlement is predicted. On large projects, two or more settlement plates per
embankment should be installed. The settlement data should be plotted as a function of
time. The Geotechnical Engineer should analyze this data to determine when the rate of
settlement has slowed sufficiently for other construction operations to commence, such as
subsequent embankment or base course placement for paving. Concerns with settlement
plate instruments
are potential for damage to the reference rods by construction
equipment, and difficulty in properly compacting around the pipes/rods as subsequent
embankment lifts are placed. Protection and warning devices are required.
8.2

Remote Settlement (Gauge Monitoring Tubes)

Settlements can be monitored by using manometer technology, which eliminates

the need for riser pipes within the fill as the embankment is being constructed. The change
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in piezometric head within the manometer tube can be translated to settlement magnitude.
This system, while less susceptible to construction traffic, is more complex than the
settlement plate and requires calibration and specialized maintenance, as well as care and
protection during installation.
8.3

Inductive Coil Gauge (Deep Settlement Monitoring)

A more technically complex alternative to a settlement plate is the inductive coil

gauge in which a probe lowered down a flexible compressible pipe can identify points along
the pipe either mechanically or electrically.
Distances between these points are
determined, and then used to calculate the magnitude and rate of settlement at various
depths. An alternative system includes magnet and reed switch gauges. This method of
settlement measurement allows a profile to be obtained within the compressible soil layer.
Ref
ert
oFHWA,
Geotechnical Instrumentation St
udentWor
kbookf
orTr
ai
ni
ngCour
se,

1981. Surveying the top of the pipe elevation needs to be performed if the pipe is not
seated into an incompressible soil layer. Care must be taken during installation and
grouting the pipe in the borehole so that the flexible pipe is allowed to settle in the same
fashion as the surrounding soil.
8.4

Borehole Extensometer (Deep Settlement Monitoring)

The borehole extensometer is an alternative to the inductive coil gauge, which

consists of one or several steel rods placed within a borehole and anchored at specified
depths to monitor localized settlement within specific layers. Anchors are attached to the
bottom of extensometer rods, as a stationary reference point at the deepest location
desired in the borehole. The mechanical anchoring system (Borros) consists of a device
with expandable steel members that are pushed into the borehole sidewall. Grout
backfilling the borehole is an alternative to anchor the steel extensometer rods. Elevation
measurements are related to the lowermost anchored-rod or surveyed datum. System
redundancy can be provided by surveying the ground surface elevation and the instrument
measuring plate. The relative displacements of each rod are measured with a dial gauge
mounted on a pedestal.
8.5

Horizontal Inclinometer (Settlement Monitoring)

Inclinometers can be used to measure vertical deformation (settlement) when the

grooved inclinometer casing is placed horizontally beneath a proposed embankment. One
end of the casing must terminate at a fixed datum (or the datum should be accessible for
resurveying each time measurements are taken). A pulley system is required to move the
inclinometer probe along the casing. It is preferable that both ends of the casing daylight to
simplify monitoring operations and to provide a more reliable means of maintaining the
system. Taking measurements using horizontal inclinometers takes longer time than using
settlement plates. This instrument is used sparingly, primarily where settlement plate
instruments are too likely to be damaged or when settlement profiling under the
embankment cross-section is required.
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9.

10-13

TILTMETERS

Tiltmeters measure the inclination (tilt or rotation) of discrete parts of rock cuts and
structures from the established datum. They are most commonly used to monitor tilting of
bridge abutments, retaining walls and marginally stable slopes or rock outcrops. Types of
tiltmeters range from a simple plumb line to more sophisticated electrical equipment with
accelerometer or electrolytic level transducers. The fixed-in-place tiltmeter is more
accurate than the portable version because there is no inaccuracy associated with the
direct anchoring system. The portable instrument introduces some inaccuracy due to the
use of an intermediate reference plate and mechanical connections.
10.

LOAD CELLS AND STRAIN GAUGES

Load cells and strain gauges are used to measure forces and deformation of critical
structural elements, such as high capacity ground anchors, heavily loaded drilled shafts,
and tunnel supports. Strain gauges could be used solely for measuring strain, or can be
incorporated into structural members to measure loads (which require computations relying
on elastic properties of the device). Calibration is typically required. Electrical resistance
and vibrating wire type load cells are more reliable and accurate (accuracy within 2 to
10%) than proof ring type load cells. A common load applying device is a calibrated
hydraulic jack; however, its accuracy to measure the applied load is within about 10 to
25%. For many engineering applications, higher measuring accuracy is required. .
11.

EARTH PRESSURE CELLS

Embank
mentear
t
hpr
essur
ecel
l
sar
ei
nst
al
l
edwi
t
hi
nembank
ment
st
odet
er
mi
ne
the magnitude and direction of total stress. In addi
t
i
on,
Cont
ac
tear
t
hpr
essur
ecel
l
sar
e
used to measure total stress acting against retaining walls, foundations, and culverts. Both
of these types of earth pressure cells are primarily used in research and verifying design
assumptions of special applications, and are rarely used for construction control. In
general, these instruments are expensive and accurate earth pressures are difficult to
obtain.
12.

VIBRATION MONITORING

It is sometimes desirable to monitor the ground vibrations induced by blasting,

pavement breaking, pile driving, rock excavation (ripping, chiseling, hammering), operation
of construction equipment, or traffic loading. This is especially critical when construction is
in close proximity to sensitive structures or equipment, which may become damaged if
subjected to excessive vibration. A visual survey of structures that may potentially be
damaged due to vibration should be conducted prior to the construction. Structures should
be photographed. Video cameras are typically used for visual recording with a commentary
ofobser
v
at
i
ons.I
nbl
ast
i
ngoper
at
i
ons,t
hi
si
sr
ef
er
r
edt
oast
he
Pr
ebl
astSur
v
ey
.
Thi
s
may include land survey of very significant structures.
A vibration monitoring device typically consists of a recording unit, one or more
geophones, and connecting cables. Instrument types include: seismographs, peak meters,
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and air blast sensors. Sound sensors to detect noise levels are also available. Geophones
and/or sound sensors are placed at locations where data on vibration levels is desired.
Peak particle velocities, principle frequencies, peak sound pressure levels, and actual
waveforms can be recorded. Results are compared with preestablished vibration limiting
criteria, which are based on structure conditions, equipment sensitivity, or human tolerance.
13.

GROUND TEMPERATURE

Measurements of ground temperature could be accomplished by installing

thermistors into boreholes. Multiple installations are possible. An electronic readout
instrument is required. Initial readings should be made over a period of several days to
verify that temperature measurements have reached equilibrium. Ground temperature can
be a factor in addressing viscoelastic behavior of embedded materials, impacts on grout
curing, and potential frozen ground issues. Vibrating wire piezometers commonly come
equipped with thermistors.
14.

SPECIFICATIONS AND STANDARDS

SUBJECT
Settlement Plate/Platform

ASTM
-

AASHTO
-

T 252

D 4403

Installing, Monitoring, and Processing Data of the Traveling

Type Slope Inclinometer

T 254

Subsurface Liquid Levels in a Borehole or Monitoring Well

(Observation Well)

D 4750

Design and Installation of Groundwater Monitoring Wells in

Aquifers

D 5092

Static Calibration of Electronic Transducer Based Pressure

Measurement Systems for Geotechnical Purposes

D 5720

Monitoring Well Protection

D 5787

for

D 6027

Type

D6230

Pore Pressures in Soils

Extensometers Used in Rock

Calibrating
Linear
Displacement
Geotechnical Purposes
Monitoring Ground
Inclinometers

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Movement

Transducers

Using

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15.

10-15

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udentWor
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agesand Li
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