ES3101: Advanced Structural Geology

Lecture 20: Paleostress Determination & Extensional Fracture Criteria

Reference: Chapter 7: Fossen

Chapter 10; Marshak & Mitra
Chapter 8: Twiss & Moore

Stress orientations from Conjugate Faults

Conjugate Faults:
(1) 2 fault sets that formed synchronously, under same
stress system.
(2) Dihedral angle between the two sets 50-70.
s2 lies on the fault plane
s1 oriented 30-45 to fault plane
s3 45-60 to fault

Conjugate fractures

Fracture criterion for Extension Fractures

For each rock type, extension fracture forms on any plane in the material where normal stress
reaches a critical value of tensile stress (= tensile strength T0) : s*n = T0; rock stable at
stresses < T0 .
s*n = critical normal stress required to produce fracture (under tensile stresses)
Coulomb criterion does not successfully predict tensile fractures, as is meaningless for
tensile fractures

(can not be supported by the material)

(fracture angle)

Stress on fracture plane plot at point of tangency

(fracture plane angle)

Fracture criterion for Extension Fractures

For each rock type, extension fracture forms on any plane in the material where normal stress
reaches a critical value of tensile stress (= tensile strength T0) : s*n = T0; rock stable at
stresses < T0 .
s*n = critical normal stress required to produce fracture (under tensile stresses)
Coulomb criterion does not successfully predict tensile fractures, as is meaningless for
tensile fractures
Experimental results indicate fracture envelope is parabolic

Uniaxial tensile strength of flawless

rock is calculated to be 1/10 of E.
For a strong rock E =100 GPa;
however, T= 10MPa

Presence of flaws microcracks+pore spaces

+ voids+grain boundaries elliptical
microfractures Griffith (micro) cracks

Wing cracks for shear fractures

Mohr Diagram showing complete spectra of stress states

in the crust

Ductile deformation begins

at a critical shear stress
( yield stress)

decreases

Increasing confining pressure

Pore Fluids

Effective stress= (eff) = n - pore fluid pressure (pf)

Effects of Pore Fluid Pressure on the Mohr Envelope

ss = C + m(sn - pf)

Extension fractures can occur at great depths

States of stress at different types of fractures

Extension Fracture

Shear Fracture

Hybrid shear Fracture

 Failure: Rock is unable to support stress increase without permanent deformation

Brittle Failure Rock breaks to form continuous fractures resulting in the loss of
cohesion.
Ductile Failure Material deforms permanently without losing cohesion.

Brittle Failure 1. Development of new fracture in an intact rock

2. Slip on a pre-existing fracture in a previously fractured rock

Reactivation and Frictional Sliding

Critical shear stress for frictional sliding is proportional to the normal stress: Is l = fn
(Amontons Law)
*

Coefficient of sliding friction (f ) = ss required to activate slip on the fracture/sn acting across the fracture

Reactivation and Frictional Sliding

Coefficient of sliding friction (f ) = ss required to activate slip on the fracture/sn acting across the fracture

at low confining P, differential stress to produce sliding< generate a new fracture

Straight line thru origin existing fracture has no cohesion

At higher confining P: switch-over happens lower shear stress required to

fracture than to reactivate cataclasis

Fault rocks (highly deformed rocks within fault zones)

Intermediate level ( < 10 15 km):
Cataclasites (cohesive)

Byerlees Law

50

Asperities on fault planes resist slip at shallow crustal conditions (low

confining P)

Course Outline

General Introduction
Primary structures in rocks & their role in deciphering rock deformation
Unconformity
Deformation
Strain & strain analyses in deformed rocks
Stress
Material properties of deformed rocks
Fracture criteria & Faulting & Paleostress analysis
3D structure of faults
Structures in Convergent Boundaries
Structures in Divergent Boundaries
Strike-Slip structures
Foliations & Lineations
Mechanics of folding, Superposed folding
Fold thrust belt Structural Geology

Module 1

Module 2

Module 3

Introduction to Mechanics & Concepts of Balanced Cross sections

Microstructures & deformation mechanisms

Shear zones
Joints, Veins

Module 4

Tectonic Environment of Thrust faults

Orogenic Belts/ Mountain Belts/Fold-thrust belts along plate boundaries

Backarc fold-thrust belt

Forearc fold-thrust belt

Accretionary Prism
(part of forearc FTB)

Lecture 21: 3D structures of faults & structures in fold thrust belts

Reference: Structural Geology ,Twiss & Moores, Chapter 5
Structural Geology , Fossen, Chapters 16

Plate motions global stress pattern largely modified by gravity controlled second-order
sources Evolving structures

(Foreland)

Transport Direction

(Srivastava and Mitra, 1994)

N
(Hinterland)

Thrust Faults
Thrust fault: Regional low angle, contractional faults.
Regional bedding is shortened.

For a contraction fault, fault-bedding angle 45

Thrust Faults
History of terminology
Nappe (from Alps): A large sheet of almost horizontal,
and little deformed rocks.
Fold nappe: Large recumbent fold with overturned limb,
sheared out by faulting. (Isoclinally folded beds transported a
long distance along a fault at the base.) (Present Nappe)
Thrust nappe: A large sheet of rock underlain by a thrust fault
(Present thrust sheet).

Nappe is a thrust sheet showing strong internal

deformation (still used sometimes).

Allochthonous: A body of rock that has been translated a

large distance from its place of origin.
Autochthonous: A body of rock that has not been translated
from its place of origin.

Translation ?

Total Displacement field: 1. Bulk Translation

2. General Deformation

Rigid Body Rotation

Strain
All of these quantities are independent of each other

3-D shape of thrust

Tip line: The edge of thrust fault

where displacement dies out;

perimeter of a thrust surface.
When the tip line does not reach the
erosion surface blind thrust

(Boyer & Elliott, 1982)

3-D shape of thrust

Tip line: The edge of thrust fault

where displacement dies out;

perimeter of a thrust surface.
When the tip line does not reach the
erosion surface blind thrust
Branch line: Line along which two faults
join.
(a) Leading branch line

(b) Trailing branch line

Splay: A secondary thrust fault that

emerges from a main thrust fault.

(Boyer & Elliott, 1982)

3-D shape of thrust

Connecting splay

Isolated splay
Rejoining splay

Diverging splay
Horse (body of rock bounded on all sides by faults)

(Boyer & Elliott, 1982)

Thrust sheet: A volume of rock that is bounded below by a thrust fault.

A thrust sheet is always named after the underlying thrust.

Transport Direction

Basic pattern of large scale thrust

Hinterland: Area from which thrust sheets come.
Foreland: Area toward which thrust sheets are transported.

Generally thrust faults are listric in shape, typically concave up , asymptotic to a sole
thrust (zone of detachment of sedimentary section from the underlying basement).

Decollement/Detachment lower common thrust in an imbricate system.