NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES

14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way, Victoria Island. Lagos

COURSE DEVELOPMENT

Course Code:

MGS 712

Course Title:

ADMINISTRATIVE THEORY.

COURSE DEVELOPERS:

MARTHA ORUKU

MUMEN LUGARD

PROGRAMME LEADER:

COURSE COORDINATOR:

SHEHU ABDULAHI ARAGA

EMMANUEL ABIANGA

COURSE CONTENTS

MODULE1

THE CONCEPT OF ADMINISTRATIVE THEORY

Unit 1

Conceptual Clarifications.

Unit 2

Administrative Behaviour

Unit 3

Principles of Administration

Unit 4

Administrative theory.

UNIT 1 CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATIONS.

1.0 Introduction.
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Conceptual Clarifications.
3.2 Nature of Administration.
3.3 Management and Administration.
3.4 Politics and administration dichotomy.
3.5 Organization and Administration.
1.0 INTRODUCTION .
"When two men co-operate to role a stone that neither could have rolled alone, the
rudiments of administration have appeared" Simon, Smithburg, Fund (1950, 3).
The study of administrative science has become necessary in modem state.
The word science has two meanings, the first signifies a "branch of learning", the
study of something; the second, signify a particular field of study, the exact science,
mainly physics or Chemistry, as a method, a rigorous way of gaining knowledge
that has rules of what constitute "evidence" and "Proof Development" of the term. The
several nuances in English usage of the term 'administration' seem to have evolved
in something like the following way. The classical ratio verb, as used by Cicero for
instance, had two apparently distinct senses: "to help". "Assist", or "serve" lacking the
dative; and to manage, direct, or govern. In Cicero, the word administers means a
male attendant or servant, administration, often simply, "the giving of help".
(Andrew Dun sire 1973).
2

Administer - means to carryout, implement or execute, directing or serving,

completing a process of someone else have started or securing to the consequences of
someone else's purposes.
Accountable Administration can be seen as a relative detail, the mere devising, a
means to get end or it can be concerned with the formulation of policy and direction
of a nation destiny
Other meaning in the use of administration in the armed services, Local governments,
universities and individual professional bodies, embraces the collective noun for persons
engage in the work of bookkeeping, registration, accounting and other internal
communication of 'clerical' work as contrasted with the use of records in central or in
policy-making of all the meaning we have listed, these are perhaps closest to the first
meaning "service pure and simple", with less connotation of 'direction' or
'government' any of others; lacking both notion of the execution of purpose' and the
participation in policy decision, through the strong implication of connection records
and procedures undoubtedly comes from association with the form of
implementation of law by non-judicial machinery found in public service at early
stage of the term evolution.

2.0

OBJECTIVES,
At the end of the unit , a student should be able to;
*Understand the concept of administrative theory.
*Explain the nature of Administration.
*Understand politics and administration .

3.0

MAIN CONTENT .

3. 1 CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATIONS.
The concept of administration has been defined in many ways. The vantage
points through which authorities have defined it seem to emanate from the
environment and social milieu.
Dwight Waldo (1955) defines administration as a type of co-operative human
behavior that has a high degree of rationality characterized by the
management and organization.
John Mooney (2001) , looked at administration as the attainment of common
purpose . Furthermore Henri Fayol defines administration in a narrower sense
of management and also regards administration as a discipline in which any
organization should be involved He further maintained that administration has
five elements
3

*Foresight
*organization
*command
*Co ordination.
*Control.
From the above a working definition of administration as the The process
of rationally channeling all organizational activities for efficient and effective
goal attainment .

3.2 NATURE OF ADMINISTRATION.

Administration is a process of getting things done. It is the moving force to
set and keep an institution or department in motion. It keeps the whole
machinery well oiled to achieve optimum results. It saves problems arising
in the execution arising in the execution of activities and more efficient
administrator , possesses foresight into the problem and many check them
they arise. All the relevant responsibilities lie with the administration .
Smooth functions is one of the sir of good administration. 'Mere are five
clearly defined aspects of administration which throw more light on it
Viz planning, organization, direction, coordination and evaluation.
Planning: an unplanned administration will not go very far. Only planned
approach can achieve designed results. A haphazard approach will block the
channel and process of administration. The rules of administration, which make
it smooth and systematic, are also a part of the planning. When administration
is to act as the agency to solve problems, it must first give thought to them
and plan the steps to be taken for setting any one of them. In big as well as
small, organizations, there are always complexities which need to be taken for
solving any one of them. There are many methods of getting things done. Before
it is stopped every method must be planned in detail. Planning must proceed
every performance.
Organization: It is the fundamental task in every administration. Organization
is the machineries for getting things done. It is chiefly concerned with the
provisions, arrangements and manpower which enable the
administration to carry out its obligations. Direction represents leadership,
which has a key role to play in administration. This is the authority which
directs work and gets things done. It is held by a person who is responsible for
4

making decision, issuing them in the form of order or directions and getting
them implemented. Direction or leadership always emphasizes the presence of
a group of persons. One member of the group holds authority to direct or holds
the place of leadership.
The efforts of the others are directed by him. He gives all of them a common
direction for the common purpose, and goal. The success of direction or
leadership is determined by the integration of group efforts in the solution of a
common purpose and goal. .The success of direction or leadership is determined
by the integration of group efforts in the solution of a common problem.
Direction shows the way in administration. It channelizes the entire
organization towards a common goal.
Co-ordination: In administration, there is always, the involvement
of a number of things and persons. It is the detail of co-ordination with
procedures in all of them a sort of governess, single-mindedness and collective
effort. It serves as a lubricant in administrative structure for smooth
functioning. Differ functionaries of the machinery are made to pursue the same line
of action, instead of pulling different directions. Various units and parts have to be
interrelated to produce this co-ordination.
The efficiency of an organization depends on the co- - ordination of between its
units, and parts. Every unit is to be assigned its proper place; the units are to be
coordinated with one another, ultimately producing a total, well integrated unity, in
the whole organization. A good and successful administration will be judged from
the spontaneous co-ordination between the different organs in
the establishment.
Evaluation: This represents the stage of stock taking of an administration. In
any administrative set up, scope for manpower will always be there; since
administration is a dynamic process, it has to be reviewed from time to time. Even if the
organization is going on smoothly, the possibility must be explored to run it more
smoothly. A search for better ways and means should constantly go on less
efficient arrangements includes the followings:
(i)
Discovering of short-comings on the existing arrangements may be realized.
(ii)
Modification or enhancement of aims and objectives to be
realized
(iii)
Change in the conditions inside and outside the organization
(iv)
Invention of a new technique or discovery of new of doing
things better.

Exercise 1
What are the tools for administration in an organization.

3.3

MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION

The concept management has been defined in many ways, David C. Martins (2006)
defines management as the "process of achieving organizational goals by engaging
in the four function of planning, organizing, leading and controlling" This definition
recognizes that management is an ongoing process and activity, entails reaching
important goal, and involves knowing how to perform the major functions of
management.
Richard Daft (1999) sees management a "the attainment of organizational goals in an
effective and efficient manner through planning, organizing and controlling
organization resources". This definition maintains the same structure like that of David
C. Martins(1999).
Furthermore, they believed that management is "dynamic and business oriented, while
administration entails emphasizing status quo and not innovative". This distinction may
look good but the globalization of political and management system have
demeaned the difference based on sect oral distinctions. The realities emerging
from these polemics, is that, administration is seen as part of management and
management as part of administration. Breach cited in Osa Osawanta (1995) was
one of the scholars that shared the view that administration is part of management.
In his words," administration is that part of the management process concerned with
the institution and carrying out of procedures by which the performance is laid
down and communicated, and the process of activities is regulated and checked
against targets and plans". Breach also defined "management" as "a social
process entailing responsibility for the effective and economical planning and
regulation of operation of an enterprise, in fulfillment of a given purpose or task,
such responsibility involving judgment and decisions in determining plans. This
Breachian conceptualization connotes management as a comprehensive phenomenon
which administration is part.
This controversies surrounding this epochal dichotomy between management 'and
administration was as a result of translation of Fayol's book "administration"
from French to English (1929) "Management" replaced "administration" (Laurie
J. Mullin 1999)
6

Scholars, Like J.M Pfiffner, Gullick Herbert Simon, shared the view that
"management is part of administration. To them management is one of
the action in administration. In their words, "management activity unites
controls and coordinates all other activities of a group to achieve set
objectives.
Despite
the
merits
or
otherwise
of
administration/management dichotomy lets now attempt to look at the
similarities and differences in the use of the concepts.

3.4

(i)

(ii)

(iii)
(iv)

(v)

3.5

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN ADMINISTRATION AND

MANAGEMENT
Administration and management are distinctive academic discipline, art
and science of pursuing knowledge.
Both concepts are used in modem organization. They embrace
organizational activities such as organizing, coordination, budgeting,
evaluation or organizational activities for purposive goals.
Management and administration takes place in any human organization.
They are targeted at meeting individual and organizational goals. They
are used for meeting human needs.
Management and administration are global phenomenon cutting across
cultural boundaries.
Administration and management enhances how far both human and
material resources are channeled for purposive enterprise. They enable
organization to effectively and efficiently organize and utilize its
resources for collectivism.
They are targeted to enhance the attainment of goals and objectives of
human organization.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ADMINISTRATION AND

MANAGEMENT
(1) Ma na ge me nt is mo re e mb rac in g a n d b road e r in s c o p e
t h a n a d min is t r a t io n . T h is me a n s th a t , management is more
comprehensive and complex human endeavor than administration .
Besides, administration is a sub- system of management
(2) Management is more profit laden than administration. Management
can be quantified in monetary terms , profit before tax and return on
investment , than in the use of term administration.
7

(3) Management help to formulate and define organizational plans ,

mission statement, objectives and goals; while administration is the
instrument of meeting management decision process.

Exercise (2) Define The Term Management, Why Is It Necessary in human

organization.
3.6

POLITICS /ADMINISTRATION DICHOTOMY.

Politics have been defined by many authorities. Politics has to do with human
decision, and administration is the study of the decision making Political decisions are
public and authoritative politics has to do with public decision that is to say politics is
inherently social. Political decision always take place within some community
that we call political system. Politics is authoritative allocation of values. It is the
activities associated with the control of public decisions among a given territory,
where this control may be backed up by authoritative and coercive means.

Politics and administration dichotomy is the first paradigm in the study of science of
administration. Paradigm is a particular way of looking at things or administrative
phenomenon, formulating questions, generalizing and conducting research. It is
a form of intellectual inquiry or specific approach to administrative science
investigation. This term was popularized by Thomas Kuhn, a philosopher
interested in the nature of scientific thought. This is an abstract in reality (Michal
Sodaro 2006).
The idea of separating politics and administration is one of the erudite
fundamental paradigms in the study of public administration and the science of
administration. This paradigm is featured by distinctive premises or definitions. Politics
and administration are two separate things and that each has its functions and meanings.
This paradigm was due to Woodrow Wilson's famous article that administrative
decisions should not be mixed with political decision. This was due to the spoil
system inherent in American politics .
All government system has two primary functions. These are politics and
administration. The second school of thought was championed by Appleby that
"rigid (distinction) between politics and administration cannot be defined in any
political system". This presupposes that, administration and politics are
mixed up in political decisions. Politics and administration separation is an
American syndrome erected to defend the "spoil system" and which
cannot be easily maintained. Ladipo Ademolekun (1986) highlighted the
apparent contradiction in the position of the school of thought; about
8

administration/politics separation. What is common about the school of thoughts

is that they reached a consensus about important doctrine of state craft; the first
doctrine is that "two distinct groups of people operate the executive branch
of government in a democratic polity. These two groups are elected as temporary
officials, who serve as long as they get the mandate at elections.
Brian Chapman cited in Ladipo Adamolekun (1986) maintained that it is clear
that some civil servants are engaged in politics. Politics is a way of describing what
civil servants do, when they play a part of determining ends, choosing means and
fixing priorities. Policy is nothing more than the political activity of civil servants". A
critical look at policy making process in different governmental administration will
help to establish whether politics can be separated from administration. Policy making
process have provided useful analytical tools for examining whether politics can be
separated from administration. The critical skills bureaucrats brings into
administrative office, their advisory role as an avatar of needed information which
gives them opportunity to engage in administration and political maneuvering.
When it comes to the right decision organization tend to make in a collective
process, social scientist have been interested in the operative characteristics of
school organization through the focus of competence that bureaucrats bring to
office" (Raymond A. Bauer 1968). Based on the above, we can say that organization
stand for a structure, framework, system, organized body, a set of collection,
concerned with the process of regulations and facilitating work. Organization, have
three aspects.
(i)

(ii)

(iii)

Organization of materials:
This encapsulates organization of building, campus, grounds,
accommodation,' This implies arrangement of each physical facility in
such a way that each item can be most efficiently used and no wastage takes
place. Equipment will be proportionate to the number of people.
Organization of human:This involves organization of human factors, board of management and
workers. It is organization and mobilization of all the persons who are legally
or legitimately concerned and interested in a firm. This includes each
members joining to contribute their best in the joint activity and
collective responsibility. Organizational members have to participate in
the activity in conformity with planned purpose and well thought- out
procedure. Organization answers effective and harmonizes utilization of their
talents and emerges.
Organization of ideas and principles:- This embraces the art of
cementing desirable ideas, principles, e.g., norms of achievement, rules and
regulations, policy formulation, and administration, and working out
innovations, and institutional programs for improvement and reforms.
Therefore, organization deals with making systematic arrangements so that
the purposes of the entire system are achieved. Good organization ensures
unity of action; efficiency, economy, optimum utilization of resources,
9

well being, all round satisfaction and good results for collective goals.
Without proper organization, there would be confusion, chaos, and haphazard
activity resulting into wastage of time, effort and resources.

4.0

CONCLUSION.
The unit was able to give an introduction to administrative theory. It gave the
conceptual clarifications to understanding the concept of administrative theory
nature of administration , comparison of administration and management.

5.0

SUMMARY
The unit was a summary of some of the conceptual clarifications as regards
administrative theory about the organization and management.

6.0

TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT.

1) Define the term administration, attempt its conceptual clarifications.

2) State the similarities and differences between administration and management.

7.0

FURTHER READINGS.
Ladipo, A. (1986) Nigerian government and politics and administration. A global
view. Spectrum books.
Karthy , J (1999) Administrative Science , McGraw Hill Ltd New York.
Adebayo.A(1989)Nigerian Public Administration, Spectrum books . Ibadan.

10

UNIT 2
ADMINISTRATIVE BEHAVIOUR
1.0
2.0
3.0

4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0

1.0

Introduction
Objectives
Main Content
3.1
Definition of Administrative Behaviour.
3.2
Key points in understanding Administrative Behaviour.
3.3
Administrative behavior across regimes.
3.4
Administrative Discretion.
3.5
Policy and administration
3.6
Channel of influence.
3.7
Critical Frame work.
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor marked Assignment
Further Reading.
Introduction.
Behaviour is basically goal- driven. This presupposes that human behaviour is
generally motivated by desire to attain some goals. The specific goal is not always
consciously known by the individual. This demonstrates that, the reason for action
is not always apparent to the conscious mind. The drive that energizes
distinctive individual behavioural pattern (personality) is to a considerable degree
subconscious and therefore not easily accessible to examine or evaluate (Paul
Hevsey 1999).
Behaviour, therefore, is a term given to the things that human beings do, that can be
directly detected by the senses of others. People have thought processes and
images of the world around them. These processes and images are part of our daily
conscious expectations, they influence our behaviour and deserve to be object of
study in the same as observable behaviour. (David Buchanan 1999) within this
view point, activity is the term given to the things that people do and the reasons
that they have for doing them. Cognitive psychologist recognizes the internal,
invisible, working of the human mind as a legitimate object of
investigations. Sociologist has adopted action perspective, and several approaches
in esoteric names like phenomenology, symbolic interactionisrn. A political scientist
regards it, as the application of behaviourism to understanding political behaviour.
While public administrationists regards it as administrative behaviour.
Behavioural scientist attempts to bring together from a veracity of discipline,
whose concepts, theories and research, may be useful to people in making-decisions
about the behaviour of individuals and groups. This means that behavioural scientists
11

use it through integration of concepts, theories, and research or empirical studies of

public administration, political science, and economics in understanding and
predicting human behaviour (John Roman 1983).
Social scientist, therefore, deals with conscious human beings, whose behaviour
is influenced by knowledge, memory, and expectations. Administrative
behaviour implies a purposive behaviour on the part of the participants, therefore,
the expectations of the participants, will be a factor in determining their
Administrative science like any other science is concerned with pure and factual
statements. There is no room for ethical ascription in the body of administration. The
practical science of administration consists of propositions as to how men would
behave if they wished their activity to result in the great attainment of
administrative objective with scarce means (Herbert A. Simon 1976).

2.0

OBJECTIVES.
At the end of the unit , a student should be able to;
*Explain the concept of administrative behavior.
* Identify the key points in understanding administrative behavior.
*Explain administrative behavior across regimes.

3.0

MAIN CONTENT
3.1 DEFINITION OF ADMINISTRATIVE BEHAVIOUR
Administrative behaviour are the degree of responsible or accountable
behaviour and the extent to which administrators adhere to professional norms e.g
adhere to the concept of career civil service, norms of anonymity, impartiality
and political neutrality. Nigerian study on regime types did not produce
significant account in administrative behaviour (Ladipo Adomolelcun
1986) we must note that attempt made to enforce accountable behaviour and
adherence to professional norms in civil service have been largely
unsuccessful; despite the professionalsation of 1988 civil service reforms.
Furthermore, administrative behaviour analyses organization in term.; of
decision-making of their participants, precisely organizational system surrounding
the behaviour that gives its special character (Herbert A. Simon). Administrative
behaviour is scientifically base; and amenable to empirical research and is
not inherent endowment, nor is it entirely a commonsense experience acquired
12

though years of administrative practice. It can be studied with the tool of

behavioural science including the formulation of concepts and theories, research
design, statistical interpretation through such field as political science, public
administration, sociology and Psychology Administrative behaviour is
growing steadily as a distinct field of knowledge. Administrative art can be
acquired vicariously (D.A Edem).
3.2

KEY POINTS IN UNDERSTANDING

ADMINISTRATIVE BEHAVIOUR
All behaviour involves conscious or unconscious selection of
particular action out of all actions of all those persons over whom
he exercises influence and authority. Therefore, administration is purposiveoriented towards goals or objectives. The purposiveness brings about integration
in the pattern of behahviour. If administration is getting things done by groups of
people, purpose provides, the principal criterion in determining how things are to be
done in administrative organization.
This study on administrative behaviour will:
i)
ii)
(iii)

(iv)

(v)

(vi)
(vii)
(viii)

Will improve strategic tools and services for social

scientist to study organization and administration.
It will enable administrative scientist to construct sets of
tools, concepts and vocabulary suitable for describing an
organization and the way human organization operates.
It will enhance our understanding of how administrative process operates,
nature of decision, how value and facts entering decision-making
influences behaviour of organizational members.
That, an effective working knowledge of a specific organization can
be acquired by working with people. We don't expect men to have
competent behavioural understanding of these specific organization
except as they spend their career in them. Each organization has its
language, or organizational Jargon, the meaning has to be learned by
organizational members and experts.
Administrative behaviour, will provide the linguistic and conceptual tools
for realistically and significantly for describing administrative
organization. It will enable us construct useful and distinctive competence
in the field of public administration.
That no single principle of administration is the final tools for analyzing
administrative behaviour.
That decision making is complex unit of analysis to be dissected into
compatible premises.
That, decision-making analysis is not the only approach to the study of
administrative organization. Decision making must reflect the sociological
and environmental variables in the organizational milieu. One member's
13

input becomes output of another. Decision, therefore, is an organized system

of relations. That the theory of administrative behaviour, provides
comprehensive sociological interpretation of
3.3

ADMINISTRATIVE BEHAVIOUR ACROSS REGIME TYPES

A critical assessment of administrative behaviour across regime _ types will
readily demonstrates that administrative behaviour despite its avowed
signification, can be studied via ecological, approach Professor John Gaus of
Harvard university gave recognition to ecological influence on the study of
administration. Andrew Duns ire (1974) also wrote on European administrative
science. The above and other reviews demonstrated that administrative
behaviour are all in regime types. Nigerian administrative system epitomized
Native administration or colonial administration characterized by administocracy,
autocracy and exploitation. We have the British Parliamentary, military and
American presidential regime types. According to Ladipo Adamolekun
(1986), the idea of regime types did not produce significant changes in
administrative behaviour; this is because the native administration was not people
centered, the colonial officials were relatively far from the people they are
administering.
The parliamentary administration fashioned after the Anglo-Saxon administration,
emphasis the permanence and anonymity of the civil service. The functional
analysis of the European administration emphasizes strong administrative
institution. This is in consonance of instrumental conception of administration. The
perception, those administrative institutions is stronger than political institution is
the American recognition of the instrumental conceptions of administration.
Accordance to imbalance thesis, administrative institution in developing
countries are better developed than one of the political institutions. The
"correct" balance is one in which political institutions are stronger than
administrative institution (Ladipo Ademolekun 1986-167).
The predominance of career civil service that serviced all the regime types in Nigeria
political administration revealed that civil service, remained an enduring legacies
in Nigeria political system. The permanence of the career civil service system did
not match with political parties, representative institutions in Nigeria. This is why
the American conceptualization of politics as not part of
Administration cannot work. A look at regime types, existing literature on
administrative behaviour revealed forms of government influence on administrative
behaviour. Native administration of the British colonial rule in Nigeria was described
as 'administocracy', a 'dictatorship' and 'an authoritarian system of government. The
behaviour that characterized the regime type is that, it was imposed on the people, the
second feature of the regime type was that, there were concentration of powers in the
hands of the appointed officials, who administratively and politically, were
responsible to imperial government at the metropolis. There was total neglect of the
consent of the governed.
14

The Governor General uses the corps of administrative officers appointed to run
the colonial administration at the provincial level. These were resident officers and
each resident was responsible to the governor through lieutenant-Governor. The
resident was to supervise and coordinate all the activities of the colonial
government within his province.
The resident was not accountable to local people but to colonial administration in
the metropolis. The essential duties of the resident and his staff are those in
connection with the conduct of native administration, which embraces close
supervision of native courts and assessment for taxation.
In the Northern Nigeria, the colonial administration was regarded as AngloAfrican administration with the colonial official as master of every stage. There
was power sharing between the administrative officer and the emirs. The native
administration was criticized as a mere smoke screen of petty autocrat of
administrative officer. The chiefs power were clearly eroded. The essential
ingredient in the training of political officer was the working knowledge of
original native language, which was an important qualification for promotion
(Ladipo Adamelekun 1986 p.41).
Furthermore, the native administration system, the chiefs were mere administrative
councils, doing the job of imperial policy and dual-mandate. The colonial
administration was not responsible to the wishes of the people. The raison d 'entre
of a colonial administration was the notion that a 'superior race' are on a mission to
"civilize" the subject people the-uncivilized people.
This kind of assumption influenced governance and the nature of administration we
have in Nigeria. The principle of government by consent was thrown to 'the dogs'
and the rules of the bureaucrats dominated the system of administrative relationship
between politics and administration was enacted, making sure that
technically sound career civil service became an enduring legacies _ that enveloped
subsequent administration in Nigeria.
1952 60, the West-Minister- model was introduced. The quasi-parliamentary
system of administration was introduced. This epoch, promoted the second regime
type. The consequences this regime type brought to politics and administration
were the role political and administrative officers in policy making process
within the ambit of the doctrine of political accountability. The career civil
service with principle of impartiality, neutrality and anonymity was to assist the
cabinet in the formulation of public policy intents of the government. Three
regional civil services were established in 1954. This era saw the generalization
of the civil service. This promoted expertise of high crop of civil service across
Nigeria.
An overview of regime types in Nigeria system of administration, have
demonstrated many points.
One, the impacts of regime type on the relationship between politics and
administration, and the performance and responsiveness of administration to the
15

wishes of the people is obvious in all regime types. The native administration was
featured by the fusion of politics and administration. The role of political
officer and administrators was not properly defined in the public policy making
process. Many Nigerian in native administration occupied insignificant
positions while the real power belonged to the colonial administrators.
The West Minister, model, was British-inspired administrative and
political institutions, principle and practices. The idea of career civil service survives
the idea of confidentiality that dominated the relationship between administrative
and political officers in Britain was alien to the local administration. The military
regime type, spelt out new administrative doctrines. This introduces administrative
diarchy with military and career civil service working together. This era brought
about high political interference in the part of military administrator.
The presidential regime type, the relationship between politics and
administration still hold water.

3.3 ADMINISTRATIVE DISCRETION

In all modern societies, whether democratic or non democratic, first and fundamental
source of power for bureaucratic organization is the distinctive expertise they
command - the varied skills that administrators bring to policy process, necessary
both for making decisions and for putting these decision into effects. This is what
Max Weber long ago saw as the distinctive attribute that gave bureaucracy its
enormous influence in modem administration.
Bureaucratic expertise is indispensable for effective administration of any
modem organization. The presence of bureaucrats in government structure
provides assurance, that the decisions of political leaders will be guided by competent,
technical advice carried by skilled personnel control over implementation of policy
which becomes especially important as a source of bureaucratic power. It
includes the authority to exercise discretion in achieving policy or
administrative goals. As used ,where, "discretion" means the ability of an
administrator to choose among alternatives and decides how the politics of
government of organization is to be implemented in specific cases.
The range of situations in which bureaucrats exercise discretion is virtually
boundless. It includes, a "street-corner" bureaucrats" deciding whether to make
arrest, a regulatory agency choosing either to issue or refuse license or permit. This
discretion or decision may affect the fortune of the individual whether or not
discretion is, as it has been asserted, the lifeblood of administration, it exercise may
contrarily affect the individual citizen and organizational members. The
capacity of administrator to use discretion in this way, justifies Martin Shapiro's
description of administrative agencies as "supplementary law-makers"
"functioning like converts to expand the meaning of legislation through their
16

decisions and interpretation of statutes". In traditional theory of American public

administration, it is assumed, that the administrators' discretion extended only to
decisions on means, while the actual goals of administrative action were fixed by
statute or directives of a responsible political official. This was the
Bay of Pigs Invasion 1961, the unlawful intervention in tilt, domestic political
process through subsides given to students and other non-governmental groups in
the United States during the 1960s, and the domestic spying activities of the agency
revealed in the 1970s are cogent examples of the ways in which discretionary
authority vested in bureaucrats may come back to hunt office holder (Thomas Ross
2000).
In Nigerian situation, many administrative agency or regulatory agency, have
exceeded these administrative discretion to the discomfort of their perceived
enemies. The use and abuse of administrative discretion demonstrates
administrative behaviour of the office holders and how they use their personality
to influence public decisions. Without administrative discretion, effective
decision in governmental administration was near impossibility. For effective
public administration, social control must be flexible, and such flexibility
inevitably requires that administrators be given discretion to act . But the
exercise of judgment involves choice, and choice means formulating policy.
Hence, the high development of administrative discretion in modern society
necessarily projects bureaucrats into centre of administrative policy process. As long
as administrative discretion is needed for regulatory purpose, administrators
in both public and private administration will always use the phenomenon to
advance their self-interests discretion involves great deal of anxiety for the
person who exercises it, as well as, the party subject to it. Administrators who
control access to resources other people prize, the administrative becomes a
politician man; instead of administrative man.
3.4

POLICY AND ADMINISTRATION

"The success of government and the nation, depend in the last analysis on the
quality of her career services". President J.F. Kennedy. The above experts have
decried the menacing importance of career bureaucrats in' modem organization as
regard policy or public policy formulation and implementation. The power in
modem state is now centered in the corridors of bureaucracy. The premier purpose
of this section is to inquire into the role of bureaucrats or career civil servants
play in making policy decisions in contemporary political system administration.
The root of this influence of career civil servants on policy process is the distinctive,
critical skill, they possess and distinctive problem that arise, when - policy making is
carried on, within a setting in which executives organization play a major role. In
the United States, attempt is made to assimilate the study of administration,
policy-making into traditional group analysis of political life. Executives
agencies provides vantage channel of "access" through which segments of the public
can advance or protect their interests in much the same way as they pursue their goals
through other governmental institutions, political parties, the legislature and the
17

judiciary. (Karly Steve 2000).

From the bureaucrat politics perspective, an agency's power
to influence policy process, depends on its ability to command the support of fervent
and substantial clientele groups, or its effective and efficient use of political strategies
designed to advance the interest of those groups in the competitive struggle for power
among executive organization, that are relevant in the political life of modem state.
(Raymond Bemser 1999).
There is no disputing, that, a great deal of administrative influence, can be explained
within the framework of group theory, but the complete picture of the role career civil
servants play, in policy making and administration is a choice on the expertise they
possess and the advisory role they play in modern administration.
In early history of American bureaucracy, such claim to expertise because
administration was based largely on the factor of continuity. The expertise of the
clerical employees who staffed government agencies came from the sustained
attention they gave to particular problems. And it exacted little deference from
politicians. In Nigerian political administration the sustained legacies that cut
across all the regime types was the expertise the career service possess through
different epochs.
We must observe that the skills and technical know how required to run a modern
state have been sharply upgraded. The innovation brought about by science and
technology have increasingly complicated the responsibilities of government and the
environment in which it operates. The increased globalization and regulatory
regimes that accompanied government , leaving business for its primary roles , makes
the duties of government no longer simple.
3.6

CHANNEL OF INFLUENCE.
In the study of imbalance thesis , the characteristics of organizations and the
resurgence of skills of their members , promote bureaucratic expertise and influence
over the development of public policy and its administration . These influences are
channeled through distinctive sources .
1) Ability of bureaucrats to gather information and give advice that shapes the
decision of political officials.
2) The capacity of bureaucratic organizations to carry on the task that must be
performed once policy goals are determined or decided upon the power of
implementation and,
3) Critical dimension of power to implement policies , the discretion with which
18

democracies are commonly vested as they carry on the work of government.

Trough the supply of advice , the career civil servants , persuade political official ,
that a course of action should be taken . Bureaucrats have influence only if the
executive politicians are willing to take their advice. When policies have been
turned to bureaucrats to implement , their power to influence implementation
process is direct.
The president also derives tangible political benefits from his use of experts.
The wisdom of his policy decision is greatly enhanced in the eye of the electorate
when it appears that this rest on the best professional advice the house has been able to
obtain.
What we have examined from the above is to look at the role of expertise in
policy and administration in a political system. We attempted to. Look at the
American and the Nigerian political administration. It is obvious that expertise is
a vital source of power for all bureaucrats in the field of policy administration and
formulation. This entanglement with policy and politics has been prominent
characteristics of presidential system of government. Policy and administration
goes hand-in-hand for effective modem administration.
The use of higher civil servants as policy advisers to the executive must not be
overstretched; between 1979 and 1983 special adviser appointed failed to assert
themselves as credible and useful sources of policy advice for government
leaders. One obvious explanation was because of the newness of the institution, other
critical variable like quality of quality of knowledge , experience of the advisers
and their access to the chief executive also act as a limitation.
3.7

CRITICAL FRAMEWORK.
There are many theoretical
foundations on bureaucratic behavior in an
administrative organization. Alan Peacock (2000) observed that there is a close
analogy between the theory of the firm and the theory of bureaucratic operation. They
are traced and treated like elites.
The theory is an attempt to establish the kind of behavior that leads to over production
by the bureaucrat .
The conclusion of interest for government policy is that , if all bureaucrats act in the
way described , there is a waste of resources in producing government services which
can be avoided only by improving bureaucratic efficiency .Niskanen(1998) considers
such as competition between bureaus, altering the reward system for bureaucrats
(e.g.; bonuses to 'top' officials) in order to encourage economy in resource use, turning
over production to private firms (e.g. refuse collection), and facilitating
investigation of government departments by "watchdog" committees of the
legislative. Bureaucrats are not economic eunuchs in administrative
19

office. Nevil Johnson (1999) a reader in comparative studies of institutions.

Oxford uses, the relationship existing through economics of politics,
government and bureaucracies to explain administrative behavour he described the
political system more concretely as the rules, procedures, habits and customs by
which a veracity of decisions affecting the whole society in one way or another are
made with binding fashion, these together constitute political order. This
demonstrates that the relationships between political and administrative practices
and the modes of economic activity, through light on economics of politics,
government and bureaucracy. We can construct an account of political
administrative relationships, and theory of how the political system works, which
treats and political system as an analogous to the goods-producing system constipated by
the economic arrangements of the society (Nevil Johnson 1999 p. 135).
In many societies, people have come to believe that government exist to
produce goods, the very act of trying to produce goods may diminish government's
authority because of its lack of success. It may diminish government's authority and
capacity to maintain respect for this entitlement to act because of the conflicts it
arouses, satisfying some needs rather than others. This mode suggests that, people
should not necessary judge politicians, administrators and bureaucrats exclusively in
terms of output of goods, they guarantee. The authority and their
administrations is not derived primarily from their output-producing capacity, all
these is not to deny that the goods output is an important consideration on many
occasions in administrations.
Finally, the relationship between economic system, the political system, and its
impact on administration cannot be underrated. We can see from the eye of political
thought that the traditions of liberal constitutional politician through political life,
structures and institutions, procedures, administration, knowledge, experience of the
advisers and their access to the chief executive also act as a limitation.
Furthermore, the post of a special adviser was treated as a patronage post and no
attention was paid to the knowledge and experience of the advisers. Besides,
most of the advisers were interested in seeking publicity that preparing
alternative policy option. Furthermore, adviser that could have make progress
demands the cooperation and assistance of commissioners, ministers and
higher civil servants in the ministries or department. In most cases, commissioners
see special advisers as rivals and sought to bypass, rather than cooperate with
customs and practice arc means by which society can facilitate the settlement of
problems by people, affected by it.
Besides, tradition of political thought and practice had laid _ institutions and strong
emphasis on the procedural nature of politics and administration, and political
institutions. These are linked with the particular body of economic ideas and
thought . This link is provided by the fact that classical and neo-classical
economic thought has also been concerned with providing theoretical
justification for arrangement under which the satisfaction of needs can be
achieved in society on the basis which maximizes the opportunities of choice
20

on the part of the individuals in society. Public choice therefore must acknowledge
the relationship between economics, politics and administration. (Breton 1988).

Rent seeking analysis

The theory of constitution has an affinity with the work of Rawls, so the theory of
bureaucracy has an affinity with the work of those economists who have been
called the proper rights theorists' such as Armen Alclin and Harold Demsetz of
ULCA and Roland McKean and Virginia who initiated analysis of influence of
reward and punishment structure on individual behaviour; and especially in
comparison between profit and non-profit institutions (James M. Buchnan 1978).
What Is "Rent-Seeking"?
Rent-seeking represents the extension of standard prices theory to politics of
administration. From price theory we understand that profits tend to be equalized
by the flow of investment among prospects. The existence or emergency of an
opportunity for differentially high profits will attract investment until returns are
equalized with those generally available in the economy. What should we predict,
therefore, when, politics, administration creates profit opportunities or rents?
Investment must be attracted towards the prospects that seen favourable, and if 'output'
cannot expand as in the standard market, adjustment we should predict that investment
will take form of attempts to secure access to the security rents. When the state for
example licenses an occupation, assign import or export quotas and adopt land-use
planning and employs functionaries above-market wages and salaries, we can expect
resources waste investments to secure the favorable plans.

(ii)

Demand for money rents are elastic. The state cannot readily 'give money away', even if
it might desire to do so. The rent-seeking anaysis can be applied to many activities of
the modern state and its administrations; including the making of money to classes of
recipients. If mothers with \ dependent children are granted payments for being
mothers, we can predict that we shall soon have more such mothers. If the
unemployed are offered higher payments, we predict that the numbers of
unemployed will increase. As the expansion of modern government and
administration offers opportunities for rents, we must expect that the utilitymaximizing behaviour of individuals will lead them to waste more and more
resources in trying to secure the 'rents' or 'profits' promised by administration.
The public choice approach
The public choice approach to understanding administrative behaviour attempts to
analyse the process of collective decision-making by reference to techniques which
have proved successful in analyzing private decision-making. Public policies are
viewed as the outcome of the forces of individual demand and supply as they
impinge on administrative (market) place. Individual citizens are assumed to make
21

known the profile of their individual preference over alternative social state to the
extent that they deem to be economic. And they attempt to influence administration to
satisfy those preferences by resorting to the instruments available, notably by
voting, pressure group, social movement activities, migration or by revolution. The
government and its administration are viewed as mentioning such objectives during its
period of office subject to some constraint on probability of-election variable. A
further important influence in the supply of public policies is seem to stem from
bureaucracy, with senior bureaucrats viewed as maximizing their utility in terms of the
specific reward-cost structure which confronts them.
Such an approach to the determination of public policy administration, conflicts
sharply both with the paradigms of Arronian collective choice theory, and with
platonic notions of government administration which still haunt may corridors in
political establishment. The approach has encountered resistances from economist and
political scientists from a variety of methodological positions. Marxists have
attacked the notion that a positive, non-value-laden analysis of political'
administrative behaviour is even possible, claiming that those who engage in such
exercise are prone to illusion which they designate to be 'false consciousness, in
which abstractions are idealized, and then are taken for reality itself. They view
public choice approach essentially as an attempt to protect corrupt systems of
government administration.

CRITICISM OF PUBLIC CHOICE THEORY.

Those who attach importance to realism of assumptions in positive theory often finds it
difficult to continence the strong maximizing assumptions which generate the public choice
approach, reject many or even all of the factors considered relevant to administrative and
political behaviour, find unacceptable such characteristics of public choice models, as, for
example, Breton's extreme reliance on the public good characteristics of a collective
choice, and deny that the 'complex processes of politics can be captured adequately in an
abstract model.
Those who emphasize prediction as an ultimate test of the theory have complained that
many public choice models are inadequately specified, that they failed to provide
unambiguous predictions on key political/administrative market variables, such as the
size of budget deficit or the pattern of subsides adopted, that they introduce variables such as
power and patronage which cannot adequately be measured in empirical analysis, that
they leave important relationships ill-defined, e.g. the determinants of the relative
power of government and its bureaucrat in Breton model), and that, in any events, public
choice analysts are more concerned with model-building than model-testing. He
maintained that, "the widenening the gap between reality and theory. Case study shed light
on the real world different from that of theory and knowledge derived from them can be
applied or put to different use than the knowledge derived from applying them".
It would be unwise to ignore the partial justice of each of this criticism. For there can be little
22

doubt that some public choice analysts are influenced by ideological considerations, and that
it is very easy to confuse paradigms with reality and that not all assumptions employed in public
choice theory are equally well to appropriate tests, and that empirical research is an
exhausting exercise. For all these reasons, the critics of public choice analysis requires serious
consideration from those concerned to advance understanding of the administrative or
political market-place.
Equally, however, it would be foolhardy to reject one method of approaching an
important subject on the ground that it has weaknesses, public choice is a young discipline (at
least in its modem form), and it encounters all the well-known problems of straddling diverse
discipline. Certainly, its theoretical structure has been developed from relatively primitive
initial forms, and the test to which it has been exposed have been fairly simple and
subsequently often proved unacceptable. But this is true of any emergence discipline.
What is clear that public choice analysis now is establishing credibility in profession which
initially was hostile to its reception. Scientists are jealous guardians of their disciplines, new
ventures are not easily accommodated judged by the market test itself, public choice analysis is
now, accepted and its future in reasonable time seems indisputably attractive as a distinct
science of inquiry in behavioral thinking.
4.O

CONCLUSION.
The unit was mainly about the concept of administrative behavior. It
was a critical assessment of administrative behavior across regimes
types. From the administration in the colonial period to the present day
administration.

5.0

SUMMARY
The unit defined the term administrative behavior, the key points in
understanding
administrative behavior. It also explained
the
administrative behavior across regimes types , administrative discretion,
policy and administration and the channels of influence.

6.0

TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1)What are the key points in understanding administrative behaviour.
2)What is the major thrust of Administrative Behaviour theory.

23

7.0 FURTHER READINGS.

Ladipo, A. (1986) Nigerian government and politics and administration. A global
view. Spectrum books.
Karthy , J (1999) Administrative Science , McGraw Hill Ltd New York.
Adebayo.A(1989)Nigerian Public Administration, Spectrum books . Ibadan.

UNIT THREE
PRINCIPLES OF ADMINISTRATION.
I.O INTRODUCTION
2.0 OBJECTIVES
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0

1.0

3.1 The rationale behind the administrative principle

3.2 Major principles of administration
3.3 Bureaucratic principle
3.4 The scientific management principle
3.5 The human relation principle
3.6 Henri Fayol and the science of administration
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor Marked Assignment
Further Reading

INTRODUCTION
Administrative behaviour was first published to conduct a model of
rational choice that incorporates the actual properties of human being
and retain some of the formal clarity of economic- man model. Two
crucial alternatives were needed to transmit the economic man into
administrative man and
a man of limited rationality, the
administrative man, whom we recognized in everyday life. (Herbert
Simon).
The economic man deals with the "real world" in its complexity;
while administrative man recognizes that "real world. Administrative
man recognizes that the "real world" he perceives is drastically
simplified with gross simplification, because the courses and
24

effects are short, and simple. Administrative- man can make

choice without first examining all possible behavioural alternatives and
ignores the interrelatedness of all things. Administrative man makes
rules of the thumb that does not make impossible demands upon his
capacity of thought. Principle of administration enables us to deal
with human behaviour. The behaviour of individual within
administrative organization is purposively oriented toward goals or
objectives. This concept of preposiveness brings about the interpretation
of the pattern of behaviour, in absence of which, administrative science
will be meaningless.
Principle of administration have been researched upon or written about.
Woodrow (1941) in the study of administration, Mooney and
Reileye (1939) principles of organization, Taylors (1911) principles of
scientific management, Gulick and Uwicks (1937) principles on the
science of Administration, Dunsire (1973), administration it's word and
science. Henry
Fayol maintained that "certain principles of
administration were there" that they could be discovered and
administrators should be experts in their work, if they learn how to
apply these principles".
Principles of administration can be conceptualized as "a universally
accepted fundamental or primary truths or proposition, a
consciously recognized and adhered statement which reasoning should
be true. Principles of administration must be able to describe in words,
exactly how an administrative organization looks, and exactly how it
works. They are criteria for describing and diagnosing administrative
situations. Principles of administration work successfully
everywhere irrespective of environment, culture and institutional
frameworks. Principles of administration, therefore, are descriptive
guides that help administrators and managers to make sound and
useful decisions. They are not necessarily laws. They reveal to
administrators and managers some of the most common ways of viewing
and taking decisions, and actions in human organization or administrative
situations.

OBJECTIVES.
At the end of this unit , a student should be able to ;
*Explain the rationale behind the Administrative Principles.
*Discuss the major principles of administration.
Explain the scientific management principles
Explain the classical management principles.
Identify and explain the Administrative theory of Henri Fayol.
25

3.0

MAIN CONTENT
3.1

T he Ra tiona le Of Adminis tra tive Principles.

The principles of administration have the following functions;

(I) they help to guide the actions of the administrators and
managers in human organization.
(11)
They help practitioners, theoreticians, and the academics
to formulate techniques for understanding and treating different
administrative situations and environment.
(iii) They form the basis for interpretation of administrative decision.
(iv) They help organizational participants to analyze the intended and
unintended consequences of administrative decisions.
(v) They provide a better guide against arbitrary exercise of
power and authority.
(vi) It aids organizational and administrative experts, to analyse,
appraise, decision makers' effectiveness and efficiency inthe
attainment of defined goals. They act as instrument for measuring
how well, define goals have been attained.
(vii) This was why Waldo and Mandarin said that"the
mission of administration is economy a nd
efficiency".
(viii) They provide the practitioners and theoreticians
analytical tools for evaluating human decisions in an
organization. It enables practitioners and theoreticians to
reconstruct new administrative theories, new vocabularies, analytical
scheme in the literature of administration e.g. the-design of critical
experiments and studies in empirical studies.
(ix) They will enable us to deal with complex human behaviour in

administrative organization. The behaviour of individual in

administrative organization is purposive i. e o r ie n te d to w a r d s
g o a ls o r o b je c t iv e s . T h is purposiveness brings about an
integration in the pattern of
behaviours, in absence of which, administrative principles is
useless, for if administration exists in "getting things done" but
people, purpose, provides a principal criterion in determining what
things are to be done.
(x) They present an attempt to construct tools useful in the field of p ub lic

ad minis tra tio n a nd othe r bra nc h o f administration to

realistically and significantly describe administrative organizations and
situations.
(xi) They will help us to analyse administrative behaviour and the
administrative- man working in the garb of economic man. The study of
administrative behaviour is a means of questioning the classical view about the
26

exercise of authority in organization the study of human thinking, and

decision process. Administrative principles are written on the assumption
that decision-making process holds the key to the understanding of human
behaviour and organizational phenomena. We have attempted to examine
some of the benefits of studying administrative principles.
Principle of administration can be regarded as a general guide, to promote
positive actions in specific situations. An efficient and prudent administrator is
an individual who can identify and utilize these principles to pursue defined
objectives, whether organizational or collective.
3.2 MAJOR PRINCIPLES OF ADMINISTRATION
Some authorities calls it universal principles, this is because it can be applied to all
organizations whether private or public. These includes the following:
Responsibility
This principle authorized that each person or body of persons exercising
power and authority must act responsibly within the power delegated. This
means that people exercising delegated power, must act reasonably in
exercising their duties and the exercise of administrative discretions. This
covers the task and assignment demanded by the position and those of his
superiors, and those under him.
Delegation of authority
The principle of delegation of authority, both sectional and departmental
function is necessary to promote administrative efficiency and effective
attainment of organizational goal. It may be a functional authority being
delegated. The functional authority is the right to give orders within a segment
of administration or management system in which the right is normally nonexistence (Samuel C. Certo 2000). The principle of delegation of authority is
the process of assigning job activities or administrative activities and
related authority to specific administrator in the organization to carry out the
organizational functions (Richard Daft 2000) Delegated Legislation is very
necessary in modern bureaucracy because over centralization breeds
incompetence and delay in administration.
(iii) Acceptability
This is the administrative principle or management philosophy which
emphasize that individual occupying administrative position are held
liable or accountable, for how well they use their authority or live up to the ir
res po ns ib ility o f p e rfo r ming p redetermined activities. The
concept of accountability implies that, if predetermined activities are not
performed, some type of sanction, or punishment, is justifiably forth
coming. Another implied notion' in accountability is that some kind of
reward follows if predetermined activities are performed well.
27

Communication
Another
fundamental principle
of administration
is
communication. "Communication is the process by which _ information
is exchanged and understood by two or more people, usually with the
intent to motivate or influence behaviour". The information must
possess timeliness, that is the degree to which information is
available soon after events occur and completeness refers the extent
to which information contains the appropriate amount of data. The
last characteristic of information is relevance which is the d e g r e e
t o w h ic h i n f o r ma t i o n p e r t a i n s t o t h e p r o b l e ms ,
d e c is i o n s a n d t a s k s f o r w h ic h a n administrator is
responsible.
3.4

Bureaucratic Principle
Bureaucratic principles of administration came into focus, because of
the work of a sociologist Max Weber. He saw that bureaucratic
principle cut across every organization. The principle looks at
organization as a whole. This is a sub-field of classical principles.
Weber envisioned organization that would be managed on an
impersonal, rational basis. Weber believed that an organization based
on rational authority would be more efficient and adaptable to change,
because centrality is related to formal structure and positions rather
than a particular prison which may live or die. To Weber, rationality in
organizations meant employee selection, and advancement, based on
competence, rather than on "whom you know" the organizations relies
on rules and written records for connectivity and continuity.
The basic reason for Weber's dogged appreciation of
bureaucratic organization is that, it is blessed with technical
e x p e r t i s e a n d c o mp e t e n c e , e s t a b l i s h e d r u l e s a n d
regulations, specialization, and control.
(i)

(ii)

(iii)

Stipulated rules
This principles holds that the arrangement of human organization must
be based on rules. This means that bureaucratic organizations should be
based on established rules and regulations , which must embrace rights ,
duties and obligations to all members. These rules are designed to
promote efficiency and effectiveness , and economy in handling men
and material of an organization.
Division of Labor based on functional specialization. According to
bureaucratic principle of administration, it asks four area of competence and
expertise, and obligation to perform duties which are based on competence and
division of labour. Also the provision of the office holder with adequate
authority to carry out the predetermined functions of an organization.
Hierarchy of Authority
This demonstrates that principle of hierarchy is necessary in all
28

(iv)

(v)

(vi)

organization. Based on this, "lower office under the supervision to a

higher office". The weberian notions entails that tasks of higher
leaders, are to oversee and control the lower or subordinate officers.
Employment and promotion based on technical knowledge.
This principle stipulates that, the promotion and employment of
staff in work organization should be based on their technical known-how,
not on favoritism or godfatherism. This stipulates that adequate
training is required for people occupying administrative positions.
Impartiality in Official Matters.
The requirement for the operation of an effective bureaucracy requires
expertise, and administrative officers should be impersonal in handling official
matters instead of personalizing the activities in the office.
Emphasis on documentation and written documents.
This maintained that administrative act, discretionary. decisions, and
rules and regulations be recorded in written document, and members are
bound by such written down records and regulations.

Exercise I
State and explain administrative principles.

3.4

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES.

Administrative management principle is a sub-field of classical management
perspectives that focuses on the total organization rather than the individual
function of planning, coordinating and controlling. Scientific management
principles focuses on the productivity of individual workers, the administrative
management principles focuses on the total organization. The exponents include,
Henri Fayol, Mary Parker Follett and Chester L. Barnard.
Henri Fayol a French mining engineer wrote down his concept on
administration based largely on his management experience. In his work, he
identified five basic elements of administration which includes; planning,
organizing, commanding coordinating and controlling. These elements or
functions underling much of the general approach in todays
administrative management theory.
Peretomode et al (1998) cited in 0. Attah and Harry, E.A (2006) called it
universal administrative principles, while MarFarland (2000) regards
it as principles of management. The fourteen principles of administrative
management include the followings:
(i)
Division of Work
This philosophy of administration, entails that
administrative roles, be broken into small task elements, so that
individual workgroup do limited parts. This incorporates the
principles of specializations of roles and task function in order to
29

improve productivity in work administration. Division of work

and specialization promotes expertise and critical skills of
workforce.
(ii) Parity of authority and responsibility
This principle emphasize that individual "workforce should be
given sufficient authority to enable them carryout their
assigned task and responsibilities" Authority enables individual
to have legitimacy to exercise his power, while, responsibility
enables the individual to be accountable for the exercise of
authority in human organization.
(iii) Discipline
This principle of administration attempts to emphasis that those in
position of administration must obey rules, regulations and
procedures, to promote effectiveness and efficiency of an
enterprise. This also emphasis that indiscipline amounts to
disobedience which must be rewarded appropriately. Discipline
is the respect and obedience to rule and agreements in organization
(Ayodele 2006)
(iv) Unity Of Command
This principle enables subordinates in human organization
to be answerable to a defined superior. This attempts to
curtail the number of subordinates answerable to a
single supervisor. This minimizes confusion, conflicts
and promotes orderliness . An employee should receive
orders from one superior only.
(v)

Unity Of Direction
The entire organization should be moving towards a common objective in a
common direction.

(vi)

(vii)

(viii)

(ix)

Subordination Of Individual Interests To General Interests. The interest

of one person should not have priority over the interests of the organization
as a whole.
Remuneration, entails many variables, such as cost of living, supply of
qualified personnel, general business conditions, and success of the
business, should be considered in determining the rate of pay a worker will
receive.
Centralization. Henry Fayol stated that the degree to which centralization
or decentralization should be adopted, depends on the specific, organization in
which the manager is working.
Scalar Chain. Administrator/managers in hierarchies are actually part of
a chain like authority scale. Each administrator, from the first line
manager to the chief executive posses certain amount of authority, the
evidence of this chain, implies that, lower-level manager should always keep
30

(x)

(xi)
(xii)

(xiii)

upper level, administrators informed of their work, activities existence of

and adherence to the scalar chain are necessary if organizations are to be
successful.
Order. For the sake of efficiency, and co-ordination, all materials and
people related to a specific kind of work should be assigned to the same general
location in the organization_
Equity. All employees should be treated equally as possible.
Stability Of Tenure Of Personnel. Retaining productive employees
should always be a high priority of management Recruitment and selection
costs, as well as increased rejected Rates, Are Usually Associated With Hiring
New Workers.
Initiative. Administration should take steps to encourage worker initiative
which can be defined as new or additional work activity undertaken through
due direction.
Esprit- De-Corps. Administration should encourage harmony and general
good feelings among employees. This covers a broad range of
topics, but organizational efficiency, administrative principles
was also called principle of the handling of people.

Principle of administration enable us to deal with human behaviour i.e.

behaviour of individual within administrative organizations which is
purposive .
Administrative behaviour appear as a means of questioning the classical
view about the exercise of authority in organizations. The study of
human thinking and decision process has been pursued vigorously
within the emergence of bounded rationality, which places emphasis on
empirical foundations.

3.6

HUMAN RELATIONS PRINCIPLES

The human relation movement brought a new edge in human resource
management. The movement emphasized that, "workforce should be
seen as a human being and then a worker with fundamental human
rights and not to be treated as tools to be discarded". The
humanitarian principle of administration challenged the classical or
scientific management principles.
The basis of scientific administration principles were premised on the
following philosophy:
(i)
Man is basically rational and is motivated by personal economic
needs.
(ii)
Economic incentives serve as a venue to put their utmost best.
(iii) Productivity of workforce is possible if "One best way"
Of carrying job could be discussed. Or "the best way"
31

to perform a task .

Let's now look at principles of human relations approach to

administration.
Democracy
Democracy is a comprehensive principle which embraces different phases of life and
seeks to govern all human relationships. Yet in practice, democracy is kept
restricted to a very limited sphere. Democracy is meant to govern the affairs of
man; including decision making and administrative behaviour of those in the
realm of public and private arena.
The basis of democratic principle is the appreciation of individual and their
collective worth. In all human organizations, democratic principle should reflect in
decision making apparatus, as collective endeavour to promote human spirit. This
reveals that formulation and implementation of administrative idea, like
openness, transparency, honesty, justice and fairness in dealing with people.
Democratic principle is aimed at providing each and everyone the fullest
development of their personalities.
Furthermore, democratic principle demands that each "human being be dealt with
by those in administrative position, as living, growing, and potentially flowering
organism that has right to participate in decision-making". The essence of a
democratic human organization does not only lie in tolerating and welcoming the
differences, but promoting collectivism that enhances the enrichment of life.
A critical interpretation of empirical facts in Nigerian administrative process
will reveal that the democratic elements in public and private administration are in
"short supply". This could be the reasons for failures in administrative process in our
public and private arenas.

Justice
The idea of justice, and its definition, and meaning have greater different
disciplines, ranging from Law, politics, sociology and so on. In public administration,
justice cannot easily be quantified or measured; but it is accepted as concept that human
organization needs to attain in its goals.
In administration, justice implies rigidly in implementing rules and regulation without
victimization. This is the application administrative discretion uniformly. There are
some features of justice, balance fairness and equality of all before established rules
and regulation. Furthermore, the principle establishes that "written rules and regulations
should be definite and clear enough so that each worker will know where he or she stands".
Justice enjoins those administrative agents and their administrators to use his discretion
consciously in applying the norms, rules, laws or regulations on individual or groups,
since differences may occur. Justice recognizes that rigid application of rules, and
32

administrators are appealed to make room for exception while employing uniform
application of justice. Besides, too many exceptions weaken justice and acceptance of
authority (Nwokafor and Ighalo 1999). When justice is perverted, peace is the
eventual casualty. People always resist injustice in administration of the society
Justice as a principle can be discovered when it exist in any administrative process.
(iii) Equality of Opportunity
This principle entails that administrators and managers undertaking the formulation and
implementation of public and private goods and services should ensure that, enabling
opportunities are provided for "individuals to develop their abilities to the fullest."
Furthermore equality emphasizes that everybody should be of equal footing .
Equality does not mean that all opportunities are to be equally distributed whether
the individuals are able and deserving or not. Humanitarian principle entails that
opportunities should be granted to an individual in proportion to his capacities. Equality
of opportunities to people in administration decries quota system in public
administration in Nigeria.

(Iv)

Human Relations
Human relation principles attempts to "emphasis the notion of friendliness" "justice"
and 'fair play' in administrative process. Most of the time spent by
managers and administrators are spent in organizations, with or through people;
these people have needs, expectations, emotions, and personal goals to actualize via
administration of the organization. This principles implies that, respects,
courtesy, consideration, trust, open mindedness, and sincerity should be ingrained
in administering of any human organizations. One scholar maintained that
good administrators (manager) must maintain an accessible but respectful
distance from all members of the organization . The human relations principle in
administrative thinking, and practice, emphasizes satisfaction of employees, the people
or target audience's basic needs, as the key to increase worker productivity.
Target audience's inability to satisfy their basic needs can create problems for
administration of any human organization.
Furthermore, through this principle, organizations can take advantage of the imagination
and intellect of their workforce, to promote organizational goals and objectives.
Workforce will exercise self-control and contribute to organizational objectives
when they are recognized and given the opportunity to excel. The exponents of these
principles include Abraham Maslow, and Douglas McGregor. They attempted
to look at the human side of organization to increase service delivery
through effective administration .
PRUDENTIAL PRINCIPLE
Prudence is the "ability to anticipate, calculate, regulate, utilize,
interpret, and control" with care both material and human resources of
33

administrative organizations. Prudential principles are the ingredient with

economy , responsibility , loyalty and effective system of staffing . Other
authorities have included , checks and balance .
Economy.
This principle entails that administration should avoid wastages of
resources both human and material of the human organization .No matter
the sectoral nature of administration , the economy principle entails how
well organization and its administration is able to use scarce resources to
achieve goals without wastages.
Responsibility and Authority.
Responsibility is the duty to perform the task or activity an employee has been
assigned, while authority represents the formal and the legitimate. The principle
demand that all responsibilities , must be accompanied with commensurate
authority , to exercise it . This also embraces , the principle of accountability
which epitomizes that the people with authority and responsibility tasks
outcomes .The above principle is required to create a sense of accountability on
those under them.
Loyalty.
Loyalty is like string that binds people together in human organization. Loyalty
to organizational culture , mission and norms requires loyalty and co-operation
of its members. They task of people in administration requires that they
harness loyalty and the co-operation of its members.
Checks and Balances.
This a form and a tool that allows smooth administration. To check all forms of
administrative abuses.

3.6

Classical Administrative Principle.

The classical administrative thought was propounded by Frederick Taylor.
The following are its principles.
I)Scalar Concept.
This concept viewed an organization as a group of grades arranged in a
sequence. Superior grades carry authority which could be delegated to the
immediate lower grade
34

ii)Unity of Command.
This holds that an individual must only receive orders from one hierarchical
superior. A related principle , is the unity of direction communicated that there
should be one head and one plan of activities which contribute to the same
objectives,
(iii)Exception principle

Delegation should be maximized with decision being taken at the lowest

level possible. The routine and ordinary (programmed) tasks should be
performed by subordinates, while the exceptional tasks were entrusted to the
hierarchical superior.
(iv) Span of Control Concept
This refers to the optimal number of subordinates to be put under the authority
of one hierarchical chief. "No one brain can effectively control more than six or
seven other brains" (Rosen Bloom 1993).
( v) Orga niza tional Specializa tion
Management activities should be differentiated according to their objectives,
processes, clientele, materials or geographical location. Besides, Nwizu
(1999) cited in Emmanuel Onyebuchi Ezeani (2006) identified some broad features
and assumptions of the classical school as;
(i) Universal principles of management, division, scalar
process, unity of command, and division of labour,
(ii)
Basic assumptions that workers and organization are human aspect of
organization.
(iii)
The organization is formally planned or pre-designed. It is treated as, totally
formal. A system of behaviour, predetermined by specialists'.
(iv)
There is element of compulsion on the worker, to carry out their functions,
or duties. Willingness to work on the part of worker is lacking.
(v)
It is closed system. The organization itself is regarded as a closed system
deprived of any connection with external environment
(vi)
There are accepted sets of functions of management. To these functions.
Luther Gullick in 1937 game an acronym POSDC ORB which stands
for Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Reporting and
Budgeting.
.
(vii)
(viii)

He believed that this kind of order demands, precise knowledge of the

human requirements and resources of the concern and a-constraint
balance between these requirements and resources.
Equity. Henri Fayol defined it as justice tempered with kindness.
S t a b i l i t y o f T e n u r e o f p e r s o n n e l. B o t h
administrators/managers and employees, need time to learn their jobs, if they
leave or are removed within short time, the learning time has been
wasted.
35

(ix)

(x)

Initiative. The administrator must sacrifice his own vanity to encourage and
inspire those under him to show initiative, within the limits of
respect for authority and discipline.
Espirit de corps. The manager must encourage cohesiveness and
esprit de corps among his subordinates. The administrators may be
subject to these:
(i)
Divide and rule, and
(ii)
Abuse of written communications.

Fayol believed that there is an "administrative science" applicable to all kinds of

administration in any type of industry or in government. He defined the
functions of administration as planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating,
and controlling. Among the most important principles or guides he developed for
administrators were unity of command, unity of direction, responsibility,
equally authority, and the use of "gangplanks" in cases where going through channels
of the scalar chain would take too much time.
Besides, ethics of the profession, and the vigilant public can also act as check
against administrative abuse of discretion. Further, executive arm and the parliament,
can institute a panel of inquiry to investigate abuse of administrative discretion,
example the Oputa Panel. Although the panel was not granted power to implement
its findings, but it demonstrated that administrative officials and their agents can be
asked to give account of their stewardship.
(v) Employment of Staff
This staffing principle, requires that, both public administrators and managers, should
make sure qualified and right workforce with experience are employed. This process
entails a careful selection; appointment, and redeployment, are conducted by
administrators and managers to promote organizational goals. Good
administrator/managers should ensure proper personnel policies in order to enhance
organizational goals. A poorly staffed organization is likely to suffer from
reaching its potentials and the workforce will not achieve their individual and collective
goals and objectives.

Organization represents complex human beings. This pattern, provides to each

members of the group much of the information and the assumptions, goals, and
attributes, that enters into decisions and provides him with a set of stable and
comprehensive expectations as to what the other members of the group are doing and
how they will react.

Administration represents the instrument and machinery for carrying out the
process and policies of organization. Administration, and decision
36

process, gives room for rational calculation of administrative behaviour, and the
process through which, organizational administrators perform their work and roles.
In administration and administrative behaviour, decision making, holds the key to the
understanding of organizational phenomena. Administration is the "art of getting
things done" through people. Principle of administration are set forth for securing
concerted action from groups of men; deciding and doing things, has been
recognized, that a theory of administration blended with principles that should be
concerned with the processes of decision as well as with the process of action. A
general theory of administration will insure correct decision-making, as it will
include principles that insure effective action.
Some accepted principle of Administration
(i)
Administrative efficiency is increased by a specialization of
the task among group.
(ii)
Administrative efficiency is increased by limiting the span of control at every
point in the hierarchy to a small number.
(iii)
Administrative efficiency is increased by grouping the workers, for
purposes of control, according to, purpose, process, clientele, or place.
(Herbert Simon, p,21).
The above appear simple but their application to concrete administrative
organization on empirical test will reveal different things.
Principle of Specialization.
Administrative efficiency is supposed to increase with increase in
specialization.
3.7

HENRI FAYOL AND THE ADMINISTRATIVE PRINCIPLE.

The ideas of Henri Fayol a French engineer and industrialist , has formed
the basis of some of the rigid ideas about organizations and other phrases
of management and administration. Fayol was an advocate of contingency
management . He thought that however that administrative principle is to
manage successfully.

7.0

Conclusion. The unit was mainly about the rationale behind administrative
theory.

8.0

Summary
The unit went through the major principles of administration, the
management principles, bureaucratic principles , classical principles and the
classical theories.

9.0

Tutor Marked Assignment

37

Question 1
State and explain the bureaucratic principles as propounded by Max Webber.
Question 2
State to explain scientific management theories.

10.0 Further Reading.

Ladipo, A. (1986) Nigerian government and politics and administration. A global view.
Spectrum books.
Karthy , J (1999) Administrative Science , McGraw Hill Ltd New York.
Adebayo.A(1989)Nigerian Public Administration, Spectrum books . Ibadan.

38

UNIT FOUR.
Theories Of Administration
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of concept.
3.2 Significance of Administrative Theories.
3.3 An approach to administrative theory.

4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary.
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 Further Reading.

1.0

Introduction
The basis of theories in science of administration lies in the clarity, comprehensiveness
process, the nature of decision and elements of values entering into rational or irrational
organizational decision. Theories of administration will provide conceptual
tools for realistically describing administrative organizations, the
effectiveness of its structure and operation and the ecological influence
interfering with decision-making in human organization.
It must be observed that, the science of organization and administration can never
be substituted for specific experience in specific organizations. The usefulness of more
general knowledge to the administrations and managers of organization, comes
from rational understanding, it gives behaviour that is largely based on trial and error
or repetitive experience. Its immediate practical use is limited. Its ultimate
practical value is a great sharpening observation, preventing the neglect of
important factors and redefining and reducing consistencies between behaviour and
its verbal description (Herbert Simon 1976.)
The theory of administration is concerned with how organizations should be
constructed and operated in order to accomplish its work efficiently. Therefore, a
valid approach to the study of the science of administration requires that all relevant
diagnostic criteria be identified, and each administrative situation and regime types
analyzed in terms of the behavioural and moral variables, entering organizational
decision making. Besides, administrative theories are also concerned with some
fundamental questions like, what are the limits of knowledge , how can human
39

minds accumulate and apply, how specialization in administrative organization

is related to the specialization of knowledge that prevails in societal occupational
structure; and what knowledge can or cannot be transmitted in organizational set up?
administrative theory must also enhance, the question of weights that are to be applied
in a concrete situation.

2.0

Objectives.
A student should at the end of the unit be able to :
Explain the significance of administrative theories.
Discuss the approach to administrative theory.

3.0

Main Content.
3.1 CONCEPTUAL DEFINITTON
A theory is based on the use of abstract deductive reasoning that enables conclusions to
be drawn from a set of initial hypothesis, or assumptions about any real world
problem. This contrasts with applied studies that are inductive in nature.(Sola Fajana
2000).
Theory is one of the most elusive and misunderstood term in scientific inquiry.
Brace A. Singleton (2000) regards it as "idles speculation or conjuncture" concept.
McCain and Segal (1937: 98) maintained that "for an explanation to be called a theory
,it must emphasize a considerable evidence". From the above, we can say that a
"complete and formal presentation of theory must embrace the definitions of concepts
and a set of assumption describing circumstances under which it applies its central
features, a set of interconnected, abstract principles or propositions, that have same basic
form as laws but are more general' (Bruce C. Straits 2000). Theories explain law
deductively in the same manner that laws explain facts. "A theory is one of the most
elusive and in scientific research, its locus is directed at testing alternative theories to
the extent that;
It involves the fewest number of statements and assumptions.
(ii)
It explains the broadest range of phenomena and
(iii)
Its prediction is more accessible. Therefore theoretical explanations
deepens our understanding by reducing the laws to a common set of
principles as well as showing how accepted laws are very appropriate.
Theoretical framework are network of reasoning's that embodies theories,
concepts, and assumptions about some observed phenomena or events, and explanations
as to how these events and phenomena are related to each other. Therefore, "a theory is
a set of propositions that seeks to explain interrationship among events. Theory is said
to be a systematic way of looking at a phenomena". (Simbo Banjoko 1996).
Administrative theories deal with principles and behaviour governing administrative
organizations and how they operate. Administrative theory casts light on the
proper application of principles of administration. It is comprehensive to know
40

that
"theories of administration were developed by some administrative
thinkers while most administrative theories were borrowed from other
disciplines, particularly business administration, or management,
sociology and psychology" (Emmanuel Onyebuchi Ezeani 2005)
There are four distinctive school of administrative theory.
(i)
The classical
(ii)
The neoclassical
(iii) The modem organization theory
(iv) The decision making theory
3.2

SIGNIFICANCE OF ADMINISTRATIVE
THEORIES.
The significance of administrative theories lies in its symbolic
representation of the real administrative world and situations. It enables,
administrative agents, administrators, managers, practitioners and
theoreticians in the science of administration to communicate with air of
efficiency and effectiveness.
Theory of administration acts as guide to administrative actions and nature
of decision-making in administrative organization. Theories of
administration enable us to carryout case studies, as regards, ecology of
administration, and how regime types, influences administrative
process. These new knowledge, enable scholars, to develop analytic, and
diagnostic competence in science of administration; it also aids
administrative capacity to identifying and certification of defined
problems. (Nwizu 1999).
Furthermore, theories of administration enables us to analyze some,
principles of administration, and understand the contending controversies,
surrounding the application of theories and practice of administration.
The criteria of efficiency is somehow very problematic in its application
in administrative organizations today. The efficiency criteria in
commercial organizations, money, provides a common denominator for
measurement; both output and input; but in government
administrative set-up and quasi-nongovernmental organization
where efficiency criteria is applicable in decision, where factors
involved, are not directly measurable in monetary terms. Adequate
understanding of theories, and principles of administrative science,
which apply on efficiency criteria in management of both material and
human resources of an organization .In another vein, decision theory, enable
theoretician and practitioners, and student of administration, to acquire analytic tools
for interpreting the role value play in decision making and the Significance of decisions
in human organizations. This is why Joseph L. Bower (2000) maintained that,
"organization is the characteristic mechanism that men have chosen for ordering
41

their joint efforts in order to accomplish objectives in contemporary industrial

society".
No matter the type of society, the human organization has remained the
tool for administering their activities. The theory of self-interest of decision maker,
satisfying behaviour, enable scholars to study policy making and
(administration) in administrative organizations. Herbert A. Simon's finding that in a
"complex situation may have multiple goals or internal goals conflict within an uncertain
environment; individual may end up or engage in satisfying rather than maximizing
their behaviours". Such behaviour in Simon's term, is adaptive, and consist of
searching for new alternative of action when level of aspiration fall short of level of
performance.
Theoretically, the substitution of administrative man for economic man, involves
the recognition that man must engage in costly process of acquiring knowledge about
his environment, and in any case, his knowledge will be incomplete and his perception
of his environment distorted. Perception and cognition intervene between decisionmaker and his objective environment (Kutis Bok 1999).
The above have demonstrated that decision theory, influence administrative that
decision is made for. According to Jelson (1978) "there are seven different categories of
traders behaviour in relation to government policy in administration.
The questionable behavior is , illegal; regulated, defensive adaptive opportunistic
and supportive . The reaction of each individual trader, will depend on the nature of
the severity of control mechanisms (policy) and the type of threat it causes to the
individual actor. As regards, questionable behaviour, policy makers need to know
whether the positive and negative consequences that result in various types of
questionable behavior and to decide how much government action is needed .The
policy maker can know through the theory how policy makers can be effectively be
controlled.
Furthermore, defensive behaviour is when the actors react in self-protection to
the legislation. The actors may increase the level of conflict with government
policy by fighting the expected policy change. They may engage in noncooperative behaviour.
The above demonstrate that, theory assist practitioners in administration in
policy formulation and decision making. According to Walker (1976:p8)
"Theory is useful to practitioners to bring about desired changes in the present or
the future including avoiding undesirable events" Theory is needed for
academic reasons and for public and private policy administration. The policy
formulation and evaluation adds advantage to the role of theory in science of
administration.
In another vein, theory helps to develop viable science of administration.
Theory can be used for abstract deductive reasoning, which enables
conclusion to be drawn from set of initial hypothesis or assumptions about any
real world problem. Theories are needed to aid understanding, events,
administrations and behaviour in the practical world of human organization.
Theory is needed for the purpose of explaining observations of administrative
or organizational phenomena. The gap between theory and practice of
administration in Nigeria is predominantly attributable to insufficiency of
theoretical analysis of administration situations. Finally theory of administration is
needed to pose the right questions and distinctive research to provide the right answers, to
42

problem facing administration of human organization today. The lack of effective

administrative theory and its application, in most third world nations help to widen the
gap between reality and theory.

Another arena theory of administration can contribute to human behaviour is

through the principle of rational behavior. Administrative theory, through decision
theory enable us to evaluate the issues of rationality.

3.3

AN APPROACH TO ADMINISTRATIVE THEORY

Unity of purpose or command, specialization of purposes, decentralization
are all items to be considered in the design of efficient administrative organization.
No single one of them or items is of sufficient importance to suffice as a grounding
principle for administrative analysts in the design of an efficient administrative
organization, the overall efficiency must be the guiding principle or criterion.
A valid approach to the study of administration requires that all the relevant
diagnostic criteria and research be instituted to determine how weights can be
assigned to the several criteria when they are mutually incompatible (Jay M.
Shafiitz 1997). One of the ways of looking at administrative theory examine the
description that allots weights to various criteria includes;
(i)
The description of administrative situations.
Before any Scientific enquiry develops valid principles, it must possess concepts.
Concepts are abstractions, communicated by words or other signs that refer to
common properties among phenomena. The term "weight" symbolizes a
conception of a property of a social structure or group. (George Ziko 1999) The
aim of science is to produce knowledge, to understand and explain the real world
around us.
For example before the law of gravitation could be formulated, it was
necessary to have the notion of -acceleration and "weight" .Based on the above
analysis, the premier job of administrative theory is to develop a set of concepts
that will permit the description of terms relevant to the theory of administrative
situations. For the concepts chosen to be useful or valid, it must be operational. This
means, that, concepts must be empirically, factual or situational. The concept
"authority" is operational and can be empirically conceptualized. For effective
approach to the theory of administrative organization, attempts must be made to
scientifically look at relevant description of authority, Locus of decision making and
what influences the individual making the decision. We must scientifically describe
allocation of functions and the formal structure of authority, and system of
communication within and outside the administrative organization. This also
embraces realistic analysis of centralization and decentralization and allocation of
decisions, in the organization and method of influence, that are employed by
higher level, to influence the decision of the lower level employers.
Administrative descriptions, must reach a higher level of sophistication by
43

verifying and indentifying valid administration principles, for the construct of

organizational decisions. Content plays a greater role in the application of
administrative theory, and the application of administrative principles.
Authorities, like Mooney and Reilly, Gullick, Wallace and Benson, have
maintained that laws of administrative theories should entail "conceptual"
verifications.
Another approach to administrative theory is the diagnosis of administrative
situations. As noted earlier , the theory of administration is concerned with how an
organization should be constructed and operated in order to accomplish its work
efficiently. Therefore, a good administrative theory, should embrace the proper
application of administrative principles that would lead to the greatest
accomplishment of tasks. (Herbert Simon).
Another approached to theory of administration is to examine the factors
that will determine skills, values and knowledge that the organization
membership should undertake his or her work tasks. These represents the limits" to
rationality, with which this principle of administration, and theory must deal with.
The essential features of the classical management theory are a set of principles,
concepts that might guide organizational designs. They shared the view, that these
principles and concepts were applicable to all organizations irrespective of their
size, technology, or employees. Structural universalism was seen as a way of
achieving efficiency. These principles concerned the issue of how to allocate tasks,
control work being done, and motivate and reward those doing it. The solutions they
offered were anchored upon the "logic of efficiency" this logic stressed;
(i) Bureaucratic forms of control
(ii) Narrow supervisory control.
(iii) Closely prescribed roles
(iv) Formal definition of procedures, areas of specializations and hierarchical
relationships.
The values and techniques which underpin classical theory, held that for a technically
efficient organization, one needed to achieve a unity of effort. This meant limiting
the freedom and discretion of organizational members. In this manner, the classical
writers had a direct similarity with those in the scientific management school due to
the fact that Frederick Winslow focused on shop floor arrangements, while the former,
considered the company as a whole.
Emmanuel 0., Ezeani (2006) observed that, classical school comprises three slightly
different appeals, namely
(i))Scientific Management
(ii) Administrative Management and
(iii) Bureaucracy
Classical schools deals almost exclusively with the anatomy of formal organization
croft (1996) cited in Emmanuel 0. Ezeani (2006) maintained that all classical school
emphasis the following;
(i) Purpose and structure of organizations
(ii) Technological requirement of each job
44

(iii) Principle of management. On the classical main point. This is a

perspective on management that emphasis finding ways to managing

work and organization more efficiently. (David Martin 2000).
Exercise 1
What is the composition of administrative theory.
ADMINISTRATIVE MANAGEMENT
Administrative management is an approach that focuses on that which can be used by
administrators or managers to co-ordinate the internal activities of organizations Kathryn M.
Bartol and David Martin (2000) maintained that while the advocates of scientific
management concentrated on developing principles that could be used to organize individual
workforce tasks, more efficiently and Weber struggled with the concept of bureaucracy, and
a branch within the classical view point. The major contributors to the development of
administrative science includes Henri Fayol and Chester Barnard both of whom were executives
of larger enterprises. (Jim Stewart 2000).
Administration is the application of administrative theory to specific fields of administrative
activities, such as health, education, justice, police etc, and also administrative
systems such as local government administration, state or provincial administration and
international administration as well as study of administrative systems in different
countries under various forms or philosophies of government and ecological studies cover the
Impact of the environment on administrative activities and administrative system.
Based on the above, administrative management is an
attempt by administrative
scientist
to project effectiveness
and
efficiency in managing and organizing administrative activities for a
defined purpose.
Henri Fayol, as a practitioner in administration , thought it could be possible to develop
theories
about
management
and
administration that could be taught to individuals with administrative responsibilities.
His efforts toward developing such theories were published in a monograph titled
General Industrial Management. Fayol delineated five functions from managerial activities.
These includes, planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and controlling.
Some authorities other called it element of administration. Thinking of administration
as encompassing these functions is known as the functional approach to management.
Scholars have noticed the similarity between Fayol's functions and the four
functions of management planning, organizing, leading, and controlling used as
framework for analyzing administrative
situations. (Samuel C. Certo 2000).
Henri Fayol, was the first of all influential group of writers,
who were concerned about the ways in which higher level
administrators should be organized into a hierarchy and
how they should
carryout their tasks.
Fayol identified five elements of managerial work which constitute probably the first notable
45

conceptualization of management. For him, it consists of planning, organizing, command, coordination and control. These are still vital elements of modern management. Many modern
management have furthermore added such as communicating, motivating, decisionmaking and others. Following Fayol,s focus on the argument, that most classical writers
crystallized their ideas about the processes and structure of management into a list of principles
which also was regarded as "universal prescription for success". (L. Gullick and L. Urwick).
The most fundamental of all classical concepts is authority. This is the right to get
things done. The classical writers were attempting to legitimize their position of
influence that authority originated from ownership, and must be viewed in the same
manner.
Related to the idea of authority is the idea of responsibility. This is the obligation to
undertake tasks and assignments. In classical point of view, no administrator should
have authority without commensurate responsibility, vice versa. Having created this
administrative building block, the classical writers developed the idea of hierarchy.
Gullick for instance sees organizing as interrelating the subdivision of work by
allotting them to men who are placed in a structure of authority, so that the work may be
coordinated by the orders of superiors to subordinates, coming from the top to the bottom
of the entire organization. Mooney and Reiley Chester Barnard were other
contributors to administrative management. They recorded their observations about
effective administration in a single classic book, The Functions of Executives published
in 1938.
One of Chester Barn ads renowned contributions is his acceptance theory of
authority; which holds that authority flows from the bottom to the top. How much
authority administrator wields depends to a large extent on the willingness of
employees to accept the directives of the administrators. Thus administrators should
communicate their requirements in a way that takes the feelings and capabilities of
employees into account.
Furthermore, acceptance theory as postulated by Chester Barnard, entails that, "authority does
not depend as much on 'persons of authority" who gives order as on the willingness to
comply with those who receive the orders". This in his view, is that employee who will
accept or not accept orders and direction from above.
Finally, Chester Barnard as exponent of administrative management helped us
to integrate concern with authority, which was growing out of the
administrative and bureaucratic approaches, with emphasis on worker needs,
which was simultaneously developing within behavioral frame work.
(Caroline Katz 2006).

BUREAUCRATIC THEORY
The literal meaning of bureaucracy is "rule by the office" or "rule by officials".
In social sciences, the usage tends to follow the classical conception.
Max Weber was interested in formal organization as a student of the history of
46

social organizations. He saw bureaucracy as a form of organization that had

developed historically. Weber regarded bureaucracy as being rational by
the fact that within its control was exercised on the basis of knowledge,
expertise, and technical competence. He was especially concerned with
government and in bureaucracy as a way for the state to exercise authority in
an authority, based on close social relations. But he saw it, as an unambiguous form
of administration, in modem society, and not as something purely confined to
government.
Webers analysis of bureaucracy was in "ideal-type' terms. This means that he was
trying to identify the pure form of a certain system of administration, isolating and putting
together its key, characteristic and showing certain logical consequences and
correlates.
Under the system, Weber was identifying, what businesses that should be
conducted by a legally constituted body on a continuous basis in accordance with
systematic, general, stipulated rules which defines what is to be done, by whom, and
for whom and under what circumstances. The activities to be carried out are
attached to specific roles, not to particular persons. Each role has its own area of
jurisdiction and responsibility. The official having the prescribed duties is given the
powers to a certain amount, or approve vocation times of defined categories of staff. The
amount of formal principle attached to each role and role occupant is graded into a known
hierarchy of authority. The higher officers have the right and duty to supervise and, if
necessary to overrule the lower authority. Usually there is provision for appeal from the
lower ranks.
The resources used to carry out the business of the organization are the property of the
organization, not of the individuals, who are employed by the organization. The
officials are empowered to use those resources for the purposes of the organizations but
are strictly accountable to their service for their use. They must not use it for their personal
purposes. Official premises, resources and income are segregated from private
premises, resources, and income.
Official business is conducted largely through written documents, central files are
maintained, and these the are property of the organization, and not the private property of
the individuals. This enables rules to be recorded an enables spheres of jurisdiction to be
precisely defined, and keeps track of the property and income that belong s to the
organization.
An essential characteristic of Weber bureaucracy lays on the basis of authority
exerted in such a system. Weber distinguishes between three types of authority
"Legitimate authority" that operates in different societies, and types of
organization. "Authority is traditional" where one accepts the order of certain person or
groups are always done because this is the way things have always been. Based on the
above, customs, precedents, and usage are central, and established practice gains a quality
of sacredness. 'Authority is charismatic" where one accepts a leader's order as justified
because of the quality and of the leader's extra ordinary quality or personality. One treats him
as one set apart from ordinary person. The proper ways people behave are determined by
the leader. Under rational legal authority or bureaucratic authority, one accepts a leader's
order as justified because it is in line with and part of a more abstract, systematic,
47

comprehensive set of rules that one accepts as legitimate. Access to superior roles is
theoretically open to all who are experts through acknowledge, and to be accepted
as property superior in status and power because they have greater skill, more
experienced, or on supervisory capacity. In this realm, it gives variety of authority rights to
command and demand rationally assigned duties or a systematic scheme for relating
resources to ends, and the procedures which are embodied in formal or well-understood
codes and rulings which have the forces of law.
CHARACTERISTICS OF BUREAUCRACY
Certain characteristics of employment and career are associated with the bureaucratic system
the individual office holder is appointed to and not elected to it, or nominated for it by a
personal sponsor. His tenure and duties, and rewards are specified. His work is rewarded by
a regular salary and by prospect of regular employment (probably advancement) in a life time
career. His appointment, placement, and promotion are dependent on his technical
qualifications and his competence as displayed in the work and by a formal examination, or
equivalent form of scrutiny of his technical proficiency.
3.5

MODERN THEORIES
The systems approach
Socio-technical approach
(iii) The contingency or situational approach
Modern theories tend to be based on the concept that the organization is a system
which has to adapt to changes in its environment In modem theory, an organization is
defined as a designed and structured process in which individuals interact for objectives
(Hicks and Gullet, 1975). The contemporary approach to the organization is
multidisciplinary, as many scientists from different fields have contributed to its
development, emphasizing the dynamic nature of communication and importance
of integration of individual and organizational interests. These were subsequently reemphasized by Bernard (1938) who gave the first modern and comprehensive view of
management. The operation research approach was suggested in 1940. It utilized the
contributions of several disciplines in problem solving.

NEOCLASSICALTREORY
Neoclassical theorists recognized the importance of individual or group behaviour and
emphasized human relations. Based on the Hawthorne experiments, the neoclassical approach
emphasized social or human relationships among the operators, researchers and
supervisors (Roethlisberger and Dickson, 1943). It was argued that these considerations
were more consequential in determining productivity than mere changes in working
conditions. Productivity increases were achieved as a result of high morale, which was
influenced by the amount of individual, personal and intimate attention workers
received.
Principles of the neoclassical approach
The classical approach stressed the formal organization. It was mechanistic and ignored
48

major aspects of human nature. In contrast, the neoclassical approach introduced an

informal organizational structure and emphasized the following principles:

The individual is not a mechanical tool but a distinct social being, with aspirations
beyond mere fulfillment of a few economic and security works. Individuals differ from
each other in pursuing these desires. Thus, an individual should be recognized as interacting with
social and economic factors.
The work group. The neoclassical approach highlighted the social facets of work groups or
informal organizations that operate within a formal organization. The concept of
'group' and its synergistic benefits were considered important.
Participative management or decision making permits workers to participate i process
of decision making. This was a new form of management to ensure increase in
productivity.
3.6

THE SYSTEMS APPROACH

The systems approach views organization as a system composed of
interconnected - and thus mutually dependent - sub-systems. These subsystems can have their own sub-sub-systems. A system can be perceived
as composed of some components, functions and processes (Albrecht,
1983). Thus, the organization consists of the following three basic
elements (Bakker, 1959):
(i)
Components: There are five basic, interdependent parts of the
organizing system, namely:
E
The individual,

The formal and informal organization,

E
Patterns of behavior emerging from role demands of

the organization,
D
Role comprehension of the individual, and
(i) The physical environment in which individuals work.
(ii)
Linking processes: The different components of an organization are
required to operate in an organized and correlated manner. The interaction
between them is contingent upon the linking processes, which consist of
communication, balance and decision making. Communication is a means for
eliciting action, exerting control and effecting coordination to link decision
centers in the system in a composite form.
Balance is the equilibrium between different parts of the system so that they
keep a harmoniously structured relationship with one another.
Decision analysis is also considered to be a linking process in the systems
approach. Decisions may be to produce or participate in the system.
Decision to produce depends upon the attitude of the individual and the
demands of the organization. Decision to participate refers to the
individuals decisions to engross themselves in the organization process.
That depends on what they get and what they are expected to do in
participative decision making.
(iii)
Goals of organization: The goals of an organization may be growth,
49

stability and interaction. Interaction implies how best the members of an

organization can interact with one another to their mutual advantage.
3.7

SOCIO-TECHNICAL APPROACH
It is not just job enlargement and enrichment which is important, but also
transforming technology into a meaningful tool in the hands of the users. The sociotechnical systems approach is based on the premise that every organization consists of
the people, the technical system and the environment (Pasmore, 1988). People (the
social system) use tools, techniques and knowledge (the technical system) to
produce goods or services valued by consumers or users (who are part of the
organization's external environment). Therefore, an equilibrium among the social
system, the technical system and the environment is necessary to make the organization
more effective.

4.0

Conclusion.
In conclusion, we can maintain that the theory of administration enables
us to evaluate actors in administrative process. The theory of "bureaucratic
operation enables us to interpret bureaucrats as an elite who mould their actions,
and thoughts as superior to other actors.

5.0

SUMMARY.
In this unit we have attempted to examine administrative theories. We looked at the
classical and neo-classical theories of administration and decisional theories. The
various schools have their strong and weak points. This unit has enabled us to
examine that administration is a science capable of theory building in interpreting its
activities. The classical theories, administrative management, classical, scientific
management increased our understanding of scientific principles in determining
the task of employees. The decision theory enables us to evaluate the role, decisionmaking plays in organizational situations. Scientific management theory led to
professionalization of administration and management.

6.0

Tutor Marked Assignment.

1) List the salient features in the classical school of management thought.
2) Explain what you understand as administration theory.
3) What is the major difference(s) between the classical school and human
relations school of management thought.
50

7.0

Further Readings.
Felix, A,Lloyd , G(1996) Introduction to modern public administration.
Ladipo, A. (1986) Nigerian government and politics and administration. A global
view. Spectrum books.
Karthy , J (1999) Administrative Science , McGraw Hill Ltd New York.
Adebayo.A(1989)Nigerian Public Administration, Spectrum books . Ibadan.
designed and structured process in which individuals interact for objectives (Hicks and
Gullet, 1975). The contemporary approach to the organization is multidisciplinary,
as many scientists from different field administration enables us to evaluate actors in
administrative process. The theory of "bureaucratic operation enables us to
interpret bureaucrats as an elite who mould their actions, and thoughts as superior to
other actors.

5.0

SUMMARY.
In this unit we have attempted to examine administrative theories. We looked at the
classical and neo-classical theories of administration and decisional theories. The
various schools have their strong and weak points. This unit has enabled us to
examine that administration is a science capable of theory building in interpreting its
activities. The classical theories, administrative management, classical, scientific
management increased our understanding of scientific principles in determining
the task of employees. The decision theory enables us to evaluate the role, decisionmaking plays in organizational situations. Scientific management theory led to
professionalization of administration and management.

6.0

Tutor Marked Assignment.

4) List the salient features in the classical school of management thought.
5) Explain what you understand as administration theory.
6) What is the major difference(s) between the classical school and human
relations school of management thought.

designed and structured process in which individuals interact for objectives (Hicks
and Gullet, 1975). The contemporary approach to the organization is
multidisciplinary, as many scientists from different fields have contributed to its
development, emphasizing the dynamic nature of communication and
importance of integration of individual and organizational interests. These were
subsequently re-emphasized by Bernard (1938) who gave the first modern and
51

comprehensive view of management Subsequently, conclusions on systems control

gave insight into application of cybernetics. The operation research approach was
suggested in 1940. It utilized the contributions of several disciplines in problem solving.
Von Bertalanffy (1951) made a significant contribution by suggesting a component
of general systems theory which is accepted as a basic premise of modem theory.
Some of the notable characteristics of the modem approaches to the organization are:
E. A systems viewpoint,
r..1 A dynamic process of interaction,
.0 Multi leveled and multidimensional.
.
3.6

THE SYSTEMS APPROACH

The systems approach views organization as a system composed of
interconnected - and thus mutually dependent - sub-systems. These subsystems can have their own sub-sub-systems. A system can be perceived
as composed of some components, functions and processes (Albrecht,
1983). Thus, the organization consists of the following three basic
elements (Bakke, 1959):
(i) Components: There are five basic, interdependent parts of the
organizing system, namely:
E
The individual,

The formal and informal organization,

E
Patterns of behaviour emerging from role demands of

the organization,
D
Role comprehension of the individual, and
Li The physical environment in which individuals work.
(iv)
Linking processes: The different components of an organization are
required to operate in an organized and correlated manner. The interaction
between them is contingent upon the linking processes, which consist of
communication, balance and decision making. Communication is a means for
eliciting action, exerting control and effecting coordination to link decision
centres in the system in a composite form.
Balance is the equilibrium between different parts of the system so that they
keep a harmoniously structured relationship with one another.
Decision analysis is also considered to be a linking process in the systems
approach. Decisions may be to produce or participate in the system.
Decision to produce depends upon the attitude of the individual and the
demands of the organization. Decision to participate refers to the
individuals decisions to engross themselves in the organization process.
That depends on what they get and what they are expected to do in
participative decision making.
(v)
Goals of organization: The goals of an organization may be growth,
stability and interaction. Interaction implies how best the members of an
organization can interact with one another to their mutual advantage.
3.7

SOCIO-TECHNICAL APPROACH
52

It is not just job enlargement and enrichment which is important, but also
transforming technology into a meaningful tool in the hands of the users. The sociotechnical systems approach is based on the premise that every organization consists of
the people, the technical system and the environment (Pasmore, 1988). People (the
social system) use tools, techniques and knowledge (the technical system) to
produce goods or services valued by consumers or users (who are part of the
organization's external environment). Therefore, an equilibrium among the social
system, the technical system and the environment is necessary to make the organization
more effective.

MODULE 2: THE CONTEXT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Unit 1: Meaning of Public Administration
Unit 2: Concept, Nature and Scope of Public Administration
53

Unit 3: Historical Development and Approaches of Public Administration

Unit 4: Principles of Public Administration
Unit 5: Comparison of Public and Private Administration
Unit 6: Ecology and Evolution of Public Administration

MODULE 3: PUBLIC POLICY AND THE CHIEF EXECUTIVE

OFFICER
Unit 7: Public Policy
Unit 8: The Concept of the Chief Executive Officer (CEO)
Unit 9: The Functions of Chief Executive Officer

MODULE 4: BUREAUCRACY AND THE NIGERIAN CIVIL SERVICE

Unit 14: Concept of Bureaucracy
Unit 15: The Nigerian Civil Service.

MODULE 5: THE ART AND GOVERNANCE.

UNIT 16: Government and Governance.
Unit17:The environment and its influence.
Unit 18:Constitutional Provision.

54

MODULE TWO
UNIT 6
MEANING OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Table of Content
1.0

Introduction

2.0

Objectives

3.0

Main Content
3.1

Meaning of Public Administration

3.2

Politic and Administration

3.3

Difference between Administration and Management

3.4

Difference between Business, Public and Private Administration

4.0

Conclusion

5.0

Summary

6.0

Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0

References/Further Reading.

1.0

INTRODUCTION

This unit introduces you to Public Administration discipline. You will be

exposed to the meaning of Public Administration, some definitions by various
scholars, the meaning of Public Administration and Management, the
differences between Administration and Politics, the differences between
Administration and Management, the differences between Public and Private
Administration as well as the significance of Administration to any organization
or establishment.

2.0

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

Define Public Administration.
.

Examine the various contributions by different scholars.

Determine the differences between Administration and Management.

Specify the difference between Public and Private Administration.

55

3.0

MAIN CONTENT

3.1

MEANING OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Public Administration could be defined as the art and science of managing

government affairs, enforcing law and fulfilling public policy. The term public
administration originates from two Latin words: Public us, which means,
people or the public and Ad+Ministaire, which means, to look after people or
things. It also means to care for or look after people and to manage affairs
(Gladden, 1972)
Public Administration is a collective mechanism for the expression of the will
of the people and the wellbeing of the environment. Public administration can
also be referred to as the political system in action. Gulick and Urwick (1937),
defines Public Administration as the function that has to do with getting things
done or the accomplishment of defined objectives. It is essentially concerned
with the management of organizations in the pursuit of desired public goals and
objectives. The ultimate goal of public administration is how to maximize, the
efficiency and social effectiveness of public administrative institutions.
Adamolekun (1983), states that, public administration is commonly used to
refer to both the activities concerned with the management of government
business and the study of these activities. In order words, it is used in distinct
senses, as science or as an art; it is an art since it is concerned with the practical
management of human resources and as science as it concerns with the
knowledge of the ways and methods for efficient fulfilment of public policy.
Nnoli (1986) defines public administration as the machinery and the integral
processes, through which the government performs its functions. It is a network
of human relationships and associated activities extending from the Head of
State to the lowest officer charged with utilizing resources on behalf of the
people.
Public administration can also be defined as the act of decision-making,
planning the work to be done, formulating objectives and goals, establishing
and reviewing organizations, directing and supervising employees, exercising
control and other functions performed by the government executions and
supervisors. It also means the practice of administration in the public sector
which is a sub-segment of the society. Some scholars viewed public
56

administration as the means by which the public policy will be crystallized by

the political class and the administrators (bureaucrats) actualize its process.
However, from the foregoing, one could be able to deduce that the term public
administration involves cooperative effort also that it arises in an attempt to
realise specific objectives especially as they concern the public sector.

3.2

POLITICS AND ADMINISTRATION

The conventional view of the relationship between politics and administration is

that of one between ends and means. Politics in its more specific sense is
concerned with the acquisition and use of state power. Power in this sense can
be taken as the collective powers of all duly constituted public authorities.
Administration is concerned solely with the most efficient means for achieving
any given set or political objectives. It is important to note that this is a
simplified distinction between politics and administration because public
administrators are in various ways, involved in both public policy-making and
policy-implementation.
One way of differentiating politics from administration is in terms of careers
and vocations. With regards to this view, politics is concerned in democracies
with the activities of elected representatives and those who elect them or
influence them and the activities of professional administrators as advisers. But
this distinction does not hold at all times in view of the enormous influence
wielded by top professional administrators in public policy-making as a result
of their technical expertise which most elected members of the state and
National Assemblies do not possess.
Another way of differentiating politics from administration is in term of
process. We can envisage an arc with the left representing the political process
and the right arc the administrative process. The junction at the top represents
the critical point at which policies flow and energize the administrative system.
It is also the point at which influences that have been generated within the
administrative process flow back into the higher levels of the political process.

Figure: 1.1
Melting /Critical Point

57

Political process
Administrative Process

Source: Austin Ranney, The Governing of Men, 4thed.Hinsdale; The Dryden

Press, 1975, p.31
The conventional view of this image would show all, or nearly all, the lines of
forces moving in opposite direction that is from the political to the
administrative. They would show political will being generated by the activities
of political parties, interest groups, public opinion, elected representatives etc.
and then discharged into the administrative system where they are broken down
into successively more detailed stages of application. This picture contains a fair
degree of truth since it is generally the case that the stronger drives and
impulses originate within the political process.
In summary, it can be said that the political processes are concerned with
interaction and influences and also, the ability for the political will to flow into
the administrative system and back to the political process while administration
centred on the efficiency of the political processes.

Self-Assessment Exercise:
1. Explain the relationship between the Political process and Administrative
process
2. In your own words, define Public Administration and Management

3.3

Differences Between Administration And Management

Administration and Management can be differentiated in two major ways:

a.

The nature of the organization and management levels.

b.

The kind of decisions involved.

The Nature of Organisation and Management Levels
58

The term administration is preferably used in public institutions e.g. churches,

government departments, educational institutions, hospitals etc. and as such laid
down rules, regulations, standards, code of conduct, principles and procedures
guide the achievement of set goals. Hence administration is said to be rigid, and
concerned with obeying the stated rules and code of conduct. Administration
tends to concentrate on efficiency doing things right and it is somehow
autocratic seeking obedience to prescribed standards. The output in
administration seeks quality which is difficult to measure.
Dichotomy between Administration and Management
Administration is seen as any action that is directed towards the analysis of
policies, identification of options and to a substantial degree, the
implementation of programmes as well as efficient allocation of resources. In
addition to all these calculated decisions, a typical administrative action takes
into consideration the goals of the organization as well as the environment
within which the actions place (Balogun, 1983). Hermann, (1983) states that
administration means the overall determination of policies, setting of major
objectives, identification of general purposes and laying down of broad
programmes and projects. Newman, (1963) states that administration means
guidance, leadership & control of the efforts of the groups towards some
common goals. Administration tends to concentrate on efficiency, sometimes it
is very rigid and somewhat autocratic seeking obedience to prescribed
standards. Management sets standard for attainment, encourages creativity,
flexibility and diversification (Obiajulu and Obi, 2004). There are several
scholars that have contributed to the meaning of administration prominent
among whom are Nwankwo (1987), Heyel (1973), Breach (1975) and Guilck
(1968). Administration is the capacity of coordinating many and often
conflicting social energies in single organisation.
Peretomode (1980),
administration is the process of working with and through others to efficiently
accomplishes organisational goals and objectives. Fayol (1984), defines
administration in the narrow sense of management and regarded administration
as a discipline, which deserved to be taught as a universal activity that any
organisation should be involved in. he maintained that administration has five
elements; foresight; organisation; command; co-ordination and control. He
further stated that the principles of administration includes; division of labour,
authority, discipline unity of command, unity of direction, subordination to
general interest, remuneration, centralization, order and hierarchy of command.
Nwankwo (1987), states that administration is considered as the careful and
systematic arrangements for the achievement of the specific objectives of a
given organisation. He further introduced a new dimension to the definition of
administration when he made mention of the use of resources, situation and
opportunities. It can there be inferred that administration involves the effective
and efficient use of the three Ms (Man, Money and Materials). However, the
59

above definitions revolve around the main variables which are: accomplishment
of organisational goals and the cooperative effort as a means of goals
accomplishment.
Management on the other hand involves conceiving, initiating and bringing
together the various elements; coordinating, actuating, integrating the diverse
organizational components while sustaining the viability of the organization
towards some pre-determined goals. In other words, it is an art of getting things
done through and with the people in formally organized groups. Management is
seen as the act of handling or controlling affairs. Management is rigid and
somewhat autocratic; this is because the output is predetermined and can easily
be measured. Management tends to be product-oriented (Obiajulu and Obi,
2004). Drucker (1973), states that management is an objective function that
ought to be grounded I the responsibility for performance. Follett (1920),
defines management as the art of getting things done through people, which
implies that management is an art (that is, depends on personal qualities),
managers must have subordinates and that they do not do the same things as
other employees. Managers tasks include making good use of the enterprises
employees to perform whatever task that may be necessary to achieve
organisational goals. Management is concerned with human beings whose
behaviour is highly unpredictable. Most people would prefer to use
administration for government businesses and refers to any other organisation
that is non-governmental management. Peretomode (1980), states that
management is the act of getting things done through and with people in
formally organised groups. It is the art of creating the environment in which
people can perform and individuals could cooperate towards attaining of group
goals. Breach (1975), states that management requires a sequence of
coordinated activities undertaken by one person or group of persons in the most
effective and efficient way to direct the activities of others for the purpose of
accomplishing organisational goals. He further stated that management is a set
of activities which is classified as concerning with planning, organising or
controlling. Management is seen as giving direction to their organisations,
provide leadership and how to use organisational resources to accomplish goals
(Drucker, 1979). Management refers to persons who work with and through
other to achieve organisational goals. He is equally of the view that, all
organisations operate by the provision, combination and utilization of
organisational resources of men, material (material inputs and technology) and
money. (Akpala, 1988) Management is the process of designing and
maintaining an environment in which individuals, working together in groups,
efficiently accomplish selected aims (Koontz and Weihrich, 1990) Management
is more scientifically based than administration. The principles of management
are different from administration.
The difference between Management and Administration can be summarized
under (2) two categories: 60

- Functions, and
- Usage or Applicability
On the basic function, table-1 below shows the major dichotomy between
administration and public administration.
Table: 1.1
Basis

Management

Administration

Meaning

Management is an art of getting

things done through others by
directing their efforts towards
achievement of pre-determined
goals.

It is concerned with
formulation of broad
objectives, plans and
policies.

Nature

Management is an executing
function.

Administration is a decisionmaking function.

Process

Management decides who should

as it and how should he do it.

Administration decides what

is to be done & when it is to
be done.

Function

Management is a doing function

because managers get work done
under their supervision.

Administration is a thinking
function because plans and
policies are determined under
it.

Skills

Technical and Human skills

Conceptual and Human skills

Level

Middle & lower level function

Top level function

Sources: http://www.managementstudy guide.com.

On the basic usage or application, the table-2 below shows the major dichotomy
between administration and public administration.
Table: 1.2
Basis

Management

Administration

Applicability

It is applicable to business
concerns i.e. profit-making

It is applicable to non-business
concerns i.e. clubs, schools,

61

organization.

hospitals etc.

Influence

The management decisions

are influenced by the values,
opinions, beliefs & decisions
of the managers.

The administration is
influenced by public opinion,
govt. policies, religious
organizations, customs etc.

Status

Management constitutes the

employees of the
organization who are paid
remuneration (in the form of
salaries & wages).

Administration represents
owners of the enterprise who
earn return on their capital
invested & profits in the form
of dividend.

Sources: http://www.managementstudy guide.com.

Practically, there is no difference between management and administration.
Every manager is concerned with both - administrative management function
and operative management function as shown in the tables above. However, the
managers who are higher up in the hierarchy denote more time on
administrative function and the lower level denote more time on directing and
controlling workers performance i.e. management.
The table-3 below shows the degree of administration and management
performed by the different levels of management.
Table: 1.3

Sources: http://www.managementstudy guide.com.

3.4

Differences Between Business, Public And Private Administration

62

Business administration in simple terms is everything that encompasses a

business and the concept of profit making. The administration of a business
includes managing and monitoring absolutely everything to do with a business,
from marketing, advertising, to the hiring and the management of staff. In
business administration program, the students are trained in various sections of
the field of business for example corporate accounting, communications,
principles of management, and marketing. The students are trained to take risks
and the importance of awareness of risk in business. The concept of business
administration is the process of managing every different angle of a business so
it can run, expand, grow and succeed. Without business administration, all areas
of the business would go unmonitored and would eventually break down.
However, the concept of business administration is to oversee the running of the
company and working to ensure the business is working, running to its best
ability. The process of business administration is the overseeing and controlling
of a business. This includes keeping a lot of records, monitoring and overseeing
every department and staffing and managing teams of employees.
Public Administration is sometimes referred to as public management and
sometimes the two words are used interchangeably. It is concerned with the
activities of public institutions and organizations that are owned jointly or
principally by the government. It is concerned with the implementation of
policies and activities of the government at the three levels (federal, state and
local). It is concerned with how a country administration is organised and how it
functions. Woodrow (1887), public administration means the most obvious part
of government or government in action. It is the most visible side of
government, particularly the executive arms, that implements the plans and
activities of the government. Adebayo (1986), public administration means the
art of planning, assessment, appraising performance by the government
executives and supervisors. Public administration also means the management
of public policy, the shaping and carrying out of public policies and serviceoriented (Ladipo and Omoyele, 2003).
Private administration is in the domain of private organizations or institutions
which are establishments that are not owned (either jointly or principally) by the
government. it means the organisation and management of human and material
resources of the private sectors for the goal of the public. Whatever
management decision taken and policy implemented in private organisations
e.g. Nestle plc, Shell, Chevron, Lever Brothers Nigeria plc, etc belong in the
realm of private administration. Their activities and operations are centred on
63

profit-making by minimizing cost of production and maximizing profit. Private

organisations produce goods and render services.
The differences that exist between public and private administration are in their
setting, formation and structures as follows:
Setting:
1. Public administration is for service orientation, that is, capitally intensive
e.g. PHCN, NITEL, NTA, NPA, etc. while private organization is a
profit-oriented entity. The private enterprise is essentially for profit
maximization
2. Public administration performs numerous activities e.g. external defence
(military services), police affairs, currency, maintenance of law and
order, whereas the private organizations have limited activities e.g.
engineering, industry, production, communication, textiles, commerce
and banking etc.
3. Accountability in the public administration in not well established or
accounted for, but in the private organizations, the level of accountability
and efficiency is well established.

Formation:
1. Public administrations are being financed from various taxes or being
owned by the public. They are being paid by the tax payer fund. But
private organizations are owned by limited number of people not as large
as a country
2. Public organization is opened to more criticism (either constructive or
otherwise) while the private organizations are not all that prune to frequent
criticism as their operations are not widely known
Structure:
1. The size of public organizations is usually larger than those of private
organizations. Many private organizations structures do not extend
beyond their locality.
2. Recruitment into the public services is based on geographical spread
(federal character) those of the private sector, are mostly on merit
irrespective of applicants state of origin.
3. Personnel procurement in the public sector is done by a centralized body,
civil service commission, or by ministries acting on their behalf and

64

according to the guideline formulated by it. While in the private sector,

individual organization is responsible for the living of its staff.
4. Decision making in public administration is control by the government or
elected officers while the Shareholders control private organizations or
sectors

4.0

CONCLUSION

From the foregone discussion, you have learnt that the term public
administration originated from two Latin words, Public us and Ad+Ministaraire
which have no universally accepted definition. It is concerned with cooperative
efforts and the accomplishment of defined objectives such as planning,
organizing, staffing, directing coordinating, reporting and budgeting. The major
difference between politics and administration is in the areas of interaction and
influences on the political process and efficiency of the administrative system.
The difference between management and administration is on the nature of the
organization and the kind of decisions involved. The differences that exist
between public and private administration are in the setting, formation and
structure.

5.0

SUMMARY

In this unit, you learnt that, Public Administration is seen as the function that
has to do with getting things done or the accomplishment of defined objectives.
Public administration involves around decision-making, planning, formulating
objectives and goals, establishing and reviewing organizations, directing and
supervising employees, exercising control and other functions performed by
government executives and supervisors. Administration tends to concentrate on
efficiency. Management sets standard for attainment of goals, encourages
creativity and flexibility.
6.0

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1.

Define Public Administration.

2.

List the differences between Politics and Administration.

3.

Differentiate between Management and Administration.

65

7.0

REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Adebayo, A (1986),.Power in politics; Ibadan, spectrum book ltd

Abari, A.O and Mohammed, M.O.B (2006), Fundamentals of educational
management, babs- olutunji publisher, first edition
Ademolekun, L (1983), public administration. a Nigerian comparative
perspective; Lagos; London ltd
Akpala Agwu. (1988), Management; an introduction and search for Nigerian
system; unpublished manuscript.
Bartol, K. M and David, M (1988), Introduction to management; a pacific rim
focus; new York mcgraw hill.
Balogun M. J. (1983), public administration in Nigeria; a developmental
approach; Lagos macmillian
Breach, B. (1975), An introduction to public administration; london
Drucker, P.F (1979), People & performance; The best of peter drucker on
management
London, heinemann.
Gladden G.N (1972), A history of public administration; volume 1
Gulick and Urwick (1937), Organisation as a technical problem; a paper on the
science of administration. new york; institution of public administration.
Koontz and Weihrich (1990), Essentials of management; singapore mcgraw hill;
book co
Ladipo and Omoyele, Olufemi (2003) Management theory and practice, by bt
and associates, ilorin Nigeria.
Lawal, A. A (1993), Management in focus; published by abdul industrial
enterprises, lagos
Mumem, L (2009), Introduction to health administration in Nigeria: publish by
bonny company, lagos
Newman, William. H (1963), Administrative action, Englewood. cliff prentice
hall
Nnoli,O. (1986), Introduction to politics: Ibadan; longman group limited.
66

Nwankwo, G.O. (1988) Education and training for public management in

Nigeria, Onitsha university publishing company
Obiajulu Sunday and Obi Emeka Anthoy, (2004) Public administration in
Nigeria, a developmental approach
Patrick Mbieli, (2006) Public administration, a broad view. megavons (west
africa) limited
Peretomode, V. F (1980), Educational administration; applied concepts and
theoretical perspectives. Lagos; joja educational research and publishers
limited.
Ranney Austin (1975), The governing of men; 4th edition; hinsdale; the dryden
press.
Remi Anifowose and Francis C. Enemuo (1999), Elements of politics.
malthouse press limited
Haimanm, Theo (1983), Conepts and practices of management, elevent edition,
journal of political science and administration vol.14.no.2 boston.
Victor, B.E. Abia, (1998) A ground work of public administration. olucity
printers limited
White, R. (1966), Introduction to public administration; essay and research
note; yearn. h
William, M. P. Robert, J. H and Jack, R. K. (2005), Business; eight edition,
Houghton Mifflin company, Boston New York
William, G. N. James, M. M and Susan, M. M (2002), Understanding business;
McGraw-Hill Irwin.
Woodrow, W (1887), The study of public administration; published in the
political science Quarterly

67

UNIT 7
CONCEPT, NATURE AND SCOPE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Table of Content
1.0

Introduction

2.0

Objectives

3.0

Main Content
3.1

Concept of Public Administration

3.2

Nature of Public Administration

3.2.1 The Evolution of Public Administration in Nigeria
3.2.2 The Control of Public Administration

3.3

Scope of Public Administration

3.4

Public Administration as a Discipline

4.0

Conclusion

5.0

Summary

6.0

Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0

References/Further Reading.
68

1.0

INTRODUCTION

In the last section you had an idea about what Public administration is all about.
This unit takes you a step further into the Concept of public administration. In
this unit, the focus is on the Concept of public Administration, Nature of Public
Administration, Scope of Public Administration and Public Administration as a
discipline.
2.0

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able:

a.

Explain the concept of public administration.

b.

List conditions leading to the evolution of public administration.

c.

Define the scope of public administration.

d.

Explain why public administration is a discipline.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1

CONCEPT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

The word public refers to an association of people who are large in numbers and
who are faced with a number of issues, concerned with the problem of solving
the issues and are engaged in discussing the issues. Administration involves
machinery through which set goals and objectives can be achieved. Therefore,
public administration can be conceived as the study of machinery and structures
which can be used to achieve certain objectives which affects the lives of
individuals in a particular environment.
For an adequate understanding of what public administration is, an explanation
of the operative concept is very imperative. Scholars are not in agreement of a
common definition of Public Administration. What has been observed is a
situation in which each individual tries to picture the concept from its
environmental, situational and circumstantial perspective. Equally worthy of
69

note is the fact that, time and value systems also affect the definition of a
concept.
This being the case, we wish to present the definition offered by some scholars
in the field of public administration over the years. We must stress that these
definitions are not exhaustive but are representative of the numerous definitions
of the concept.
Dimock (1973), defines public administration as concerned with what and how
of government. What is the subject matter, the technical knowledge of a field
which enables an administrator to perform his task. How is the technique of
management and the principle according to which corporate programmes are
carried through to success. He argues that, what and how of government form
the synthesis called public administration.
Nnoli (1986), perceives public administration as the machinery as well as the
integral processes, through which the government performs its functions. It is a
network of human relationships and associated activities extending from the
Head of state to the lowest officer charged with utilizing resources on behalf of
the people. Its a system of roles and relationships which defines a clear and
practicable terms, detail intentions and programmes of the government. It is also
a system of resources available internally and externally to accomplish them,
there, when and how they are to be accomplished; who is to benefit from them.
It is a system that causes these intentions and programmes of government to be
realized in real life. It is a pattern of routine activities involving decision
making, planning, advising, coordinating, negotiation, conciliation, arbitration,
command and data gathering through which the government carries out its
responsibilities.
Gullick and Urwick, (1937 )promoted seven principles of administration and in
so doing, he gave students of public administration that snappy acronym,
POSDCORB that is, Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating,
Reporting and Budgeting. He further stated that, public administration has been
70

set firm, and its the functions that has to do with getting things done or the
accomplishment of defined objectives. His definition touches vital issues of set
objectives being accomplished. White (1966), defines public administration as
all those operations of which their purpose is the fulfilment or enforcement of
public policies. Public administration is essentially concerned with the
management of organizations in the pursuit of desired public goals and
objectives. The ultimate goal of public administration is how to maximize, the
rationality or efficiency and social effectiveness of public institutions. Pfiffner
and Prethus (1967), defines public administration as the coordination of
collective efforts to implement public policy. Public administration is a
collective affair involving many people, for profit majority of the people.
Ademolekun (1983), states that public administration is commonly used for the
activities of government and the study of these activities; in other words, it is
used in two distinct senses, as practice and as knowledge.
From the foregoing one could deduce that public administration is concerned
with the activities and functions of government; the services performed by some
groups of officials working together for the interest of the nation. The
institutional arrangement designed to achieve the objective interests and welfare
of the public is what we generally refer to as public service and the process of
formulation and implementation of strategies, policies and programmes by
public officials for the satisfaction of social goals and public welfare is referred
to as public administration.
Stone (1939), views the concept of public administration as the process by
which the objectives are defined, plan, and policies formulated, institutions
created and managed, human energies mobilized, resources utilized and change
effected in the overall public interest. However in Nigeria, there are 3 levels of
public administration which are:
a. Federal Government Administration
b. State Government Administration
71

c. Local Government Administration

Goodnow (1990), states that, the concept of public administration centred on
politic and politics has to do with policies or expressions of the state, while
administration has to do with the execution of these policies. Goodnow (1990),
and his fellow scholars in public administration strongly believed that public
administration is concerned with the bureaucracy of government.
3.2

Nature of Public Administration

The nature of public administration is broad and complex. The nature focuses
attention on the concept of public administration as earlier discussed, the
evolution of public administration, and the conditions that made it imperative.
Its also focuses on the features, control and the scope of public administration.
For the purpose of this unit, the nature of public administration will help you
understand the relevance of these issues in improving effectiveness and
efficiency in the public sector. The conditions that led to the evolution of public
administration are: (a) The existence of extensive empires (b)

the

rise

of

absolute monarchy(c) the need for central management of scarce resources (d)
the introduction of money economy (e)

Lack of adequate communication.

(f) Increase in literacy rate and (g) Introduction of codified laws. Many scholars
have written and argued about these conditions and how each has helped the
origin of public administration; we shall explain in brief, how these factors have
helped the emergence of public administration.
The existence of empires whether old or new, has invariably called for the
evolution of administration. These empires called for the setting, structure and
formation of a formal organization which is necessary for the day to day
running of the empire e.g. the Roman and Chinese Empires. Tout (1968),
attributes the rise of Public Administration to absolute monarchs and argues that
earliest bureaucracy was identified in the kings household. He recaptured the
experiences in France and Russia between 12 and 14 century and argued that,

72

the servants of the kings or absolute monarchs later became servants of the
states when capitalism came into control of the European economy and society.
(Scott and Blau, 1963), believes that public Administration arose in these
empires due to the need for management of scarce resources. He cited an
example of the Chinese empire, where as a result of scarce resources; a central
management committee was constituted to manage the distribution of resources.
Mere existence of empires did not bring about public administration, but the
shortage of resources brought public administration because of the need to
manage the scarce resources.
The rise of money economy made it possible for labour to be exchanged for
money. The emergence of money (because of the difficulty of trade by barter)
as a medium of exchange became an essential ingredient for the rise of public
administration. Weber (1964), states that, bureaucracy arose essentially because
of the emergence of money economy, the armies and the empires. The need for
effective contact between and amongst people made the evolution of public
administration. It became absolute necessary to provide this communication.
Another factor that contributed to the rise of public administration is the
introduction of codified laws with specified functions.
Brain (1966), believes that the influence of the Catholic Church attributed to the
rise of public administration. He is of the fact that, in the early days, the
Catholic Church of the Roman Empire was the largest employer of human
resources. Others empires that contributed to the rise of public administration
are the monarchs in France, Prussia and Britain.
3.2.1 The Evolution of Public Administration in Nigeria.
The origin and growth of Public Administration in Nigeria are articulated from
two points of view, which are:
a.

Tracing the origin of public administration to pre-colonial period in

Nigeria and
73

b.

Public administration from the colonial period till date.

During the pre-colonial public administration, the different regions, the

northern, eastern and western regions of Nigeria had means of administering
themselves prior to colonialism.
Nwosu (1985), analysed that; there are three dominant traditional societies in
Nigeria: the Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba. He states that, the Hausa traditional
political system was highly centralized. Unlike the Igbo system, which has more
elaborate structures and organs for performance of social roles? The Hausa
emirate has a central bureaucracy with structures of law enforcement, tax
collection articulation and external defence. At the head of a Hausa political
system is an Emir and a political sovereign. He had advisers that are purely
secondary; their views may not be taken by the Emir. However, from the
foregoing one could be able to deduce that the centralized system of the Hausa
made the Emir to be strong and to issue instructions to his subordinates with
utmost compliance.
The pre-colonial public administration of the Igbo emirate was participatory in
tune with the segmented system; there was no centralized and consolidated
political authority. A number of villages constituted a political community. No
person was as powerful as the case of the Hausa system. The Igbos were
governed in groups and each community was administered by a council of
elders. These groups includes titled men, heads of families, war lords, heads of
secret societies, age grades etc. Political decisions were reached out by a single
leader, but with collective efforts of the members in a village assembly. Once
decisions are taken, the relevant groups were mandated to ensure
implementation and execution of the decision of the council. Bureaucracy of the
public administration in the Igbos emirate therefore, involved every committed
members of the community. The Yorubas kingdom lacked common traditional
leadership, the kingdom is divided into several political kingdoms, and their
traditional political systems are classified as a centralized chiefdom. The Oba,
74

who is the administrative head of the emirate, traced his lineage to Oduduwa, he
and his council of elders take many fundamental and routine decisions. Below
an Oba, are the lesser provincial and village chieftains who exercised some
measures of military execution and ritual powers. Each Oba of a community has
a constituted council made of communitys chiefs. However, the Yoruba precolonial public administration provided a constitutional arrangement in which
agents of the community such as the Ogboni society were used to execute the
decisions of the councils, and thus the society. It is interesting to state here that,
the then society of the various kingdoms as identified are not as complex as it is
today since the needs of the communities were not as diverse as it is today.
However, modern public administration in Nigeria owes its origin to the British
colonial administration. The evolution of Public administration in Nigeria can
be traced the handwork of the British. In the same vein, these institutions that
found expression in Nigeria states came purposely to ensure adequate
exploitation of the resources of Nigeria.
3.2.2 The Control of Public Administration
The control of public administration in Nigeria and all over the world became
necessary to ensure effectiveness and efficiency of public service and
institutions, Public administration is controlled through some measures that
guide against waste of public funds. Some of the controls measures of public
administration are as follows:
A.

Ministerial Control: The appointment of members into the public

service rest with the Federal Civil Service Commission and same goes for the
state. The Civil Service Commission is under the Ministry of Labour and
Productivity that appoints members of the public service and also dismiss them.
B.

Parliamentary Control: Ministries, departments and agencies (MDA)

must be made available to the parliament. This is to enables the parliament to

discuss, obtain information, criticize or approve the activities of each
ministries. During question time, the parliament is free to ask the minister-in75

charge of a ministry various questions about the general policy of the ministry
and the way forward.
C.

Judicial Control: The judiciary is empowered by law to insert some

control on the activities of public services and administration through litigations

and hearing of cases, ranging from public officers embezzling public funds,
dismissal of staff illegally, arbitrary use of excessive powers to oppress
members of the public society etc. The independence of the judiciary has
enabled it to insert some sanity into the Nigeria public administration, through
fair hearing of all cases that has to do with both public and private laws. The
Judiciary has equally intervened frequently in the Nigeria administrative laws.
However, the judicial control of public services and administration became
necessary because of the abuse of powers by public servants who hide under the
disguise of performing official duties to oppress the members of the public.

D.

The Control of Ombudsman/Public Complaints Commission: The

institutionalization of the Ombudsman was a progeny of the expanded previews

of the governmental and administrative activities within the last few decades in
Nigeria. The word Ombudsman originated from Sweden in the early part of the
19th century and since then it has gained recognition of many magnitude in
many countries including Nigeria, where it is euphemistically called Public
Complaint Commission (PCC). The Public Complaint Commission was set up
to enable the less privileged in the society to obtain redress to their grievances
and to get protection against human rights by any functionaries or agent whether
government, public or private.

E.

Public Opinion Control:

Price (1776), defines public opinion as

composite reactions of the general public. It expresses reflections of the people

and the activities of the government; one could perceive public opinion as the
will of the people. It is expressed through the press, radio, television and other
76

mass media. Leaders and organizers of public opinion constitute the pressure
groups. However, public opinion has significant influence and control of the
public administration through the expression of some ills or wrong doings by
the public or civil servants.
F.

Pressure Group Control: Pressure group has considerable influence and

control on government policy. It is organized to influence the context of

governmental decisions without attempting to replace its members in formal
government positions. The importance of pressure group is premised on the
thesis, which is firmly part of the political progress, and also an attempt to
reinforce the direction of government policy.

However, pressure groups

particularly the trade unions are able to have some control on the functions and
role of the government in their various Ministries and Parastatals with
references to salary negotiation and staff welfare.
G.

Pressman: The pressmen, media houses and journalists through their

stories in the newspaper (print) radio and television (broadcast) expose public
servants who err or are involved in shady deals and abuse of powers. The press
ensures that, the society is governed without any biasness, sentiment and tribal
lines. The newspapers and other publications medium act as the eyes of the
people. The pressmen do a lot to see that justice, fair play and normalcy is
adopted during the course of their duties. The press has been able to control the
public administrators by expressing and exposing public office holders on any
act contrary to civil service rules and regulations.
The society generally has its problems vis--vis, corruption, embezzlement of
public funds, wrongful dismissal of official etc. such issues are brought to the
notice of the press in form of complaints to the appropriate quarters, particularly
to the press or the Public Complaints Commissions by public servant.
H.

Monetary and Funds Control: This is a special control by the heads of

the three-tiers of government in curtailing the financial misappropriation of

public administration in Nigeria. The federal government allocation to states
77

and local governments is one of the measures used to ensure that public funds
are well utilized and not wasted.
I.

Monitoring of Projects and Programmes: It has been the practice that

public servants do not usually adhere strictly to lay down procedures for the
award of contracts and project execution. A team is always set up by the
federal, state and local governments to ensure that all projects are executed and
delivered as specified by the award. The monitoring of projects and
programmes

is

capable

of proffering solutions

to

Nigerias

public

administration problems.
Self Assessment Exercise:
1. Explain the evolution of Public Administration in Nigeria.
2. In your own understanding, what are the control processes of Public
Administration in Nigeria
3.3

SCOPE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

The scope of public administration is wide; it involves those issues, functions,

spheres and areas in the public domain. The complex natures of our modern
society make public administration to be more complex. An average citizen is
likely to think of public administration primarily in terms of governmental
regulations of individual and group conduct. However, the scope of public
administration is vast in nature and varied in form of protection, assistance, and
services the government provides.
Adebayo (1981), states that when administration is qualified by the word public,
it simple means the practice of administration in the public sector. Public
administration means the same as government administration. The scope of
public administration connotes the service of the public or government. In
Nigeria, the scope of public administration has increased to include the federal
government and all its ministries, the federal Parastalals and Commissions, the
army, the Police, the Customs department, the state ministries, Commissions
and Parastatals owned by the state and the federal capital territory (FCT) Abuja
78

as well as the 774 Local government areas in the country. However, from the
foregoing one could be able to deduce that the Scope of public administration
can be categorized as follows:
Protection: It is duties of government to provide some level of protection for
the society as a whole; e.g. police, fire protection, healthcare, national and civil
defence, prison services, safeguarding and conservation of natural resources of
the environment.
Promotion of services: The government owns and operates enterprises
services, e.g. postal services, post facilities, municipal, water supply, electric
power, vehicle assembly plants, cement factories, banks and allied institutions,
etc. the government also provides some level of services to education and social
groups e.g. farmers, factory workers, businessmen and women, women and
children, the unemployed public administration and the aged.
Regulation: The government through it various departments and agencies
regulates the public and private sectors. The activities of NDLEA, NAFDAC,
S.O.N. etc. and other regulatory bodies and boards are of significance here.
Furthermore, the scope of public administration deals with intergovernmental
and other functional responsibilities such as agriculture, civil aviation, high
ways, housing, rural and urban development, vocational rehabilitation, care of
the aged, the blind, the destitute, and the refuges. Public administration is also
concerned with how a countrys administration is organized and how it
functions.

Its the machinery for implementing government policy. The

functions of public administration involve social, economic, cultural and

political activities.
Woodrow (1887), states that the task of public administration is to strengthen
the path of government and to make its business-less, and purify its organization
and to crown its duties with dutifulness. He further states that the expansion of
modern societies and the complexities of societal demands have helped to make
the scope of public administration rather elastic.
79

3.4

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATIONS AS A DISCIPLINE

Public administrators have often faced with issues of having to argue that public
administration is not a field of study. That public administration now exists, as
important academic field of study is no longer debatable. Public administration
is concerned with the study of how a countrys administration is organized and
how it functions. Since it is the machinery for implementing government policy,
it follows that its study must lead to the study of the most efficient ways of
organizing the executive branch of government. Public administration as a field
of study deals with systematic, analytical and procedural method of arriving at
facts which will in turn help in finding solutions to the problem of the society.
However, public administration has gained added impetus as scientific methods
are now employed to gather and analyse data and reach logical deductions.
The key issue in the study of public administration is the emphasis on
efficiency, the item of public administration has been economy and efficiency
that is the provision of public services of the minimum cost. Although,
practitioners would insist that there is a world of difference between theory and
practice, it is the view of most scholars that a systematic understanding of the
theoretical basis of administration would produce better results in the practical
activities of administrators.

4.0

CONCLUSION

The foregoing discussion on concept, nature and scope of public

administration, confirms the complex nature of public. Public Administration is
concerned with the study of mechanics and structures which are used to achieve
certain objectives that affect the lives of individuals.
However, scholars are not in agreement on a common definition of the concept
and scope of public administration. What has been observed is a situation where
individuals make pictures of the concept of public administration from its
environmental, situational and circumstantial perspective. The nature of public
80

administration helps you to understand the relevance of issues in improving

effectiveness and efficiency in public sector. The scope of public administration
involves those issues, functions, spheres and areas of public administration.

5.0 SUMMARY
There is no common definition of public administration, that the concept, nature
and scope of public administration are pictured from various perspectives. The
scope of public administration is broad and complex in nature; it covers the
areas of protection, provision of services and regulations of government
activities. Public administration is the machinery through which the activities of
the government are performed. The functions of public administration are
social, economic, cultural and political. There are some controls of public
administration in Nigeria.

6.0

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Question:
1.

Discuss the concept, nature and scope of public administration in Nigeria.

2.

List and explain the significance of the measures of public administration

performance in Nigeria

7.0

REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Ademolekun, L. (1983), Public Administration: A Nigerian Comparative

Perspective, Lagos, Longman.
Adebayo, A (1986),.Power In Politics; Ibadan, Spectrum Book Ltd
Dahl, Robert .A (1995), Modern Political Analysis, Prentice Hall Of India
81

Dimock, M. E (1973), Public Administration. Newyork; Holt Rhine Hart And

Winston Inc
Goodnow, F. J (1900), Politics And Administration; New York Macmillan.
Gulick And Urwick (1937), Organisation As A Technical Problem; A Paper On
The Science Of Administration. New York; Institution Of Public
Administration.
Nnoli,O. (1986), Introduction To Politics: Ibadan; Longman Group Limited
Nwosu, H. N (1985), Political Authority And The Nigerian Civil Service;
Enugu Fourth Dimension Publishers.
Obiajulu Sunday & Obi Emeka Anthony (2004), Public Administration In
Nigeria, A Developmental Approach. Bookpoint Limited.
Patrick Mbieli, (2006), Public Administration: A Broad View. Megavons (West
Africa) Limited
Price, D.K (1776), Transaction Cost Theory And Public Administration; Origin
And Development.
Piffner And Presthus (1967), Public Administration 5th Edition York Ronald
Press
Remi Anifowose And Francis C. Enemuo (1999), Elements Of Politics.
Malthouse Press Limited
Scoff And Blau (1963), Formal Organisation; London ;Rutledge And Kegan
Paul Coy.
Victor, B.E. Abia, (1998), A Ground Work Of Public Administration, Olucity
Printers Ltd
Woodrow, W (1887), The study of public administration; published in the
political science Quarterly
Weber, M. (1964), The theory of social and economic organisation collier
macmillan
82

UNIT 8
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT AND APPROACHES TO THE STUDY
OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
83

Table of Content:
1.0

Introduction

2.0

Objective

3.0

Main Content
3.1

Historical Development of Public Administration

3.2

Approaches to the Study of Public Administration

3.2.1 The Historical Institutional Approach
3.2.2 The Judicial/Legal Approach
3.2.3 The Structural Approach
3.2.4 The Behavioural/Administrative Approach
3.2.5 The Scientific Approach

4.0

Conclusion

5.0

Summary

6.0

Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0

References/Further Reading.

1.0

INTRODUCTION

In the last section, you had an idea about what the concept, nature and scope of
public administration are all about. This unit will take you a step further into the
Historical Development and Approaches to the Study of Public Administration.
In this unit, the focus is on the Historical Development of Public Administration
and the various approaches of the Study of Public Administration.

2.0

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

a.

Explain the historical development of public administration.

b.

Enumerate the various approaches to the study of public administration.

3.0

MAIN CONTENT

3.1

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

84

Historically, the study of public administration as an independent field of

political science came about in the late eighteen century, when Woodrow
Wilson (1887), a constitutional lawyer and Kin near (1887), undertook and
made enquiry into the field of public administration. It is an infallible fact that
the British colonized Nigeria and that the institutionalization of the sphere of
influence by British on Nigerian territory took place in successive stages. When
Lagos was annexed in 1861, by 1862, the situation necessitated the
establishment of rudimentary public administration which was confined to the
Lagos colony then. No sooner had Britain settled in Nigeria, was a committee
constituted in 1865, on how public administration will be administered.
Goodrow (1890), states that the study of public administration commenced at
about 1940 or precisely after the 2nd World War He further stated that, Robert
Dahl, Fix Riggs, Fred Riggs, Sulton, David Easton, Davies are among the
leaders and pioneering scholars of public administration, However, the work of
Riggs is by far the most outstanding. His work on the concepts of the Sala
Model and the Prismatic Society study brought into view public administration
of the developing non-western countries.

3.2

APPROACHES OF THE STUDY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

There are various approaches to the study of public administration since the
inception of the concepts of public administration. These approaches are as
follows:
a.

The Historical Approach

b.

The Judicial or Legal Approach

c.

The Structural Institution

d.

The Behavioural or Administrative Approach

e.

The Scientific Approach.

3.2.1 Historical Approach of Public Administration

This approach sees public administration from the perspective of historical
development of events of a particular nations public service and administration.
In this approach, scholars of public administration are categorized into two
major groups. Those who have sound knowledge of public service and public
administration such as Woodrow Wilson, Frank Goodrow, a professor of
administrative law at Colombia University (father of American Public
Administration), F. W. Willoughby, Marshall Dimock, George Frederickson,
Orion White, Leonard D. etc. and those who are interested in neither public
85

service nor public administration such as the likes of Fredrick Taylor, Urwick,
Gulick, Herbert Simon, Max Weber etc. However, the latter are those without
sound knowledge of public administration, but are interested in the practical
nature of the discipline efficiency and effectiveness of public organization.
These groups of people however, are saddled with unveiling practical ways of
improving work performance. In Nigeria, for example, the origin of civil service
in Nigeria is traced to the administration of Lord Lugard who was governorgeneral and Head of administration at the time of amalgamation of the Northern
and Southern in 1914. However, the real nucleus of public service in Nigeria
evolved under Sir Hugh Clifford who succeeded Lord Lugard administration in
1921, with the establishment of a central secretariat in Lagos for administrative
practice. ( Anifowose and Enemuo, 1999)
In 1906, the New York Bureau of Municipal Research was founded to promote
efficient and economical municipal government and the scientific study of
municipal administration. This Bureau became a model, after the publication of
handbooks and materials on public administration. In 1911, a training school
was established for administrative practice (Simon, 1964)

3.2.2 The Judicial or Legal Approach

The judicial or legal approach is one of the oldest of all of the approaches to the
study of public administration since it became a distinctive field of study. The
pre-occupation of this approach is the statutory provisions or legal sanctions
upon which an administration is run. The Judicial approach tends to provide the
codes, norms and regulations on which public administration operates within
the confines of native authority and to the present modern day administration.
This approach elaborates and analyses all the instruments of laws, regulations,
sanctions, and penalties etc, required for the day-to-day running of any
organization. Examples of instrument of laws in modern organization are
government orders, civil service rules, financial memoranda, scheme of service
etc. Kin near (1887), stated that, the judicial approach of public administration
is the knowledge of the laws by which civil society is regulated. (Anifowose
and Enemuo, 1999). Goodnow (1952:103), the founder of administrative law
expressed that there are, then, in all governmental systems, two primary or
ultimate functions of government, which are the expression of the will of the
state and the executions of that will. These functions are, respectively politics
and administration. Goodnow (1893:47), states that in countries like the United
States of America and England, no serious attempt had been made to classify
the law in accordance with the relations upon which it is governed.
86

Administrative law is that part of the law which governs the relations of the
executive and administrative authorities of the government. The rule of law is
concerned with the functions of administration which is part of the
administrative law.
Self- Assessment Exercise
1. Explain the various approaches of the study of Public administration.
2. Which of these approaches is most appealing to you?
3.2.3 The Structural Institutional Approach
In this approach, policies are clearly separated from administration. The belief
is that the major role of the administrator is to implement the government
policies. This approach sees public administration as an academics field of
study, because it covers the political and administrative processes of an
institution. It is also concerned with the distribution of power among the levels
of government, public accountability, and planning of local government
administration, it analyses organizational structures and constituted authorities
and responsibilities of the three organs of government. However, the major
criticism against this approach is that it does not specify the role of individuals
and informal groups in structural organizations. Secondly, it fails to relate
public administration to both internal and external environment. The basic
ingredient of this approach is that, it maintains a link and separation of powers
amongst the three arms of government e.g. legislative, executive and judiciary
(Anifowose and Enemuo, 1999)
However, from the foregoing one could be able to deduce that the major
features of the structural/institutional approach of public administration are
planning, supervision and leadership, teamwork and group norms.
3.2.4 The Behavioural or Administrative Approach
This approach is concerned with the study of administrative attitude,
behaviours, actions and reactions, senses of reasoning of the decision makers
and policy planners. Mayo (1927), in one of his researches, stated the
importance of groups in affecting the behaviours of individuals at work. In this
approach, great scholars have made significant contribution to the concept of
behaviourism. Dahl (1995), states that, public administration must be viewed
and studied from the aspect of human behaviour. He further argues that to treat
organization in a formal and technical way and with regards human beings at
the organization as more or less materials are not desirable. He finally,
submitted that, the study of public administration should embrace the totality
87

of man and must not presume that man is a simple machine responding to goals
and self-interest. (Anifowose and Francis C. Enemuo, 1999)
Simon (1976), advocated the careful study of human behaviour, using
demonstrated techniques from the physical science. Such techniques are
Critical Path Analysis (CPA) Programme Evaluation Review Technique
(PERT), Game Probability Theory (GPT) etc. These erudite and great scholars
see decision-making as the heart of administration and how to understand the
behaviour of human beings in any organization. Behavioural contributions to
decision-making are very significant, it tells us that decision-making determines
the success or otherwise of any organization. Simeon (1976), identifies three
major stages in decision-making, these are: Intelligence, Design and Choice
activities. (Anifowose and Enemuo, 1999). Mayo (1927), a psychologist and
professor states that the study of public administration is basically concerned
with human beings and not machines, but that machines requires human
components to functions. His emphasis is on the effects of human beings on
production. He believes that human beings possessed certain components that
make them more efficient and hardworking in the discharge of his duties.
However, he came out with the following findings:
a.

There is no relationship between higher wages and increase in

production.

b.

There is non-economic reward and sanctions, but self-respecter, selfbelonging, etc.

c.

Workers do not react or act as an individual but rather as a group.

d.
The importance of leadership which constitute another
modification of scientific management. (Anifowose and Enemuo, 1999)

major

3.2.5 The Scientific Approach

Frederick Winslow Taylor (18561917), is regarded as the father of scientific
approach to the study of public administration. This approach is also referred to
as the machine approach. Taylor spent most of his working life at the Steel
Company. He started as a labourer and rose through the rank of a foreman to a
chief Engineer and later a consultant. His vision was to develop public
administration into a science from the principles of engineering and
management sciences, to the study of scientific methods in management in the
field of business and industry. However, Taylor believed that there is only one
best method which should be the scientific management principle he sees
man as an extension of the machine. His style of approach is seen today in
various expressions as Administration oils the machinery, the logs of the
88

business, a wheel within a wheel, and as the ex-obey. Taylor further states
that, the desire to increase production of goods and services is by motivating the
workers to work harder. He emphasized that the motivation of workers can be
achieved by adopting the bottom-up approach which is the decentralized
system of management. (Anifowose and Enemuo, 1999)
Fayol, (18411925) was also a contemporary of Taylor, he believes in the
distribution of work in a centralized management system. He believed that an
increase in production can best be achieved through division of labour rather by
motivation. In one of his book, titled General and Industrial Administration and
published in 1929, Fayols divided scientific management into a number of
functions: which are technical, commercial, financial, security, accounting and
management. He further stated that the job of the manager is to forecast and
plan, to organize, to command, to co-ordinate and control of human and
material resources. Other erudite scholars who contributed to the study of public
administration on scientific approach are the likes of Urwick, Luther Gulick,
and Professor Brit. However, in 1937 Gulick and Urwick, book titled papers
on the science of Administration introduce the process of scientific
management under the acronym POSDCORD (Planning, Organising, Staffing,
Directing, Coordinating, Recording and Controlling)

4.0

CONCLUSION

From the foregoing discussion, the approaches to the Historical Development of

the study of Public Administration are numerous. Wildrow Wilson articles of
1887, on the ability to scientifically undertake and make enquiry into the field
of public administration marks the beginning and approaches to Public
administration as scientific if separated from the hazard of politics. Some of the
pioneering scholars of public administration are Robert Dahl, Fix Riggs, Fred
Riggs Sutton, David Easton Davies etc. The approaches to the study of public
administration are Historical, Judicial, Structural Institutional, Behavioural
and Scientific Approach. Frederick Winslow Taylor is regarded as the father of
scientific management. His methodology and approach to management (one
best method) saw man as an extension of the machine. Henri Fayol, a
contemporary of Taylor believed that the distribution of work and an applied
centralized management system constitute the scientific approach to the study of
public administration.
5.0

SUMMARY

89

Historical development of public administration started in 1887. Frederick

Winslow Taylor and Henri Fayol made remarkable contributions to the history
and development of the study of public administration. The judicial approach is
adjudge the oldest of all the approaches to the study of public administration
because it holds the instrument of law for the dayto-day running of any
organisation. Intelligence, Design and Choice activities are the three major
stages of decision making. Scholars of public administration are categorized
into two, those with sound knowledge and those without sound knowledge of
public service.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT.

Question:
1. Identify the approaches to the study of Public Administration, and explain
any two that appeals to you most and why?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHERREADING.
Easton, D. (1965), A System Analysis Of Political Life; New York Wiley
Taylor,F.W (1917), Introduction To The Study Of Public Administration; New
York; Macmillan
Obiajulu Sunday And Obi Emeka Anthony (2004), Public Administration In
Nigeria, A Developmental Approach, Bookpoint Limited
Elton.M. (1927), Public Control And Administration; New York
Patrick Mbieli (2004), Public Administration, A Broad View, Megavons (West
Africa) Limited
Remi Anifowose And Francis C. Enemuo (1999), Elements Of Politics.
Malthouse Press Limited
Simon A. Herbert (1946), Approaches To Public Administration, Book Of The
Half Century 4th Edition

90

Victor Abia B. E (1998), A Ground Work Of Public Administration .Olucity

Printers Limited
Woodrow, W (1887), The Study Of Public Administration; Published In The
Political Science Quarterly

UNIT 9
PRINCIPLES OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Table of Content
1.0

Introduction

2.0

Objectives

3.0

Main Content
3.1

Henry Fayols Principles

3.2

Principles of Public Administration

4.0

Conclusion

5.0

Summary

6.0

Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0

Reference/Further Reading
91

1.0

INTRODUCTION

In the last section, you learnt about what Historical Development and
Approaches to the study of Public Administration are all about. This unit will
take you a step further on the principles of public administration. In this unit,
the Principles of public administration are concerned with efficiency of
services, worker welfares political direction, relation, and responsibility
soldering public institutions. The principles of public administration assist the
organisation towards the realization of goals and objectives. These principles
are sources of action, regulations and fundamental truths capable of guiding
human conduct, behaviour and performance. However, from the foregoing
discussion, one can be able to deduce that the principles of public
administration guide the management process of an organisation.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1. Enumerate the principles of Public Administration
2. Explain the basic principles of Public Administration
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 HENRY FAYOLS PRINCIPLES
The principles of public administration are referred to as the principles of
management. These principles can be examined from two different
perspectives, firstly from the management point of view and secondly, from
public administration view. However, both principles help to organise and direct
the affairs of Public administration.

92

Henri Fayol (1841-1925), Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915), and Lillian

Gilberth (1972), all made remarkable contributions to the approaches of the
study of Public administration. Fayol, popularly known as the Father of modern
Management until his death in 1925, approached Management from the upper
level administration throughout his 50 years worked experience making
researches on efficiency of workers in public services. He began his quest on
the principles of public administration as an administrative expertise, Industrial
Mining Executive, a Manager, General-Manager and finally, as a member of the
Board of Directors Fayol, as manager taught about the challenges the general
manager will encountered. He came-up with a logical conclusion that the
activities in an organisation could be divided into six essential groups, which
are:
a. Technical (Production, Manufacturing, Adaptation)
b. Commercial (Buying, Selling and Exchange)
c. Financial (Finding and Using Capital)
d. Accounting (Stock taking, Balance sheet, costing, Statistics)
e. Security (Protection of property and Persons Welfare)
f. Management (Planning,

Organising,

Controlling, Coordinating,

Directing)
Source: (Obiajulu and Sunday, 2004).
However, he states that these six essential groups do exist in all organisations
whether simple or complex but that, the first five are well known, the sixth
(management) required further explanation. However, his principles on public
administration were credited for being the first to identify the Functions of
Management as Planning, Organising, Coordinating, Controlling and Directing.
Fayol, contends that the six essential groups of activities are interdependent and
it is managements role to assure the smooth relationship of the sub-units of
management to achieve enterprise goals and objectives.

93

However, Fayol

formulated the 14 principles of management to guide the management process

in Organisations.
The Fourteen (14) Principles of Management are as follows:
1. Hierarchy: This means the pecking order of human influences in an
Organisation. It is the process by which power; function; position and authority
of an organisation are orderly distributed among the officers and positions in an
organisation with a view of maintaining an effective coordination of both
human and material resources. In essence, it means the level of graded authority
in an organisation, for example, in a university setup; authority and directives
comes from the Vice Chancellor, down the hierarchy to the lowest staff with
full compliance.

2. Authority: Means the same as power, it is the right to give orders. Authority
and responsibility go together, authority should not be considered without
reference to responsibility. Authority must come from the top of the hierarchy
e.g. Chief Executive, the Vice Chancellor, the Military, the Navy and others
Para-Military Operatives.

3. Unity of Command: Every staff must have a superior upon whom he takes
directives that is one man, one superior; no subordinate should report to more
than one supervisor at a time to avoid error. The principles of Public
administration presuppose that every member of an organisation should receive
orders and directives from one supervisor and the same goes on and on.

4. Chain of Command: In order to attainment the goals and objectives of the

organisation, there should be power and authority linkage. All operations with
the same objectives should have one manager with a common plan, for
example, the production manager should be abreast with information, and to
give directions to all matters on production of the Organisation.
5. Division of Labour: Means the same as specialization, it is a process of
narrowing down work in line with staff competency. The process permits
specialization of expertise. The process leads to higher productivity of goods
and services. It helps to develop practices and familiarity in an organisation.

94

6. Subordination of individual interest to general interest: This principle is

of the opinion that the interest of one individual or groups of individuals should
not take precedence over the interest of the organisation as a whole.
7. Remuneration: Wages for work done should be fair for both the employees
and the organisation. The organisation should consider the cost of living and the
ability to pay and motivate workers on performance.
8. Centralization: This is the extent to which authority is concentrated or
dispersed. Individual circumstances will determine the grade that will give the
best overall yield. The principle of centralization depends on the size and
quality of management in an organisation. However a good balance should be
maintained.
9. Scalar Chain: There should be a clear line of authority and directives from
the top level management e.g. the Chief Executive, Vice Chancellor, Minister
etc. to the lowest level of staff.
10. Order: In every organisation there should be in place some sense of order,
command and direction. Everything should have its place, the right man in the
right place and for the right job.
11. Equity: This is a combination of kindness and justice toward employees.
The work force of an organisation should be regarded as members of the same
family, guided by the same rules and procedure of the Organisation. All staff
should be free and treated the same irrespective of their race, culture etc.
12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel: Employees need to be given time to
settle with the job, though this may take a lengthy period in the case of
managers. Turnover of personnel should be minimised if the goals are to be
achieved.
13. Initiative: Within the limits of authority, all categories of staff should be
encouraged to show some level of inventiveness of their skills and potentials.
Subordinates should be allowed the freedom to conceive and execute plan in
order to develop their capacity to the fullest.
14. Espirit de Corps: This is the principle of oneness; it is regarded as the
father of all the Principles Management. Workers are made to understand that,
they are members of one family and through their level of team work and
unionism work towards achieving the organisational goals. It also emphasises
the importance of communication. However, this spirit is very high among the
Militaries and Para-Military and in others well organised Organisations and
Institutions. However, Fayol (1925) states that different situations may require
95

different managerial techniques. He therefore summarised this principles as

there is no rigid or absolutes in management affairs, it is all a question of
proportion. He further states that allowances should be made for changing
circumstances.
Self-Assessment Exercise:
1. Explain the essential groups of an Organisation.
2. Identify and explain the 14 Principles of Management.
3.2 Principles of Public Administration
This perspective of the principles of public administration believes that, public
administration as a true science of government has the capacity to organise and
direct human and material resources to achieve set goals, this perspective,
believed that the basic principles of public administration are as follows
(Mbieli, 2006)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Political Direction
Public Responsibility
Efficiency
Organisation
Research
Social Necessity
Public Relations

(a)
Political Direction: Public Administration as the youngest branch of
political science obtains instruction from the political will of the politicians in
providing essential services to the people. Political direction is instructions in
form of leadership role that is, commanding attention and stimulating
subordinates to achieve organisational goals. Public administration provides
political directions in terms of the broad policies and laws formulated at the
National and States Assemblies, and implemented by the administrative
executives of the Federal, State and Local public servants.
(b) Public Relations: This is concerned with informing and relating to the
public. Members of the public need to be enlightened about the affairs of
government. People should be well informed about policies and intentions of
the government. Public relations are concerned about the reactions of the people
to government policies, problems and possible solutions. The mass media has
helped to achieve these principles. The media through its agencies exposes daily
activities of the government, these include government ideology and intentions,
96

government budget, public office holders etc. public relation of the government
to the people and viz-a- viz are newspapers, radio, television, magazines, etc.
(c) Public Responsibility: People are elected into public offices as
representatives of the peoples interest. Public responsibility ensures the
exercise of certain power and authority in the execution of certain specified
duties and functions for the benefit of the people. It also stimulates the need for
accountability from the elected officers to the people.
(d)
Efficiency: For administration to be efficient in the discharge of its
duties, the personnel must have acquired knowledge to execute public
programmes and also to satisfy the needs of the society. Efficiency of public
servants can be achieved through pre-entry and in-service training programmes
for both the junior and senior cadre. These career developments are essentially
meant to promote efficiency of goods and services.
(e) Social Necessity: The call for public administration from political
science as a field of study is purely for effectiveness and efficiency of the
institutions of the government. The essence of public administration is in the
process of formulating and implementing public policy and providing the
citizenry with civil amenities as well as developing them socially, economically,
and politically.
(f)
Organisation: The activities of public administration are felt in the local,
state and federal levels. The organs of government are organised into
legislative, the executive and the judiciary. Public administration is organised
into hierarchy and auxiliary agencies which engages in different functional roles
within the organisational setup. Organisations whether formal or informal bring
human and material resources together for effective use and service to the
people.
(g) Research: Research means the process of investigating a problem. It is
the capacity to probe the known and the unknown. Research in administration
enables the organisation to grow and change with the law of nature. In public
administration, the essence of research is to makes amends and corrections of
the flaws in the past administrative records, and for improvement and
achievement of new ideas.
4.0

CONCLUSION

From the foregoing discussion on the principles of public administration, it

could be seen that the principles of public administration is concerned with the
essential tools of providing services, efficiency in production, delivery and
development of effective relationships staff in an organisation and also of the
97

elected office holders. The principles of public administration are also

concerned with the activities of the organisation which are technical,
commercial, financial, accountability, security, and managerial as stated by
Fayols. Management Principles of Administration are Hierarchy, Unity of
Command, Division of Labour, Scalar Chain, Authority, Remuneration,
Centralization, Equity, Order, Stability, Initiative, Stability of tenure of
personnel and Espirit de corps etc. The functions of Management are Planning,
Organising, Commanding, Coordinating and Controlling.

5.0

SUMMARY

In this unit you learnt about the essentials activities of an Organisation which
technical, commercial, financial, accounting security and management. The 14
Principle of Management guides the management process of any Organisation.
The Principles of Public administration are political Direction, Public
Responsibility, Efficiency, Organisation, Research, Social Necessary and Public
Relations. No organisation can achieve its goals without the applications of the
essentials of management.
6.0

7.0

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT.
Question:
1. List and explain the Principles of administration
2. Discuss five Henry Fayols principle that are applicable to the Nigeria
public service
REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Augustus Adebayo, (1981) Principles and practices of public administration,

Nigeria: spectrum Ltd
Bello, S. A, Ojodu, H. O, Ogunyomi, P.O, and Legbeti, P. (2004) Public
administration in Nigeria (revised edition) raamson printing services
Fayol, H (1925) Elements of management; new york, macmillian
Taylor,F.W (1917), Introduction to the study of public administration; new
york; macmillan
Ladipo, P.K.A and Omoyele, S. Olufemi (2003), Management theory and
practice, published by bt and associates, ilorin Nigeria.
Nwankwo, G.O. (1988) Education and training for public management in
Nigeria, Onitsha university publishing company
98

Obiajulu Sunday and Obi Emeka Anthony (2004), Public administration in

Nigeria, a developmental approach, bookpoint limited
Patrick Mbieli (2006), Public administration, a broad view. megavons (west
africa) limited

UNIT 10
COMPARISON OF PUBLIC AND PRIVATE ADMINISTRATION
Table of Content
1.0

Introduction

2.0

Objectives

3.0

Main Content
3.1

Meaning of Public and private Administration.

3.1.1 Meaning of Administration
3.1.2 Meaning of Private Administration
3. 1.3 Meaning of Public Administration

3.2

Features of Public Organization

3.3

Similarities between Public and Private Administration

4.0

Conclusion

5.0

Summary

6.0

Tutor Marked Assignment

7.0

References/Further Reading.

1.0

INTRODUCTION

In the last section you learnt about what the principles of public administration
are all about? This unit will take you a step further into the comparison of
public and private administration. In this unit, the focus is on the meaning of
99

public and private administration, the features of public organizations, the

differences between public and private administration, and the similarities
between public and private administration.

2.0

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

a.

Define public and private administration.

b.

Identify the features of public organization.

c.

Distinguish between public and private administration.

d.

Identify the similarities between public and private administration.

3.0

MAIN CONTENT

3.1

Meaning of Administration

Administration means the organization and direction of human and material

resources to achieve specific set goals and objectives. (Fayol, 1925) The
rudiment of administration is the coordination, evaluation and monitoring of
Organizations activities and programmes. Administration exists in all
Organisations whether public or private and for the purpose of effectiveness and
efficiency of services, ranges from schools Church/Mosque, Company,
Ministries, Extra-Ministries, Parastatals, the Arms of government, Corporations
etc. Administration exists in all these spheres of endeavours.
There are need for human and material resources to be administered, if the
Organisation is to attain its aim and objectives and also, of the aspirations of the
Organization. However, renowned scholars of Public administration like
Herbert Simon, Smith Burgh and Thompson believes that administration occurs
when two men cooperate to roll a stone; which none of them can move alone,
the rudiments of administration have appeared. Administration is concerned
with the capacity of coordinating many and other conflicting social energies in
single organisms (Simeon, 1976)
3.1.1 Meaning of Private Administration
100

There is no clear distinction between private and public administration. Private

administrations are concerned with the activities of private Organizations that
are not owned either jointly or principally by the government. Public
administration is concerned with rendering of services to the public.
Government policies and decisions have little or no impact on the affairs of
private Organisations except in areas of regulations and compliance to
government rules and regulations guiding their affairs. Whatever management
decisions are taken and policies implemented in private organizations they
belong to the realm of private administrations. Examples of Private
Organisations are Doyin Groups of Companies, Shell, Nestle plc. Chevron
Nigeria plc. Lever Brothers Nigeria Plc (LBN), Arthur Anderson and John Holt
Ltd. Private organisation s which provides essential services is concerned with
profit maximization and minimizing cost of productions. In some private
organisation their services are more effective and efficient and are highly
patronised by members of the public. Private organisation performs dual roles
which is, profit orientation and rendering of services. For example, the African
Independence Television (AIT), Silver bird Television (STV), TV Continental
(TVC), etc. render effective and qualitative eservices of entertainment,
informative, political, socio-economic and a lot of others in the communication
industries.
In private administration personnel are recruited the same way as in the public
section, Training and Development of staff can be internal or external as that of
public section but this depends on the type of organization and nature of
services required.

3.1.2 Meaning of Public Administration

The word Public Administration means the direct opposite of private
administration. It is the administration of government owned institutions. The
aims are for the provision of essential services to members of the public. Public
administration also means the same as public management or can be used
interchangeably. It can also be referred to as government administration or
public sector administration. In Nigeria, there are three levels of public
administration, which are:
a.

Federal Government Administration

b.

State government Administration

c.

Local Government Administration

101

Public administration could also be defines as the art and science of managing
government affairs, enforcing law and fulfilling public policy. Public
Administration is regarded as an art since it concerns with the practical
management of men and materials for public interest. And it is a science
because it concerns with the knowledge of the ways and methods for efficient
fulfilment of public policy. Early scholars regarded public administration as
potentially a science that would emerge as the result of hypothesis and research
findings. Woodrow Wilson (1887), referred public administration to the science
of executive methods from the confusion and costliness of empirical experiment
and set them on the foundations laid deep in principle. Charles A. Beard (1874),
maintained that public administration is a body of exact knowledge derived
from experience and observation (Simeon, 1976) Public administration can
never become an exact science, for it relates to human behaviour and the
cooperative activities of individuals in groups..
At first, the study of public administration was closely identified with the study
of law, since the primary task of administration is the execution of law and its
activities are circumscribed by law with ways and means of achieving
efficiency and economy in the management of governmental agencies and
human relations. Today the study of public administration has matured and is
closely identified with political science, which is the study of government. It
draws upon the other social sciences: Economics, Business Administration,
Sociology, Psychology and Social Psychology, Statistics, History and
Anthropology.

3.2

FEATURES OF PUBLIC ORGANIZATIONS

The features of organisation are the same for every organization in all parts
where public administration operates. The features of public organizations assist
organizations to attain effectiveness and efficiency of the goals and objectives
of such organisation.
The Features are as follows:
1.

Public Organisations serve as a link between the government and the

governed. Information is passed from the government to the people.
Public administration helps to link these two segments.

2.

Public Servants are not allowed to take part in partisan politics; this is so
because of the danger that the government which comes to power could
victimize public servants, who are not in the same party.
102

3.

Appointment, discipline, dismissal and promotion into the public services

are the responsibility of the Public Service Commission..

4.

Public Servants must be impartial in the discharge of their duties. Public

administrators should not be influenced by party feelings; they have been
barred from participating in politics. For instance, if a public servant is to
take part in politics by standing for election, he has to resign from service
before contesting for any political post.

5.

There is the principle of anonymity of public servants. Public

administration is carried out by public servants who do not receive any
credit or blame directly as they are acting on behalf of the ministers of the
various ministries. While the Minister defends himself against any
mistake and takes all the honours, he does not mention the name of any
public servant.

6.

Neutrality of Public Administration refers to the need for public servants

to protect the image of the government and without antagonizing the
activities of the governments.

7.

Organizational Structure. All public organizations should possess internal

structure that may be hierarchical in structure. They should also contain
chain of command, unity of control, etc. for efficiency and effectiveness
of such organizations.

8.

Public organizations are established through the Act of Parliament, with

Constitutional provision of their services to the three tiers of government.

However, from the foregoing, one could be able to deduce that the features of
Public Organisations can also be applied to private Organizations with little
exception where applicable.
Self-Assessment Exercise:
1. Explain the relationship between public and private Administration.
2. Identify the features of public Organisation

3.3 SIMILARITIES
BETWEEN
PUBLIC
ORGANIZATIONS OR ADMINISTRATION.

AND

PRIVATE

There exist some similarities between the public and private organizations: in
the conditions of service and other operations of these organizations.

103

1.

Both Organizations are guided in differing extent by government

Circulasr, Gazette, Bulletins, Constitution etc. The regulations ensure
both Organizations have an enabling environment to perform.

2.

Both Organizations may have similar conditions of service in terms of

pension and other welfare packages offered by these organizations.

3.

Both Organizations provide essentials services like banking services,

petroleum and oil supplies, telephone services, educational services, etc.

4.

Both Organizations source for personnel in the labour market, applicants

should the minimum qualification before recruitment into these
organizations.

5.

Both Organizations exist simply to render goods and services, profit

making and the satisfaction of the public through their various activities,
programmes and products etc.

6.

Both Organizations source for capital for operations either internally and
externally from the public through the sales of shares

7.

Both Organizations have one form of organisational structure or another

usually a hierarchical mode of operations, chain of command, division of
labour, professionalism etc.

4.0

CONCLUSION

From the foregoing discussion on the comparison of Public and Private

Administration, we can deduce that there exist some levels of similarities in the
performance of their duties. Both operate by coordinating and directing of
human and material resources. Public administration in government owned
organisations is mostly not for profit making, but for the provision of essential
services. Private organisations are purely established to provide goods and
services in a profitable manner. Both organizations have conditions of services
and source for personnel in a common market.

5.0

SUMMARY

In this unit, there exist some levels of differences between public and private
Organisations. The differences are mostly felt in the features of these
Organizations. Private Organizations are out for profit making irrespective of
the services rendered. The differences between public and private
administration are in the setting and formation of the Organizations. There also
104

exist some levels of similarities between the two organisations in terms of

conditions of service and other operations of these Organizations.

6.0

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Question:
1.

Differentiate between Public and Private Administration.

2.

What are the similarities between private and public organisations?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Anifowose Remi And Francis C. Enemuo (1999), Elements Of Politics, Malt
House Press Limited
Beard,C (1874) Introduction To Public Administration; Nym Press Limited.
Fayol, H (1925) Elements Of Management; New York, Macmillan
Ladipo, P.K.A And Omoyele, S. Olufemi (2003), Management Theory And
Practice, Published By Bt And Associates, Ilorin Nigeria.
Obiajulu Sunday And Obi Emeka Anthony, (2004), Public Administration In
Nigeria, A Developmental Approach, Book point Ltd
Mbieli Patrick, (2006): Public Administration, A Broad View. Megavons (West
Africa) Limited
Simon A. Herbert (1946), Approaches To Public Administration, Book Of The
Half Century 4th Edition
Victor, B.E. Abia (1998), A Ground Work Of Public Administration,. Olucity
Printing Limited
Woodrow, W (1887), The Study Of Public Administration; Published In the
political science quarterly

105

UNIT 11
ECOLOGY AND EVOLUTION OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN
NIGERIA
TABLE OF CONTENT
1.0

Introduction

2.0

Objectives

3.0

Main Content
106

3.1

Ecology of Public Administration in Nigeria

3.2

Public Administration in the Pre-Colonial Northern Region of

Nigeria
3.3

Public Administration in the Pre-colonial Western Region of

Nigeria

3.4

Public Administration in the Pre-Colonial Eastern Region of

Nigeria

3.5

The Organization Structure of Colonial Civil Services in Nigeria

4.0

Conclusion

5.0

Summary

6.0

Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0

References/Further Reading

1.0

INTRODUCTION

In the last unit you were informed about the features of public and private
organisations. This unit is on the Ecology and Evolution of Public
Administration in Nigeria. The focus is on Ecology and Evolution of Public
Administration in Nigeria. We shall look at the meaning of Ecology of Public
Administration as well as Public Administration, during the Pre-Colonial era of
the Northern, Western and Eastern Regions of Nigeria and the Organization
Structure of Colonial Civil Service in Nigeria
2.0

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

a.

Define Ecology of Public Administration in Nigeria.

b.

Explain Public Administration during the Pre-Colonia era in the

Northern, Western and Eastern Regions of Nigeria.

c.

Analyse the Organization Structure of Colonial Civil Service in Nigeria.

107

3.0

MAIN CONTENT

3.1

Meaning of Ecology of Public Administration in Nigeria

Ecology of public administration is concerned with the relation between people

(ways and manner of political administration) and the environment in which
they operate. Ecology of Public Administration can also be referred to the
influence of public administration by the environment. The concept of ecology
of public administration as a discipline, and field of study started in the late 18 th
century. It started with scholars from the United States of America and Europe.
The concept on the ecology of public administration varies in structure,
organizations and approach. Ecology of public administration also varies from
region to region due to human interrelationships and influence on the
environment. Evolution of public administration on the other hand, shown the
progression and trend it has made over time.
In Nigeria, the essential variables of the Ecology and Evolution of public
administration are the diversity of the people, culture, customs and traditions
which vary from one state to another. Each of the ethnic communities has their
peculiar style of administration in relations with the influence of the
environment. Furthermore the history of Islam and other religious practices has
great influence on the Ecology and Evolution of public administration in
Nigeria and other areas of the world. However, various forms of administration
existed in Nigeria during the pre-colonial period in Nigeria.
3.2

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN THE PRE-COLONIAL ERA.

3.2.1 Political Structure of Public Administration in Northern Region in

the Pre-Colonial Era.

SULTAN
EMIRS

DISTRICT HEADS
108

SARKIN DAWA

MAAJI

DONGARIS

Figure: 6.1 Structure of Public Administration in the Northern Region of

Nigeria:
Source: (Bello and Ojodu, 2004)
During the pre-colonial era, ecology and evolution of Public administration of
the Northern region was divided into three main functions which are:
1. Legislator: The Sultan of Sokoto, performs the role of the Legislator in the
whole of the northern region. As the overall head, he makes and enacts laws in
the whole of the Hausa/Fulani Empire.
2. Executive: The Emirs are the Chief Executive of the kingdom. They perform
the role of the executive. They are fully in charge of matters affecting the
property and life of the whole Hausa kingdom. They operate Islamic law
derived from Sharia
3. Judiciary: These are the Islamic lawyers vast with Islamic teaching; they
adjudicate and punish anyone that contravenes Islamic laws.
The Hausa and the Fulanis constitute the diversity of people in the Northern
region. The type of administration practiced in the Northern Region of Nigeria
during the pre- colonial era was a centralized system. The system was
successful due to the influence of Islamic jurisdictions and style of leadership
adopted. However, public administration in the northern region during the pre109

colonial era was easy. The Sultan and its kinsmen were in charge before the
advent of colonialism. The Sultan was at the apex of affairs with unquestionable
powers.

He has absolute control of power and authority of the traditional

administration of the northern region. His powers were equated to that of the
Governor-general, Sir Lord Lugard.
The Emirs are the Heads who ruled their domains or jurisdictions on behalf of
the Sultan. These emirs, head their domains and are accountable to the sultan
for effective and efficiency of administration. The kingdom was divided into
districts and governed by district head. Each unit of government had specialized
departments handling specific duties.
The Galadimas are in charge of the daily administration of the Northern region.
The treasury (internally generated revenue) was controlled by the Maaji, who
move all over the region. Internal security and maintainer of laws and order is
controlled by the Dongaris, they exercised the powers of the military and
performs police duties. The Alkalis were those who interpret and enforce the
laws; the alkalis are experts in Islamic jurisprudence and are Lawyers by
profession. The Sarkin-Ruwas are in charge of fishing and other related aquatic
activities in the region. The Sarkindawa are the officers in charge of butchers and
other related activities while the Madawaki are the commanders in charge of
Calvary (cemeteries) and other related activities. However, from the foregoing we
can deduce that powers and authorizes flow down the seat of power (the Sultan of
Sokoto) to the Madawaki, Wiziri and the Galadimas on the field. However these
lines of powers and authorities are strictly adhered to.
3.3 PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN THE PRE-COLONIAL WESTERN
REGION OF NIGERIA.
3.3.1 Political Structure of Public Administration in Pre-colonial Western
Region of

Nigeria.
ALAFIN
110

BASHORUN
(Prime Minister)

Figure 6.2
Structure of Public Administration in the Western Region of Nigeria:
Source: (Bello and Ojodu, 2004)
Ecology and Evolution of Public Administration in pre-colonial western region
in Nigeria was a mixture of Centralization and Decentralization of powers and
authorities. Six states constituted the Western region. There was a mixed
variation in the administrative system and governance of the Western region
unlike in the Northern region.
The system of administration was centralized because power and authority
come from the Alafin and decentralized because some groups of persons were
engaged in the removal of the centralized power in areas where these powers
and authorities have stronghold. The Alafin was fully-in-charge. He was the
political head and Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces. The Alafin was so
powerful that he was considered as next to God (Obikeze and Obi, 2003.)
with the cooperation of the Baales. He conquered villages and communities
within the region paid tributes to the Alafin. Subordinating the Alafin was the
Bashorun(Prime Minister) their power and functions are similar to that of the
Emirs in the Northern region. The Bashorun and Cabinet ministers administered
111

their domains on behalf of the Alafin. They head functional departments of the
Western region and are accountable to the Alafin.

The Oyomesi, are the

ordinary ministers whose major role is to check the excesses of the Alafin.
However, the Alafin could not rule without the full co-operation of his chiefs, if
his administration is autocratic, the chiefs could decide to depose him, and if
convinced of an offence they pass judgement on his office. The Aare Onakakanfo is in command and control of the Army. His role is equivalent to the
Dongaris of the Northern region, he exercised the powers of the military and the
police; he is in control and maintenance of laws and security of the region.
Other specialized departments of the Western region are the Native doctors,
Sooth Sayers, Diviners, Babalawos and the Orisa Priest (diviner) whom are
under the powers of the Aare Ona-kakanfo. However, the Alafin consults their
opinions for the way forward on the entire region. Any Oba (Alafin) that
defaults to carry the people along will be asked to commit suicide or to leave his
seat.

Self-Assessment Exercise:
1. Explain Public administration in Pre-Colonial Eastern Region of Nigeria
2. Comment on the Organisational Structure of the Colonial Civil Service.
3.4

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN PRE-COLONIAL ERA IN THE

EASTERN

REGION OF NIGERIA

3.4.1 Public Structure of Public Administration in Eastern Region in the

Pre-Colonial Era.
VILLAGE HEAD
(Okpara Title)
VILLAGE GROUPS
(Ozo Title)
AGE GRADES
112

SECRET
SOCIETIES

Figure: 6.3
Structure of Public Administration in the Eastern Region of Nigeria:
Source: (Bello and Ojodu, 2004)
Ecology and Evolution of public administration in the pre-colonial era of the
Eastern Region in Nigeria took a different scenario. The diffused system of
authority was described as fragmented (Obikeze and Obi, 2003). During this
era, political administration varied from one town to another and this undoubted
encountered major problems. The central government is a mixture of politically
equivalent units; such as village groups, towns lineages, age grades and secret
societies. Each head of lineage makes law for members of his lineage. Each
fragment head has full powers and control of the armed forces unlike the
Western and Northern regions. Each fragment had defined obligation in
communitys service. There is rivalry and power tussle among communities
over trivial issues and good will. The secret societies of the Eastern region were
valuable instruments of social control; there activities are not binding by law.
The eldest man in every family provides political and administrative powers. A
good number of families formed a lineage and every lineage is headed by the
most senior person. Head of all the lineages constitutes the elders of council;
the Okpara is the over-all head, he is the most senior person of the council of
elders. However, the most senior Okpara title holders are crowned with the Ozo
title and this automatically make them members of the elders council of the
Igbos Empire.
However, the Okpara has no power and authority on issues bordering the Igbo
Empire except those ones that affects his own lineage. The Okpara has no
supreme power unlike the Emirs and Oba of the Yorubas and Hausa kingdoms.
This is why the system was regarded as decentralized since each head makes
law for members of its own lineage, there is devolution of powers and
113

authorities in the Eastern region of the Pre-Colonial Era. However, the

Legislative and Executive functions where performed by the elders council,
while judiciary functions are performed by the age grade groups.
However, in some Igbo speaking states like Anambra is ruled by king. The
institution of chieftaincy was alien to them, religious leaders, warriors, village
heads combined to carry out the administration of the villages and to some
extent, vested with powers and authorities to exercise absolute control of these
areas. It was the absence of chieftaincy institution in the Eastern region that the
British had to create the warrant chief to administer the Igbo land like their
counterparts in the Northern and Western regions. However, the entire region
was divided into different lineages and each lineage is made up of families.

3.5

THE ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF COLONIAL CIVIL

SERVICE.
QUEEN

COLONIAL SECRETARY

GOVERNOR-GENERAL

PROVISIONAL COMMISSION

RESIDENT OFFICERS

DISTRICT COMMISSIONER

114
DISTRICT OFFICERS

Figure: 6.4 Structure of Colonial Civil Service

Source: (Bello and Ojodu, 2004)
In the organisational structure of the Colonial Civil Service, power and
authority come from the Queen of England; the Queen was fully in charge of
administration of the colonial civil service in Nigeria. She was commander in
chief, all powers and authorities are confined to the Queen. The Queen together
with the colonial Secretary in England makes and enacts law for the civil
servants. Her Legislative functions is strictly law making. Next to the queen is
the colonial secretary. He is directly accountable to the British cabinet and
Member of Parliament constituted by the queen. The Governor-general was
directly answerable to the colonial secretary who in turn fed the Queen with
information. The Governor-general acted as the representative of the Queen of
London. He exercised total control of power and authorities over the territories
they occupied. He accounts directly to the colonial secretary in London. The
provincial Commissioner acts as the Chief Secretary to the Governor-general.
They coordinate the activities of the Civil Service. This includes the
departmental (technical and professional) and political administration of the
territory.
Below the provincial commissioner were the resident officers, their major
function is to assist the provincial commissioner to initiate policies, participate
in legislation and to supervise the execution of re-enacted bills and approved
policies as directed by the Queen of London. However, the resident officers
operate from the central control of district Commissioners. The district
commissioners carried out their duties without deference to any clientele. The
district officers were the field officers, they are sometimes referred to as
Lieutenant-Governors. These set of officers do not administer to the people
115

directly instead, they ruled the people through the indirect rule system with the
aids of the Oba, Sultan and Obi. (Obikeze and Obi, 2003). However, whatever
changes

and transformation that

have

occurred

to

Nigerian public

administration, the legacy of the Colonial Civil Service had an enduring effect
on the character and structure of the Nigerian civil service.
4.0

CONCLUSION

From the foregoing discussion on Ecology and Evolution of public

administration in Nigeria, the origin of Civil Service administration in Nigeria
can be traced to the British during the pre-colonial era. The diversity of the
peoples culture, customs and traditions varied from one region to another.
Each ethnic community has a peculiar style of administration in relation with
their immediate environment. In the Northern region, the system of public
administration was centralized. The Sultan of Sokoto was in control of affairs.
The Alafin of Oyo Empire was in control of affairs of the Western region. The
region witness a mixture of centralization and decentralization of powers and
authorities. The Alafin cannot rule without the full co-operation of his chiefs.
The Eastern region, witnessed a different scenario. The system of administration
adopted was completely decentralized; there was devolution of powers and
authorities.
5.0

SUMMARY

In this unit, you learnt that Ecology and Evolution of Public administration are
concerned with human influences and the environment. The progression and
trends that have been made over time. The concept of Ecology and Evolution
varies from one region to another in term of structure, organizations and
approach. In Nigeria, the diversity of the people, culture, customs, and traditions
testifies to this. The essentials of Public administration in the Northern region
were mainly Legislative, Executive and Judicial. In the Western region, the
Bashorun was seen as the Prime Minister with so much power. Power and
authority in the Northern and Western regions was Centralised, while in the
116

Eastern region the system of administration practised was decentralised.

The Nigerian Civil Service structure is a legacy of the colonial Civil
Service of the pre-colonial era.

6.0

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1.

Define Ecology to Public Administration?

2.

Compare the system of Public Administration of the Northern and

Western Regions of the Pre-Colonial Era in Nigeria.

7.0

REFERENCE/FURTHER READING

Ademolukun, L. (1983), Public administration: a Nigerian comparative

perspective, Lagos, longman ltd.
Bello, S.A, Ojodu, H. O, Ogunyomi, P.O and Legbeti,P (2004), Public
administration system in Nigeria ,raamson printing service.
Obiajulu, Sunday.Obikeze and Obi, Emeka Anthony, (2004), Public
administration in Nigeria, a developmental approach. bookpoint limited
Mbieli Patrick, (2006) Public administration, a broad view. megavons (west
africa) limited

117

MODULE THREE
UNIT

12

PUBLIC POLICY
Table of Content
1.0

Introduction

2.0

Objectives

3.0

Main Content
3.1

Meaning of Public Policy

3.1.1 Features of Public Policy
3.1.2 Significance of Public Policy

3.2

Types of Public Policy

3.3

Components/Stages of Policy Making Process

3.4

Approaches to Public Policy Analysis

3.4.1 Political Systems Theory

3.4.2 Group Theory
3.4.3 Elite Theory
3.4.4 Functional Process
3.4.5 Institutionalism Theory
3.5

4.0

Roles of Public Administration in Policy Making

Conclusion
118

5.0

Summary

6.0

Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0

Reference/Further Reading.

1.0

INTRODUCTION

In the last unit, you have learnt about what public personnel management is all
about. This unit will take you a step further into the concept of public policy. In
this unit, the focus will be on the meaning and features of public policy, the
differences between public policy and decisions making, the components and
types of public policy, the various approaches to Public Policy analysis, the
roles and relationship between public administration and policy making process
in Nigeria.

2.0

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1.

Define Public Policy.

2.

Differentiate between Public Policy and Decision Making.

3.

List the types and components of Policy Making Process.

4.

Identify the various approaches to Public Policy Analysis.

3.0

MAIN CONTENT

3.1

MEANING OF PUBLIC POLICY

Noticeable scholars of public administration have made contributions on what

public policy is all about. The definitions of Thomas Dye, Patrick Mbieli,
Ikelegbe , James Anderson, Carl Friedrich, Theodore Lowi and a host of others
centred on a common concept. Policy is set of decisions put in place by
individuals and governments within a given society (Nwankwo, 1988). Dye
(1955), defines Public Policy as whatever governments choose to do or not to
do. There is a rough accuracy to this definition. Dyes definition portrays
policy as a single action instead of a course of actions with a well-defined
purpose. Dye explains public policy in terms of what government proposes to
do instead of what it actually does. Carl (1963), defines policy as a proposed
course of action of a person, group, or government within a given environment
providing obstacles and opportunities which the policy was proposed to utilize
and overcome in an effort to reach a goal or realize an objective or a purpose.
119

His definition contains the idea of policy as a course of action directed towards
the accomplishment of some purpose or goal.
James (1960), defines Policy as a purposive course of actions followed by an
actor or set of actors dealing with the problem or matter of concern. This
concept of policy focuses intention on what was actually done as against what is
proposed or intended, and it differentiates a policy from a decision, which is a
choice among competing alternatives. Public Policies are those policies
developed by governmental bodies and officials. The special characteristics of
Public Policies stem from the fact that they are formulated by authorities in a
political system. Examples of such authorities are The Provisional Ruling
Council, Armed Forces, Ruling Council, the Presidency, the Legislature,
Councillor etc. Mbiele (2006), defines Public Policy as the general statement of
the peoples intentions, goals and objectives with the adoption of workable
measures for the realization of targeted interests and satisfaction of needs.
Eyestone (1971), defines Public Policy as the relationship of the governmental
units to their environment. Dye (1955), also sees public policy as what
government choose to do or not to do. It is the integrated courses and
programmes of actions and practices in certain problem areas. Public policy is
simply governmental actions and programmes of action towards solving societal
problems. Policy is flexible and dynamic in nature and it differs from rules
which are specific and rigid. Policy is a conscious effort and it differs from
custom which springs from the land of the society. Policy is of a wider nature
having the goals, means and the end while decision is selection of one
alternative out of several alternatives.
It is pertinent to emphasize that policy consists of courses or patterns of action
by governmental officials rather than their separate decisions. For example, a
policy includes not only the decision to enact a law on some issue but also
subsequent decisions relating to its implementation and enforcement. Public
policy may be either positive or negative in form. A policy is positive, if it
involves some form of overt government action to solve a particular problem. It
is negative, if it involves a decision by government officials not to take action or
to do nothing on some matter for which governmental involvement is sought.
3.1.1 Features of Public Policy:
The features of public policy are:
a.

It is subject to constant changes that is, dynamic in nature.

b.

It utilizes opportunities and states how to overcome obstacles in

accomplishing a purpose.

c.

It is a course of action of activity of a person, group or government.

d.

It is an activity involving governmental and non-governmental actor and

factors etc.
120

3.1.2 Significance of Public Policy

Public policy is significant for the following reasons:
a.

It is an instrument for expression of the will of the people.

b.

It is a chief tool of the government.

c.

It develops the
administratively.

d.

It represents verbal, written or implied basic guide to all administrative

management actions.

3.2

TYPES OF PUBLIC POLICY

people

socially,

economically,

politically

and

Public policy varies from one sector to another. There are different types of
policies depending on different criteria of classification; there can be public
policy in the areas of Housing, Education, Health, Transport, Agriculture,
Industry etc. Policies can also be classified based on intent, operating process,
issues and clientele. However, Lowi (1964), classified Policies into three;
Distributive, Regulatory and Redistributive.
a.

Distributive Policies

These are policies relating to tariff or taxes and public and, allocation of public
amenities etc. Ikelegbe (1996), states that, distributive policies are those which
involve incremental dispersal, unit to different segments of the population and
to individuals and institutions, they are actually favours benefits or patronage
policies, dispensed to a small number of people. The dispersal is continual and
thus, those not favoured at one point may be accommodated through further
dispersal at some other time. One distinguishing attribute of distributive policies
is that it does not generate conflict among those seeking to benefit from the
policy. The main reason for this is that distribution is continual and those who
lose out initially are almost certain of gaining later (Ikelegbe, 1996)
In this type of policy, the decision maker is neither aware of all the alternatives
nor of their consequences. This condition is more rampant in real life situation
as most decision making are done under conditions of uncertainty. Here, the
decisions are based on the few alternatives known to the decision maker and his
limited knowledge of their consequences.

b.

Regulatory Policy

Regulatory policies are meant to control the activities of different groups in the
society. Regulatory policies are targeted at particular sectors and as such, they
121

generate tensions and even conflicts between competing sectors. The

government in the discharge of its duties of protecting the citizens has to issue
guidelines, rules and regulations that guide the conducts of various groups and
sectors of the society. Regulatory policies are made for victor and losers, a lot
of conflicts are usually involved since people dont like losing, people who lose
may not accept in good faith and they strive to change the policy to their favour.
Examples of these policies are Labour laws, import policies, financial regulation
and other government policies aimed at regulating business and the activities of
groups in society.
c.

Redistributive Policies

These are policies that tend to transfer resources from one sector or group to
another. e.g. revenues from the Oil sector to Health or Transportation sectors.
Redistributive Policies are government policies that favour a particular group to
the detriment of others to achieve equity or inequity. These types of policies
naturally generate conflicts and tensions. The beneficiaries of these policies are
quite easy to identify because the issue in question may involve class,
ideological, tribal, religious or geographical lines. Examples of these policies
are governments progressive tax policies, social welfare programmes and sect
oral allocation preference policies.
3.3

STAGES OF THE POLICY MAKING PROCESS

There are three stages in the policy making process, they are (a) Policy
Formulation (b) Policy Implementation and (c) Policy Evaluation.
A.

Policy Formulation

The process of policy formulation varies from society to society. In most

democratic societies today, the Judiciary and Legislature play a major role in
the policy making process. Individuals and groups are getting more and more
involved in decision making process. It is this realization that has given rise to
the concept of the pluralist theory of policy formulation. Others have argued
that instead of talking of pluralism, the dominant factor is the elite. In other to
balance the view of both the pluralist theory and the elite theory Lindblom
(1990), came out with what is called Partisan Mutual Adjustment, which
facilitates agreement among partisans on values and decisions. However in
policy formulation, public involvement is very important because it helps in the
implementation stage. People easily obey or accept polices they take part in
formulating than those forced on them.
The following are steps in Policy formulation process:
i.

Identification of the problem: What is a policy problem, what

makes it a policy problem, how does it get on the agenda of the
government?
122

B.

ii.

Development of alternative courses of action: How are alternatives

for dealing with the problem developed, who participates in policy
formulation, what is the cost implication of the proposed policy?

iii.

Analysis of alternative: Where the alternatives are critical analyse

for the best option.

iv.

Selection of one alternative/policy choice for adoption: How are

alternatives analysed, adopted and enacted, what requirements
must be met?

Policy Implementation

This is the critical stage in policy making process as it determines the overview
of the quality of the decision made. This stage is very sensitive and subject to
criticism. The quality of a policy is determined by its implementation, and not
how good it looks on paper. The 6 3 3 4 policy on education looks so good
on paper but how effective is it since inception? In Nigeria, it is well known fact
that, the ability to implement a policy is a big problem. However, policy
implementation centres on, who is involved, what is to be done to carry policy
into effect, what resources are available for policy implementation, what impact
does this have on policy content.
The following factors are considered when policies are to be implemented.
I.
Clarity and Specificity of Policy: Before policies are adopted for
implementation, the intention of such policies would have been known clear and
specific on a particular sector, item or purpose. Any policy that is not clear,
direct and specific in nature may be rejected by the masses. The interest and
opinion of the people have to be considered before implementing such policy.
The government should enlighten the people on public policies in order to enlist
their support and cooperation.
ii.
Implementation Organization: Before embarking on Programme
implementation there is supposed to be an appraisal of the institutional capacity
of the implementing organization to know whether the policy can be
implemented or not. Most government policies are not properly implemented
due to inadequate institutional capabilities which need to be created or to
upgrade the existing ones.
iii.
Identification/Assessment of the Target Group: Every policy
formulation has a purpose and target group once this has been achieved,
implementation of such policy takes centre stage. For instance, if a group has an
organized leadership, the government may decide to penetrate the group
through its leaders.
iv.
The Environment: The environment where the policy is to be
implemented must be taken into consideration. Some salient features within the
123

environment have to be considered for the success and failure of the policies. In
Nigeria, the enactment and implementation of Sharia law was restricted to few
states of the country because the peoples religion or way of life permits such
policies. The peculiarities of each location must be of much concern to the
policy implementation team.
C.

Policy Evaluation

Evaluation of policies can be done by the policy makers, the implementing

organ, members of the public and public policy analysts or experts. There are
some good techniques used in policy evaluation, these include the Cost Benefit
Analysis (CBA), the Cost Effectiveness Analysis (CEA), Management by
Objectives (MBO), Programme planning and Budgeting System (PPBS),
Programme Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT), and Zero Based
Budgeting (ZBB).
Self-Assessment Exercise:
1. Explain the Component of Policy Making Process.
2. Explain the factors to be considered for Policies Implementation.

3.4 APPROACHES TO PUBLIC POLICY ANALYSIS.

Theoretical approaches are relevant to public policy analysis in the sense that
they direct our attention to important political phenomena, help clarify and
simplify our thinking, and suggest possible explanations of the form and
outcome of public policy. The approaches in this unit include systems theory,
group theory, elite theory, functional process theory and institutionalism.
3.4.1.

Political Systems Theory

Public Policy may be viewed as the response of a political system to demands

arising from its environment. Easton (1965), states that the political system
theory, is composed of those identifiable and interrelated institutions and
activities in a society that make authoritative decisions (or allocations of values)
that are binding on society. Inputs into the system from the environment consist
of demands and supports for the policy. The environment consists of all those
124

conditions and events external to the boundaries of the political system.

Demands are the claims made by individuals and groups on the political system
for action to satisfy their interests. Support is rendered when groups and
individuals abide by election results, pay taxes, obey laws, and otherwise accept
the decisions and actions of the authoritative political system made in response
to demands. These authoritative allocations of values constitute public policy
(David, 1965).
The usefulness of systems is limited by its highly general nature. It does not say
much concerning how decisions are made and policies developed within the
political system. Despite these limitations, systems theory is a useful concept in
organizing inquiries into policy formation. It also gives alerts of some
significant aspects of the political process, such as: How do environmental
inputs affect the content of public policy and the nature of the political system?
How does public policy affect demands for action? What factors or forces in the
environment act to generate demands upon the political system? How is the
political system able to convert demands into public policy and preserve itself
over time.
3.4.2 Group Theory
Group theorists perceive the political system as a gigantic network of groups in
a constant state of interaction with one another. This interaction takes the form
of pressures and counter pressures, the outcome of which defines the state of the
political system at any given time. A group may be defined as an aggregate of
individuals who interact in varying degrees in pursuance of a common interest
(David, 1965). Examples of groups are Trade unions, Cooperatives, Business,
Ethnic and Religious Organizations; institutional interest groups such as
Legislatures, Bureaucracies, Political parties, the Military, Churches etc. There
are also interest groups in the form of spontaneous and eruptive aggregations
such as riots, demonstrations and other manifestations of mob activity. A group
becomes a political interest group when it makes claims through or upon any
125

institutions of government. This group believes that public policy is the product
of the group struggle. From this perspective, public policy is the equilibrium
reached in the groups struggle at any given moment, and it represents a balance
which the contending factions or groups constantly strive to weigh in their
favour. Public Policy at any given time will reflect the interests of dominant
groups. As groups gain and lose power and influence, public policy could be
altered in favour of the interests of those gaining influence against the interests
of those losing influence.
Limitations of Group theory
Even though it focuses attention on one of the major dynamic elements in
policy formulation in pluralist societies, group theory seems both to overstate
the importance of groups and to understate the independent and creative role
that public officials, political leaders, institutions and ideas play in the policy
process. Group analysis has traditionally assumed that individuals are bound
together in order to enhance their chances of obtaining a common goal or good.
Implicit in this reasoning is the assumption that groups pursue their self-interest
in the same manner as individuals seek their self-interest. (Olson, 1997) Shown
in his Theory of Collective Goods is that individuals within large groups will
not ac t to achieve the common or group interest. This conclusion is based on
the premise that individuals act rationally and in their own self-interest.
However, Olson (1997) states that, If the members of a large group rationally
seek to maximize their personal welfare, they will not act to advance their
common or group objectives unless there is coercion to force them to do so, or
unless some separate incentive, distinct from the achievement of the common or
group interest, is offered to the members of the group individually on the
condition that they help bear the costs or burdens involved in the achievement
of group objectives. Despite these limitations, real or perceived inter-group
hostilities and struggles have sometimes been exploited in the process of

126

colonial

or

neo-imperialist

penetration

of

political

systems

in

the

less/technologically developed countries.

3.4.3Elite Theory
The fundamental perspective of the elite approach is summarized by the
assertion that all political systems are divided into two strata those who rule
and those who are ruled. The rulers are labelled the political elite, and these elite
are the most significant aspects of any political system. The political elite are
that group which possesses most political power and which makes most
important political decisions in a society. The elite group is composed of
minority individuals who are most active in political affairs. By focusing
analysis upon this particular group within the political system, one can best
understand the processes of political life. However, one can deduce that public
policy can be regarded as the values and preferences of governing elite. The
essential argument of elite theory is that it is not the people or the masses who
determine public policy through their demands and action; rather public policy
is decided by ruling elite and carried into effect by public officials and their
Organizations.
Basic Elements of the Elite Theory
(a)

Society is divided into few, who have power and the many who do not.

Only a small number of persons allocate values for society; the masses do not
decide public policy.
(b) The few who govern are not typical of the masses that are governed. Elites
are drawn disproportionately from the upper socio-economic strata of society.

127

(c)The movement of non-elite positions must be slow and continuous to

maintain stability and avoid revolution. Only non-elites who have accepted the
basic elite consensus can be admitted to governing circles.
(d) Elites share a consensus on the basic values of the social system and the
preservation of the system. In the United States, for example, the elite
consensus includes private enterprise, private property, limited government, and
individual liberty.
(e) Public policy does not reflect demands of the masses but rather the
prevailing values of the elites. Changes in public policy will be incremental
rather than revolutionary.
(f) Active elites are subject to relatively little direct influence from apathetic
masses. Elites influence masses more than masses influence elites.
Elite theory focuses attention on the role of leadership in policy formulation and
on the fact that in any political system a few govern the many. However, the
crucial issue of the participation of the masses in policy formulation depends
upon the types of regimes in power.
3.4.3 Functional Process Theory
Another way to approach the study of policy formulation is to focus on the
various functional activities that occur in the policy process. Lasswell (1954),
presents a scheme involving seven categories of functional analysis that will
serve as the basis for our discussion:
i.

Intelligence: How is the information on policy matters that come to the

attention of policy makers gathered and processed?

ii.

Recommendation: How are recommendations (or alternatives) for dealing

with a given issue made and promoted?

iii.

Prescription: How are general rules adopted or enacted, and by whom?

128

iv.

Invocation: Who determines whether given behaviour contravenes rules

or laws and demands application of rules or laws thereto?

v.

Application: How are laws and rules actually applied or enforced?

vi.

Appraisal: How is the operation of policies, their successes and failures

appraised?

vii.

Termination: How are the original rules or laws terminated or continued

in modified or changed from?

The scheme of analysis is not tied to particular institutions or political

arrangements and lends itself readily to comparative analysis of policy
formation. One can inquire how these different functions are performed, to what
effect, and by whom in different political systems or government units.
However, its emphasis on functional grounds may lead to neglect of the politics
of policy formulation and the effect of environmental variables on the process.
Obviously, policy formulation is more than an intellectual process.
3.4.5 Institutionalism Theory
The study of government institutions is one of the oldest concerns of political
science. Political life generally revolves around governmental institutions such
as Legislative, Executive, Courts, and political parties. Public Policy is initially
authoritatively determined and implemented by government institutions. Even
though earlier studies of institutions tended to place emphasis on formal and
structural aspect, they could be usefully employed in policy analysis. An
institution is a set of regularized patterns of human behaviour that persist over
time. As such they can affect decision making and the content of public policy.
Rules and structural arrangements in organizations are not usually neutral in
essence; they tend to favour some interests in society over others, some policy
results rather than others.

129

3.5 Roles of Public Administrators In Public Policy Making In Nigeria

The role of public administrators in policy making in Nigeria varies with the
regimes in power.
The First Civilian Regime (1960 1966)
i.

Permanent Secretaries were Heads of the various Ministries and

assisted in the development of policies and plans and the
determination of the means of their implementation.

ii.

Top Civil Servants (in theory) are to advice the ministers on policy
issues by preparing a list of possible policy options from which
ministers preferred option.

iii.

Ministers relied vary greatly on technical expertise of civil servants

for development of policies, the reasons is because Party
bureaucracies could not deal with development of policies.

iv.

Permanent Secretaries could go for briefings with the Prime Minister

when they felt that a wrong policy decision was about to be taken by
the Minister or Cabinet.

The Military Regimes (1966 1979)

i.

The military rely too heavily on public servants for advice on policies,
simply because they are not trained in the art of government.

ii.

Under military regimes, Permanent Secretaries were accountable to and

advised Commissioners, the Federal Executive Council, the Supreme
Military Council, and sometimes the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed
Forces, for example the top civil servants advised against the ratification
of the Aburi accord.

iii.

The increased political role of the civil servants brought them into
limelight as a political interest group. Thus, the Murtala Mohammed
regime embarked on the historic purge of 1975 in which about 11,000

130

civil servants were fired or retired from the service. He blamed public
administrators, for the indecision of the Gowon Regime.
The Civilian Presidential Regime
i.

Top civil servants were accountable to the politicians under the civilian
regimes the President and Vice-president, the Ministers, and Special
advisers to the President and the Legislature.

ii.

Public

Servants

had

indirect

influence

on

the

initiation

and

implementation of policies because of their possession of technical

expertise.
4.0

CONCLUSION

From the foregoing discussion on public policy, we can deduce that Public
policy is the bedrock of any government whether military or civilian. It is what
differentiates one government from another. The programmes and projects of
the governments are usually derived from the policies. This therefore makes the
development of policy management skills necessary for both public servants
and public office holders. A bad policy can make a government loose an
election. It is therefore important that public policy formulation process should
include a very robust consultation stage which will enable all the ramifications
of the policy to be considered
5.0 SUMMARY
Public policy means the general statement of the peoples intentions, goals,
objectives and decisions put in place by individuals and government within a
society. Public policy refers to government actions and programmes towards
solving societal problems. Policy can either be analysed as positive where the
impact is felt and accepted and negative where the people react negatively.
Policies are supposed to be flexible and dynamic in nature and not rigid.
Policies are significant in that they of help to develop the people socially,
economically, politically and administratively. Policies can be classified into
Distributive, Regulatory and Redistributive and these can further be classified
as Broad, Specific and General Policies. The stages of policy formulation
process are Formulation, Implementation, and Evaluation. These processes
vary from one sector or society to another. The approaches of public policy
131

analysis are systems, group, elite, functional and institutionalism theories. The
oldest of public policy is the institutionalism theory which activities and
concerns revolve around governmental institutions. The roles of public
administrators in policy making in Nigeria vary with the regimes in power.
6.0

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1.

a.

Define Public Policy.

b.

List and explain the types of policies

2.

List and discuss the approaches to public policy analysis.

7.0

References/Further Reading

Anderson, James E. (1960), Public Policy Making; New York, Mcgraw

Hill.Easton,
David (1965), A System Analysis Of Political Life; New York, Wiley
Eyestone, R (1971), Public Administration; Decision Making Books; New
York, Macmillan
Friedrich, Carl J. (1963) Man And His Government, New York Mcgraw Hill.
Ikelegbe, A. O. (1996) Public Policy Making And Analysis, Benin; Uri
Publishing Ltd
Lasswell, H. D (1954), Public Administration; New York; Meridian Books
Lindblom, C. E (1990), The Science Of Muddling Through; Public
Administration Review
Nwankwo G. O. (1988) Education And Training For Public Management In
Nigeria, Onitsha; University Publishing Company
Obiajulu, Sunday O And Obi, Emeka (2004) Public Administration In Nigeria;
A Developmental Approach. Bookpoint Limited
Olson, M. (1997), The logic of collective action in bill, comparative politics: the
quest for theory
Patrick Mbieli, (2006) Public administration a broad view. megavons (west
africa) limited
Thomas, Dye R. (1955) Understanding public policy, Englewood cliffs, n. u.
prentice hall 2nd ed.
132

UNIT 13
THE CONCEPT OF THE CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER (CEO)
Table of Content:
1.0

Introduction
133

2.0

Objectives

3.0

Main Content
3.1

Definition of the Chief Executive Officer (CEO)

3.2

Types of Chief Executive Officer

3.3

Responsibilities of Chief Executive Officer

3.4

Roles and Functions of the Chief Executive Officer

3.4.1 Roles of the Chief Executive Officer
3.4.2 Functions of Chief Executive Officer

4.0

Conclusion

5.0

Summary

6.0

Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0

Reference and Further Reading

1.0

INTRODUCTION

In the last section, you have an idea about what public policy is all about. This
section will take you a step further into the Concept of the Chief Executive
Officer. In this unit, the focus is on the Chief Executive Officer, we shall be
looking at meaning and concepts of the Chief Executive Officer. The Chief
Executive Officer (CEO) is the term used for the Head of an organisation both
in the public and the private sectors. This unit will discuss the responsibilities,
roles and functions of the Chief Executive Officer. In the public service, the
(CEO) comes under the nomenclature: Minister, Director General, Chairman,
Commissioner or Managing Director.

2.0

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

134

a.

Define the Chief Executive Officer.

b.

Identify the roles and responsibilities of the Chief Executive Officers.

c.

List and explain the functions of the Chief Executive Officer

3.0

MAIN CONTENT

3.1

DEFINITION OF THE CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER (CEO)

The Chief Executive Officer is an administrator, Head and Coordinator of all

the activities in an organization. The Chief Executive Officer can be found in
the following sectors e.g. educational, financial institutions, Company,
Industries, firm or corporate establishments etc. He is a diplomat of his
Organization. The Chief Executive Officer is at the top of the management
team, and exercises full powers, authority and control over its subordinates
(Lawal, 1993)The Chief Executive Officer directly or indirectly gets involved in
all the major functions or activities of the Organization. He/she is basically
responsible for formulating the goals of the organization with the aids of the
management in place. Before any meaningful decisions about what, where and
how resources would be put into use, the (CEO) must ensure that they are
carefully and logically made after considering various alternatives. For his
subordinates to accomplish the set goals of the Chief Executive Officers they
must have common interest, to actualize the objectives of the Organization, they
must be professionals or technocrats in their various fields and be able to work
with minimum supervision.
The Chief Executive Officer must bear in mind staff welfare, customers
interest and the achievement of the goals and objectives of the Organization. In
the public service, the Ministers at the Federal and Commissioners at the state
levels could be referred to as the Chief Executive Officers because they are fully
in-charge or they occupy the apex position in their various ministries or
department; they exercise full powers, authority and control over their
subordinates, even though they occupy elective positions. Stewart (1967),
believes that a CEO is one who has the capability to achieve results through
135

other people by instructing, controlling, influencing, guiding and persuading or

a mixed of these in a particular situation. From this definition, we can deduce
that the Chief Executive Officer is an achiever. In private organizations, the
CEO is best described as an achiever only when the organization is profitable
irrespective of the qualities of services offered. In the public service, the
effectiveness and efficient of the resources by the administrators or civil
servants determines if the Chief Executive Officer is an achiever or not.
Abrogated Decree 43 of 1988 made the Minister both the Chief Executive and
Accounting Officer. This is one of the major changes in the civil service
structure of 1988. The position of Chief Executive Officer is the highest rank in
any Organization whether private or public service. He is in charge of job
description of his personnel; he determines salary schedules and grade of staff,
and takes full responsibilities of the resources (Human, Material and Finance) of
the Organization. In the public service, a Minister who occupies the position of
the Chief Executive take charge and responsible for the resources of a ministry.
He is the person entrusted with the responsibility of the operation and functions
of the ministry. In the private Organisation, the Chief Executives are the
Managing Director (MD). But in the Public Service, a Minister is the Chief
Executive officer (MD). He is accountable to the presidency. He acts as the
Operational Head of Administration and reports to the President directly, he
take decisions on the implementation of government policies.

The Chief

Executive Officer receives all types of information. He initiates changes where

necessary and establish organizational goals, he formulates strategies in
implementing these goals and spent more time in policy formulation
3.2

TYPES OF CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER

Stewart (1967), Outlined the following types of Chief Executive Officers.

a.

The Emissaries: These are the Chief Executive Officers who spend most

of their time outside their designated office. They work mostly as administrators

136

and delegate the main responsibilities of their jobs to competent subordinates

(with close supervision).
b.

The Committee Man: These are the Chief Executive Offices who spend

most of their time in attending meetings outside the Organization. They work
mostly, on contracts and exist mainly in large Organizations. They also delegate
most of their responsibilities to competent hands just like the Emissaries.
c.

The Writers: These are the Chief Executive Officers who spend most of

their time in writing, reading, and dictating. Their working days are shorter
compared to the Emissaries and Committee Man. These Executives are staff
specialists who rise to become the Chief Executives.
d.

The Trouble Shooters: These are set of Chief Executive Officers who

spend most of their time coping with crisis outside the Organization. Their
working days are also fragmented.
e.

The Discussers: These are the Chief Executive Officers who spend most

of their time discussing and negotiating with other groups for the progress of the
Organization, they are involved in diverse ranges of activities.
3.3

RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER

(CEO)
The following are the major responsibilities of the Chief Executives Officers:
1.

He/she ensures that their subordinates are well motivated, activated and
trained with the set standard of the Organizational goals.

2.

He/she is responsible for disseminating information to all sectors

(Internally & Externally) of the Organisation.

3.

He/she is responsible for monitoring the environment for a variety of

special information required for adequate understanding and exploitation
of the environment.

4.

He/she is responsible for taking corrective actions and decisions when the
need arises.
137

5.

He/she is responsible for allocating organizational resources of all kind

e.g. Money, Human and Materials Resources.

6.

He/she searches and explores the Organizational environment for

opportunities, such as improvement of projects that would bring about
change in the society.

Self-Assessment Exercise:
1. Explain the responsibilities of the Chief Executive Officer.
2. Enumerate the types of the Chief Executive Officer
3.4

ROLES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE CHIEF EXECUTIVE

OFFICER
3.4.1 The Role of the Chief Executive Officer
The basic role of the Chief Executive Officer of any organization is that, he is
the Chief Accounting and Budgeting Officer. He needs to use the available
resources judiciously. As the Chief Accounting Officer, his major role is to
approve Budget plans, and to achieve the goals of the Organization. He makes
estimate of costs and benefits of a project before the Organization can embark
on such project. He will be responsible for both success and failure of the
Organization. However, Mintzberg (1973) believes that, the roles of the Chief
Executive Officer can be divided into three categories (1) Interpersonal Role (2)
Informative Role and (3) Decisional Role.
1.

Inter-personal Role: The Chief Executive Officer is responsible for

ensuring that the policies of the Organization are clearly interpreted and
implemented. He acts as a figurehead, a symbol of legal authority, handling
ceremonial duties etc. As a leader, he liaises and motivates his subordinates; he
serves as link in the communication chain. The Chief Executive Officer is the
person entrusted with responsibilities of the operation of the Organization and
usually the Managing Director (MD) in a private enterprise.

138

2.

Informative Role: The Chief Executive Officer serves as a nerve centre

receiving all types of information. He acts as a spokesman, monitors and

disseminates information. He initiates changes within the Organization.
3.

Decisional Role: The Chief Executive Officer is responsible for

resources (Money, Human and Material) which are critical inputs into the
management of the Organization. He acts as a disturbance handler, arbitrating
labour conflicts. He establishes Organizational goals, formulates strategies for
existing goals and spends more time in policy formulation. He/she acts as the
operational head of the management team and reports to the Board of Directors,
the results of his implemented policies, programmes and projects.
3.4.2 Functions of the Chief Executive Officer (C.E.O)
The Chief Executive Officer performs daily essential and routine functions such
as:
1. He/she makes complex decisions and delegates functions to qualified and
competent subordinates of the Organization.
2. He/she determines goals and set priorities through others to achieve
results.
3. He/she has a conceptual and analytical view, he/she is a diplomat and
communicate with his employer, employee and government if need be to
move the Organization forward.
4.0

CONCLUSION

From the foregoing discussion on, the Chief Executive Officers (CEO) are the
heads and coordinators of the activities of any organisation whether public or
private. He/She is responsible for formulating policies, and supervised
implementations of duties assigned. In the Public Service Ministers,
Commissioners, Directors General and Councils Chairmen are Chief
Executives. The responsibilities of the Chief Executives are to Decisionmaking; Monitoring, Disseminating and allocation of organisational resources.
The roles of the Chief Executive Officer are divided into, Interpersonal,
Informative and Decision-making.
5.0

SUMMARY
139

The Chief Executive Officer is an administrator who is fully in charge and

control of the activities of an Organizational. They formulate and supervise the
implementation of the policies within their Ministries. Their duties are
categorized as planning, communicating; controlling, staffing, directing etc.
They act as the Operational Heads of Management and reports directly or
indirectly to the Board of Directors in the case of Private organisations and to
the Presidency in Public Service. The Chief Executives are after the attainment
of Organisational results.

6.0

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1.

Explain the Concept of the Chief Executive Officer.

2.

Identify the Roles and Functions of the Chief Executive Officer.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Abari, A.O And Mohammed, M.O.B (2006), Fundamentals Of Educational
Management, Babs- Olutunji Publisher, First Edition
Bello, S.A, , H. O, Ogunyomi, P. O And Lagbeti, P (2004), Public
Administration System In Nigeria, Raamson Printing Services.
Lawal, A. A. (1993) Management In Focus, Abdul Industrial Enterprises,
Lagos.
Mintzberg, Henry (1973),The Nature Of Managerial Work (New York: Harper
& Row).
Patrick Mbieli, (2006) Public Administration, A Broad View, Megavons (West
Africa) Limited
Stewrat, L. (1967), Public Administration; Changing The Constitution; New
York, Macmillan Coy
Yahaya A. D. Akinyele C. 1ed. (1990).New Trends In Personnel Management;
A Book Of Reading, Ascon Personnel Management Series.

140

UNIT 14

THE FUNCTIONS OF THE CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER (CEO)

TABLE OF CONTENT:
1.0

Introduction

2.0

Objectives

3.0

Main Content

3.1 Functions of the Chief Executive Officer

3.1.1 Planning and Decision-Making
3.1.2

Organising

3.1.3

Staffing

3.1.4

Planning

3.1.5

Controlling

3.1.6

Directing

3.1.7 Communicating
4.0

Conclusion

5.0

Summary
141

6.0

Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0

Reference and Further Reading

1.0

INTRODUCTION

In the last section, you had an idea about what the Chief Executive Officer does.
This unit will take you as step further into the functions of the Chief Executive
Officer. In this unit, the focus will be on the detailed functions of the Chief
Executive Officer (CEO) which are Planning and Decision making, Organising,
Staffing, Planning, Controlling, Directing and Communication. These functions
are universal and are performed by all CEOs whether in the private or public
sectors.
1.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1.

Identify the duties of the Chief Executive Officer

2.

List and explain the Processes of Decision making

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1Functions of the Chief Executive Officer
The duties of the Chief Executive Officer are related in functions, these
functions are also called management functions. They are: (a) Planning and
Decision-making (b) Organizing (c) Staffing (d) Planning (e) Controlling (f)
Directing (g) Communicating
3.1.1 Planning and Decision Making.
Planning and Decision-making are part of the functions of management, all
management actions depend on decision making. Decision-making is the
rationale behind the success of an organisation. Most Executives are rated on
the basis of the quality of planning and decisions they make in their
Organizations. Decision-making is the selection of an alternative course of
action from among various alternative courses of action. The decision-making
142

process is the chain of events involved in identifying, analysing and choosing

the best alternative from among many causes of action (Simon, 1976)
Decisions are made to tackle problems that arise in the course of an
organizations business. Making good decisions demand that the decision-maker
should have good understanding of the consequences before choosing the best
alternative that can effectively solve the problem. Decisions are of two types,
the programmed and non-programmed decisions. Programmed decisions are
made to solve structured problems.

A structured problem is one that is

recurring and can be solved by the application of rule. Non-programmed

decisions are used to solve unstructured problems, which are problems that do
not occur often and as such have no procedure to be used in solving them.
Examples of non-programmed decision are an organizational expansion
scheme, introduction of new product lines etc. details of decision making and its
processes are well explained in the next unit (Simon, 1976).Decision making
also takes place under three (3)different conditions:
a. Decision-making Under Certainty: Under this condition, the decisionmaker knows precisely all the available alternatives and the consequence
outcome. Once he is sure of the certainty of the alternative, he makes the right
decisions because he is already sure of the result.
b.

Decision-making under Risk: Under this condition, the decision-maker

makes decisions based on probability and should be ready to face the

consequence of the alternatives, if his analysis works he gains and visa-versa.
c.

Decision-Making Under Uncertainty: Under this condition the

decision-maker is neither aware of all the alternatives nor of their consequences.

This condition is more rampant in real life situation as most decision-making is
done under conditions of uncertainty. Here the decisions are based on the few
alternatives known to the decision-maker and his limited knowledge of their
consequences. The steps to be taken in Decision-making are identification of
problem, identification of alternative course of action, evaluation of alternative,
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selection of best alternative, implementation of best alternative and follow-up

(Simon, 1976)
3.1.2 Organizing
Organizing suggests orderliness. It is the instrument by which people get things
done. Organizing means that the Chief Executives has to set out the formal
structure of authority and flow of work in such a way that, the work in the
various sub-divisions, sections and branches are carefully arranged; clearly
defined and effectively coordinated in order to accomplish the objectives of the
Organization. Organizing applies not only to business organizations but also to
government, educational, religious Organisations etc. (Akinyele, 1990) .If an
Organization is run smoothly, it may seem to an outsider that the whole process
is relatively simple. Organizing helps in coordinating, that is, blending efforts of
all members for an efficient and effective result within Organizations.
Organizing also means the process by which Chief Executives strives to achieve
Organisational objectives by combining the efforts of the people under their
supervision for the success of the Organization.
Process of Organizing
The processes of Organizing are:
(a).

Departmentalization of the operating task to be performed.

(b).

Establishing the authority relationship among those who will, be

performing the tasks.

Decentralizing the managerial work, and

(d).

Determining the overall organizational structure.

Departmentalization, deals with the horizontal dimension of an Organization

structure and it is the process of rationally grouping the work necessary to
achieve the goals of the Organization through cooperation and coordination of
the different sections or departments. The process of departmentalization takes

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place at all levels in an Organization, and in most cases, the activities are
grouped as follows:
(1)

By Function: The primary task to be performed by each department

e.g. marketing, production, accounts etc.

(2)

By Process: This is a specialized functional departmentalization;

similar activities are grouped into one department e.g. painting,
manufacturing and assembly departments.

(3)

By Geographical Areas: This is where all the organizational

activities within a region or location are brought together and
integrated into a single unit.

(4)

By Products: This is where associated products or sources are

grouped together or departmentalized. E.g. products like cosmetics,
diaries, beverages are grouped together into separate units.

(5)

By Customer: This is found in sales operation where some customers

are given special treatment e.g. large customers (wholesaler) are
treated differently from the smaller customers (retailers).

(b)

Establishing Authority Relationship: The Chief Executive Officer

must have an understanding of who is supposed to do what, before a managerial

team is organized. In establishing authority relationship, the specific
responsibility or work load of the individual must be clearly defined or outlined
in the organization. Authority relationships are usually established on the bases
of:
(I). Line Authority Relationship: This involves the direct supervision of
subordinate in the chain of command which indicates the formal authority
relationships that run in a direct line from the top e.g. Chief Executive to the
bottom of the Organization e.g. workers/junior staff. Line authority means the
same as line manager in the chain of command, and they are responsible and
concerned with the accomplishment of quantitative objectives, cost control and

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the on-going decisions that allow them to accomplish the task of the
Organization.
(II).Staff Authority Relationship: This involves the relationship that exists
among the staff, and it is based on expertise in specialized activities and
includes the authority to advise, plan, gather information. However, there
should exist a cordial relationship between the line manager or authority and the
staff authority.
(III).Functional Authority Relationship: This involves the rights of individual
staff with functional authority to issue directives expect compliance: A
marketing manager may for example, have the authority to specify marketing
schedules for sales representative in any part of the company.
(c) Decentralization of Managerial Process
Decentralization of Managerial Processes are;

The

Concepts

of

(i) The span and level of management and (ii) The decentralization of
managerial authority
This span and levels of management is based on the executive control that is,
the number of subordinates, a manager can effectively supervise, the narrower
the span, the less levels that are needed. Decentralization is the delegation of
authority for making managerial decisions to subordinates at lower levels in the
organization. A broader span occurs when the chief executive decentralizes
authority. However, certain factors such as:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Competency of subordinates
Nature of work
Time required for the job and
Organisational policies, are considered when making this decision to
ensure that the delegation of authority accomplishes the organizational
goals.

Common Mistakes in Organizing

Some common mistakes in Organising are:
a.

Failure to plan properly.

b.

Failure to clarify relationship.

c.

Failure to delegate authority.

d.

Granting authority without exacting responsibility.

e.

Misuse of functional authority.

f.

Multiples subordination.
146

g.

Holding people who do not have authority responsible etc.

These mistakes can be avoided.

(d) Determine the Overall Organizational Structure It is the duty of the
Chief Executive to draw the chart of the organization. It shows the actual
positions held by an employee or the relationship between the position holders
and their lines of authorities that is, who is responsible to whom.
3.1.3 Planning
Any Organization that fails to plan for the future plans to fail. Planning is the
process of setting goals and choosing the means to achieve these goals.
Planning as a management function is the act of making decisions about goals
and activities that an individual, a group, a work unit or the overall Organization
will pursuit in the future. Plans set the stage for action and for major
achievements; it defines where the Organization wants to be in the future and
how to get there. Without plans the Chief Executive cannot know how to
organize people and utilize resources effectively. He may not even have a clear
idea of what they need to organize. Without planning the Chief Executives have
little to achieve and as a result, will stray from the set goals. Planning is
deciding in advance, what to do, how to do it, who to do it and when to do it.
Planning bridges the gap between where we are today and where we intend to
be. Planning helps in shaping the future rather than accepting it the way it
occurs. Lack of planning or poor planning by the Chief Executive can retard an
organizations performance.
Steps in Planning
There are some planning steps that managers have found useful:
a.
Identify goals: The objectives, mission, goals or purpose fixed must
clearly indicate what is to be achieved. Where should action take place, who to
perform it, how is it to be undertaken and when is it is to be accomplished. All
the above can be referred as planning.
b.
Developing premises (collect and forecast information): This also means
the same as scanning the environment in which plans are to be implemented.
Since the future is uncertain, it is unrealistic for the Chief Executive to make
assumption in great detail about environmental factors.
c.
Determine and evaluate alternative plans: Once an alternative course of
action has been determined, they must be evaluated. Future uncertainties,
financial problems and other intangible factors make the evaluation process
difficult and complex, alternative plans are evaluated against such factors like
cost, risk, benefit etc.
d.
Select the plan and develop the sub-plan: Once the alternative plan has
been identified and accepted, a sub-plan of the accepted alternative is
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implemented. Selection of one course of action to face future challenges

introduces rigidity and inflexibility in the planning process. Managers take risks
when they commit organizational resources to pursue a particular strategy.
Benefits of Planning
The benefits of planning are:
a.

It gives a sense of direction control and purposes to an Organization.

b.

It helps Organization to achieve steady growth and development.

c.

It enables Organization to take advantage of opportunities and contains

threats in the operating environment.

d.

It enables management to take calculated business risks and think ahead.

e.

It provides awareness of emerging environment so that an Organization

can adapt better to it.

3.1.4 Controlling
Controlling as a management function means the act of monitoring progress and
making needed changes in an organization. It also means monitoring employees
activities, determining whether the organization is on target toward its goals,
and making correction as necessary. Every Chief Executive must make sure that
the Organization is moving towards its goals. It involves using Information
System to advise managers on the performances of employees. Lack of control
or information is one of the reasons for organizational failure (Simon,
1976).Control in an organization focuses on individual tasks and is carved out
and the strictly defined guideline issues by strategic planning and management
decisions. In order to exercise control, Chief Executive must decide which goals
to measure perhaps goals pertaining to productivity, quality responsiveness to
customers and then they must design information and control systems that will
provide the data they need to assess performances. Controlling function also
allows Chief Executives to evaluate themselves in terms of performance of
other functions of management.
Importance of Control
Control is important in that:
a.

It helps in verifying whether results are in conformity with set standards.

b.

It helps to pointing out errors and weaknesses.

c.

It helps to eliminate wastages and unnecessary cost.

d.

It helps in keeping employees motivated by making them know how well

they have performed.
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However, control helps management to achieve an Organizations objectives by

providing a framework for the development of good plans. The outcome of the
control process is the ability to measure performance accurately and regulate
Organizational efficiency and effectiveness.
Steps of Control Process
Establishing Standards Standards are criteria for measuring
performance, and the first step in control process is to establish Organizational
standards.
Measurement and comparison of performance with standard The Chief
Executive makes comparison of the established standards of the organization
with the performance of his employees through personal contact and auditing of
their activities and to determine if their performance is measurable and in
accordance with Organizational plan.
Corrective action/shortcomings For every established standard there
must be a corrective action taken to correct undesired deviations. Corrective
action should not be restricted to negative deviations but must extend to positive
deviations.
3.1.5 Staffing
By Staffing we mean the manpower strength of the organization. It is the duty
of the Chief Executive to manage people. Staffing in an Organization is the
whole process of getting a sufficient pool of candidates from among whom the
most suitable are selected to fill existing vacancies in Organizations. A wellestablished organization attracts people to work but only the best are selected
for employment. It is the duty of the Chief Executive to ensure that the right
calibre of people are employed at the right time with the right salaries and
wages to what is most profitable for the Organization, he tries to avoid under
and over staffing of the Organization because of the financial implication and
effects.
3.1.6 Directing
This is making things happen through other people. It is the duty of the chief
executive to direct the affairs of the organization to ensure that all efforts and
resources, human, financial and material are directed towards the achievement
of the stated Organizational goals. Directing is the managerial process of
ensuring that employees do the job assigned to them. The Chief Executive who
is regarded as the Accounting Officer communicates and ensures effective
coordination of the activities of the subordinates to achieve the Organizational
goals.
The duties of the Chief Executive as far as directing are to:
a.

Provide required counsel, leadership and final decision-making authority.

149

b.

Determine the broad policy and strategy of the Organization.

c.

Appraise the companys profit planning and their profit performance.

d.

Co-ordination of inter-departmental activities within the Organization.

e.

Provide favourable working climate for workers to achieve results and to

design programme aimed at attaining the predetermined goals of the
Organization.

3.1.7 Communication
Communication is the means whereby people in an organization exchange
information regarding the operation of the organization. Communication is the
transmission of information und understanding from one body to another
through the use of common symbols. It is the interchange of ideas, facts and
emotions by two or more persons through the use of words, letters and symbols.
Bernard (1948), stressed the need for communication to occupy a central place
in Organization. Communication can be regarded as the foundation upon which
Organization or administration is built. The media of communication are
memos, letters, news bulletin, radio, television etc. Communication is the
process of transmitting information from one person/place to another and the
message been understood by the receiver/encoder. It involves the transmission
of a message through a medium/channel from a transmitter to a receiver.
4.0 CONCLUSION
From the foregoing discussion on, the duties of the Chief Executive Officer
(CEO) we can deduce that the duties of the Chief Executive Officer are the
same as Managerial duties or functions. He heads and coordinates the activities
of an organization. He is directly or indirectly involved in all functions or
activities of the Organization. He is responsible for formulating policies, and
supervises implementations. The core duties of the Chief Executive Officer are
Decision-making,

Staffing,

Planning,

Communicating,

Directing

and

Controlling. Each of these duties has various steps, processes and significance
to the success of the Organisation.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about the duties of the Chief Executive Officer.
Most Chief Executive Officers are rated for the quick, timely and quality of
decisions they make. Decision making takes place under three different
150

conditions: under certainty, risk and uncertainty conditions. There are two of
kinds of decision, the programmed and Non-Programmed.

6.0

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
QUESTION:
1. Explain the duties of the Chief Executive Officer.
2. Differentiate between Planning and Directing.

7.0

REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Abari, A.O and Mohammed, M.O.B (2006), Fundamentals of educational

management, babs- olutunji publisher, first edition
Bernard, M. (1948), Approaches of public administration. New York books
Bello, S. A, et al (2004), Public administration system in Nigeria, raamson
printing service
Mintzberg Henry, (1973) The nature of managerial work (new york: harper &
row).
Lawal, A. A.(1993), Management in focus, abdul industrial enterprises, Lagos.
Patrick Mbieli, (2006) Administration public, a broad view, megavons (west
Africa) limited
Simon, A. (1976), Approaches of public administration. book of the half
century 4th edition
Yahaya, A. D. Akinyele C. Led. (1990), New trends in personnel management;
a book of reading Ascon personnel management series

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UNIT 15
DRAFTING, MINUTING, MEMO WRITING AND OFFICIAL LETTER WRITING .

Table of Contents
1.0

Introduction

2.0

Objectives

3.0

Main Contents

3.1

Drafting

3.1.1 Features of a good draft

3.2

Minuting

3.2.1 Forms and content of a Minute

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3.2.2 Faults to laugh against in Minute

3.2.3 Hints on Minuting
3.3 Memo Writing
3.3.1 Essence of Memorandum
3.3.2 Format of a Memo
3.4 Official Letter Writing
3.4.1 File Copy
3.4.2 Salutations
3.4.3 Attachments
3.4.4 Re-directed Letters
3.4.5 Endorsements

4.0

Conclusion

5.0

Summary

6.0

Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0

Further Readings

1.0

INTRODUCTION

Administrative Communication is a Sine qua non for an effective conduct of

government business. It is basis or vehicle for the policy cycle resulting in
decisions and consequently, directives for implementation. At the level of
operation, particularly the inter-personal level in the enterprise, administrative
communication must be carried out through the use of our Lingua francaEnglish Language. Although directives, instructions etc could be given verbally,
that which attracts more seriousness and hence makes immense impact is the
directive in writing. We therefore posit that in organizations, decisions, policy
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enunciation and more importantly approvals to carryout actions are usually

made in writing. Some of the forms of writing for the aforementioned
purposes constitute the subject of this chapter.

They are:
(i)

Drafting

(ii)

Minuting

(iii)

Memo Writing; and

(iv)

Official Letter Writing.

2.0

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

i.
Explain The Term Drafting , Minuting, Memo Writing, And Official Letter
Writing
Ii.

Identify the Various Stages of Carrying Out Each of Them

iii.
Explain the format and strategies for writing each of them to acceptable
standard.

3.0MAIN CONTENTS
3.1 Drafting
A draft is a proposed letter, circular, or minute, report or other document,
prepared and sent by a lower officer to his superior for consideration. The
process of preparing a Draft is called Drafting. If the proposed letter or
suggested circular serves the prescribed purpose, it is considered good and
approved. A draft may be amended by filling in the gaps in the efforts of the
officer or by the incorporation of additional facts by the senior officer. A bad
draft (e.g one which does not show an appreciation of the point at issue or one
hastily put up without taking pains) may be rejected and scrapped.
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When to Draft
Where an item or correspondence is of a routine nature and calls for a routine
reply, a letter ready for signature should be put up to the senior officer for his
signature. Sometimes the writer of a minute has to submit a draft embodying
a recommendation in his minute. Draft replies suggested for consideration
may reduce substantially the length of a minute. When a draft has been
approved, it is sent to a typist to be produced in the correct form for issue.
The act of typing the letter in this form is known as fairing and the finished
document is known as a faired draft.
3.1.1 Features of A Good Draft Are As Follows:

(a) Clarity of thoughts and expression Say exactly what you wish to say in
simple and direct language. Avoid repetition.

(b) Accuracy Verify all facts and figures before writing

(c) Grammar Weak or indifferent grammar m mars the quality of a draft.

Special care is necessary in the use f punctuation mark. Avoid overworked expressions and titled phraseology. For spelling errors or any
other unsure expression of English, consult your Dictionary.

(d) Courtesy All communications from Public Servants to persons inside or

outside the Public Service must be polite. Even the reply to a
discourteous writer should be couched in courteous terms.

Typed drafts of minutes, briefs, letters, etc should s a rule, have headings
which give an idea of the matter in the drafts. Reasonable spacing is used in
typed drafts so that there is ample space for amendments. Drafts should be
typed drafts so that there is ample space for amendments. Drafts should be
typed only on one side of the typing sheet or sheets used. For economy, the

155

reverse page of used, clean sheets with discarded typed-scripts at the front
may be used for typing drafts.

Discarded papers containing classified information should never be used for

drafting . When drafts of any document are given to typist for fairing, the
number of copies required should always be clearly recorded at the top of
page 1 of every draft. Such instructions can, for example take the form off
either 6 copies meaning 6 in all or 1+ 5 copies meaning an original and five
copies. It is desirable for Schedule Officers and their typist to agree on the
wording to be used in describing the number of copies that should be made in
addition to the original so as to save time and avoid waste of stationary.

After drafting a minute or letter for the superior officer, the drafting officer
should remember to write the superior officers name and not his own name
as the author. While a superior officer ends a loose minute. It is the duty of
the subordinate to put it in a file before sending the reply back to him. The
worst that can happen in the absence of the main file is for you to address your
superior in a Temporary File (T File). A good draft from a subordinate to a
superior officer should be such that the senior has little or no addition to
make.

It is important to note that it is an offence in the service to claim credit for a

draft you made for your superior officer e.g. Speeches.

3.2

MINUTING

A minute could be defined as a communication in writing, usually in files

between two or more officials; this definition does not apply to a letter from
one officer to another. Minutes are normally used to consider and settle
matters or to direct what action may be taken in a circumstance. Minuting is
the act of writing a minute.

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When Not To Minute

It may not be necessary to minute on a matter when:

(a) The matter can be cleared by discussion either at a meeting (usually

informal) or by telephone. The latter medium should not be used for
confidential or secret matters.

(b) The action necessary is routine

(c) A more senior officer has specifically suggested that the matter at
issue should be referred to him for further action usually because he is
familiar with the background of the subject and /or he wishes to put
down some drafting instructions.

(d) The matter is straight forward and no further information or guidance

can usually be added.

(e) The subject matter assumed technical or professional or special

knowledge which the Schedule Officer is not familiar with. In such a
case, the matter should be referred as clearly as possible, to a suitable
professional or expert for necessary action. It is instructive to note that
the subject matter for which a Minute, Memo etc is being written is
referred to, in the civil service language, as matter at Issue.

3.2.1 Form and Content of a Minute.

The top left-hand side of a minute refers to the person, by appointment, to
whom it is written. The text of the minute follows. It is concluded by the
signature or initials of the writer. Immediately under his signature or initials is
157

the typewritten or stamped name of the officer writing it. Under his name, the
post held is shown and the date of his minute, indicated.

A minute may be built up as follows:

(a) State briefly the matter at issue

(b) State the present position and focus and facts affecting it, supporting
the statement by reference to previous papers

(c) Verify whether or not the report, proposal or request accords with any
laws, Public Service Rules, Financial Regulations, Circulars, or
memoranda which have been circulated. Sometimes, it is helpful to
quote the actual words of the Public Services Rules, etc, or to attach a
copy of the relevant document.

(d) Indicate any previous decisions which may be relevant to the point at
issue.

(e) Point out any facts or argument which may influence the action to be
taken (or decision to be given) as they occur to you when examining
papers, precedents and previous decisions. Cite relevant authorities.

(f) Finally, suggest what action you propose should be taken. The
substance of a memoranda or letter in reply may be suggested in your
minute which should be so drafted that the wording may be
incorporated direct into the reply to issue.

3.2.2 Faults to Guard Against in Drafting and Minuting

(i)

Avoid Slipshod Thinking: If ones thinking is obscure, ones drafts

and minute may not be clear.
158

(ii)

Bad Hand-Writing Provided you can write legibly, it is not

advisable to type short drafts or minutes. Unless ones handwriting is easily readable, all minutes or drafts covering more than
half of foolscap sheet be typewritten.

(iii)

Haste: It is considered bad to defer action on problems requiring

considerable effort in drafting and minuting. A large accumulation
of work on files tends to encourage the production of hasty drafts
or minutes based on haphazard research.

(iv)

Irrelevance: Try to have a grasp of the subject at issue and do not

drift away
From the question being considered.

(i)

Inaccurate Information: make sure that you know intimately the

provisions of Government circulars and regulations. Make a special
note of alternations in the laws, Public Service Rules and other
approved authorities. A conclusion based on an obsolete precedent
is likely to be misleading.

(ii)

Indecision: If a draft or minute must solve or advance the situation

to a problem, it should not show indecision. Youre summing up or
conclusion should, therefore, indicate your stand.

(iii)

Stylistic Defects: Avoid repetitions (.eg return back, can be able,

etc) unnecessary airs and graces.

159

Self Assessment Exercise.

QUESTION: What are the faults to guard against in drafting and minuting.

ANSWER: They are:

I.

Slipshod thinking, (ii) Bad hand-writing; (iii) Irrelevance, ; (iv)

Haste; (v) Inaccurate information; (vi) Indecision; (vii) Stylistic
Defects.

3.2.3 Hints on Minuting

As earlier stated, a minute is communication in writing mostly in file between
two or more officers who may or may not be of equal rank. A letter on the
other hand, is a correspondence from one person, group or organization to
another and it insists on certain formality, which does not necessary interest
the minute. To write a good minute or a good letter, the following hints are
necessary and should be noted:

(i)
Go through the subject matter files and other relevant documents to
ensure you have facts to enable you produce a good minute or write a good
letter.

(ii)
Make Sure You Clearly Understand the Subject Matter Which Should Be
Briefly Stated.

(iii) State The Previous Positions Or Decisions, If Any , Which May Led To The
Present.
160

(iv)

Write in good English with correct spellings and avoid unnecessary

flamboyant or journalistic writing.

(v)

All the facts should be arranged both logically and chronologically.

(vi)

Indicate Whether There Are Laws Or Past Decisions That May Affect The
Present Case.

(vii)

Identify relevant facts and argue persuasively either for or against the
matter at issues, quoting appropriate authorities or laws or precedence
wherever necessary

(viii) Identify the options and make sure your argument is balanced by
stressing points for and against the options that may present them.

(ix)

Highest reasons why you favour one option rather than the other.

(x)

Avoid disjointed presentation. Ensure that your presentation flows.

(xi)

Avoid bad grammar and insist on good punctuation e.g the word,
however, is always isolated by commas before and after.

(xii)

Be exact and precise in your expressions an avoid irrelevant or

unnecessary flowery language or journalistic writing.

(xiii) Make sure that the information you give is accurate

161

(xiv) Finally, ensure that the line of action you advocate flows from your
presentation. Short titles or abbreviations are tolerated by minute but
not by letters e.g perm sec., Hon Minister.

(xv)

Headings for minutes serve as quick reference points and are

encouraged. For each letter, a heading is a must.

(xvi) Every minute should wherever and whenever possible, be type-written,

where, however, a minute is to be submitted in long hand, it should be
done neatly, legibly and should not exceed half of one foolscap sheet
page.

(xvii) Remember that constant production of bad minutes or drafts could

damage the sanding of an officer beyond repair, while good minutes
produce pleasant opposite

3.3

MEMO WRITING

The word Memorandum or Memo is derived from the Latin word

Menorare which means to remember of to bring to The Chambers
Twentieth Century defines Memorandum as something to be
remembered; a note to assist the memory; a summary of the state of a
question, In its broad and loose sense, a memorandum is used in both the
public and private organizations to mean notes, minutes as well as forms of
letters and written documents used informally to convey information, facts or
ideas from one person or group to another.

For our purpose, a memorandum will be defined as a specialized and classified

government or public agency document used for the presentation of analysed
162

data, facts and ideas to aid government or particular public organizations

decisions either for a more vigorous approach to execute established policies,
or exploit revision of existing policies.

3.3.1 Essence of Memorandum

From the definitions provided above, it would be realized that preparing or
writing a memorandum involves key activities such as : sound research into a
subject problem or situation; data collection and analysis; and policy initiation
and analysis as necessary inputs for decision-making at government level.
Therefore, based on governments policies and programmes, crucial issues are
exampled in all their ramifications and presented in a concise, analytical form
in a n memorandum to facilitate decision-making at the management level
(Council, Cabinet etc) . Whatever the subject matter or the purpose,
memorandum is a highly classified document. Normally, it is SECRET and
regarded as the property of the council or cabinet.

Such memorandum as identified above may be submitted to the appropriate

authority in the form of concrete proposals or recommendations for the
purpose of either obtaining approval or consent, decision or directive on fresh
policy or amendment or modification of an existing policy. Similarly, an
internal memo serves the purpose but is restricted to a particular
organization.

3.3.2 FORMAT OF A MEMO

Just like in a minute, a memo starts by addressing the designation of whom the
memo is meant. Thereafter, we have the subject matter of discussion written
and under underscored o that it will be eye-catchy. In government business,
the subject matter in a memo is referred to as Matter at issue. Introductory
aspect of the memo constitutes the first paragraph. Then major component or
interrelated areas in the subject matter are, each, discussed in a paragraph
subsequently. For instance, memo for seeking approval to organize a course
for a group of staff will comprise of the following and to be disused in a
paragraph each: The course itself; how relevant is it to the job of the staffers
163

concerned?; the institution to run it-how credible is it and where must it be

run? Is it as implant or off-house etc? ; Then cost-implication which goes
beyond course fee-that is all costs attendant to attending the course including
Duty Tour Allowance (DTA) where applicable etc.

From the foregoing we already have six (6) paragraphs. Then comes the
PRAYER paragraph which is either the last paragraph in which the approval is
sought. It is important to note that in seeking approval finally, each of the
issues discussed in the previous paragraphs should be itemized in the prayer
paragraph and A prayer paragraph could sound like this:

In view of the foregoing, the Permanent Secretary is requested to

kindly consider and approve that:
(i)
A course on Budgeting be organized for the staffers of the Budget
office;
(ii)

The Administrative Staff College of Nigeria (ASCON) be chosen to

run the course

(iii)

The course should take place at ASCON in Tape-Badagry, Lagos

State;

(iv)

Twenty Budget officers between CONTISS 13 and 16 be released

to attend the programme;

(v)

A total sum of three (3) MILLION Naira (3, 000, 000.00) as

analysed in paragraph 6 be released for the course;

The final paragraph could then be: Submitted please OR submitted for the
Perm Secs king consideration and approval please.

Therefore the officer forewarning the memo signs his signature and write his
designation and date. It is important to note the following.

164

(i)

Designations are used in place of names because , in the Service , Officer

re known by their designations e.g DFS meaning Director of Finance and
Supplies OR Asst. Director (Training) etc.

(ii)

Aside from paragraph one other paragraphs are numbered for crossreferencing purposes.

Sometimes the word PRAYER could be written in that paragraph but the
important thing Is to understand that it means request. For instance, an
officer who feels unfairly treated in a disciplinary action or loss or
promotion opportunity, could appeal for a re-consideration of his case.
In this instance, he could use the word Prayer in that paragraph. On no
account Should people be praying in this paragraph for the Almighty
God or Allah to make the approving Authority to grant their request.

3.4

OFFICIAL LETTER WRITING

As in the case of minutes, the letters we are interested in are those that
originate from government offices. Letters, like minutes, are forms of
communication from one individual or group to another. Letters are used to
convey decisions, give directives on the required course of action or to let
people know of certain new developments. Letters differ from minutes in that
they, unlike minutes invariably insist on certain formalities such as the
inclusion of the addresses of both the author and the addressee, indication of
the date \of the letter at the right hand side, insertion of headings and so on.
Letters do not also allow the use of abbreviations such as perm Sec, or Hon
Minister. Words are written in full for letters. Most letters are written on a
prepared letter-headed paper which have already printed address of the
sender, columns for Reference Number, and Date. The format of any letter
will, to a large extent, depend on the addressee. If the letter is from one
ministry to anther the format is similar. But if it is from a Ministry of Parastatal
to an individual or organization outside government, the format is different. If
a letter is going from one ministry to another the person who signs it will
equally depend on the seriousness of the subject matter and again, on who is
supposed to treat it at the other end. If the subject matter of a given letter is a
165

considerably serious one, it is normally expected that the letter be signed by a

sufficiently high-ranking officer.

In fact, some letters demand that either the permanent Secretary or the
Honourable Minister/Commissioner should sign them. It is important to stress
here that the mere fact that an officer has been directed in a minute to issue a
letter does not mean that he should also sign it. If the content of the letter is a
very serious one e.g, if it is a matter of national importance or if the letter is
being made for the attention of an officer much higher than himself, the
schedule officer should either prepare the letter for the signature of his
superior or suggest that it be signed at a level higher than his own. The
signatory to a letter is perhaps much more serious when it has to do with
people in regimented establishments especially the Armed Forces. A schedule
officer should always use his discretion to know when a letter should be
signed by a higher officer even though he may have been asked to issue it.
When an officer is in doubt as to who should sign an outgoing letter, it is better
to have the letter discussed with his superior officer.

Paragraphs are equally numbered in letters including Thank you, which in

this instance, appears to be shortest paragraph.

3.4.1 File Copy

It is important that a carbon copy of any minute or letter sent out by an officer
should be made and put in the file and appropriate paged as a file copy. This
file copy serves many purposes but the most important is that of providing an
easy reference point for the subject matter dealt in it. It is also n invaluable
guide for officers who may be posted newly to any ministry or establishment
of government long after the originator of the letter had left the organization.
In the file copy, should be indicated the date when the file should be brought

166

up (b.u) for a reappraisal of the content of the letter. It I also necessary for
officers to keep their own flimsy copies for future reference, if need be.

3.4.2 Solutions
In letters from one ministry of government establishment to another, letter,
letters are addressed to the Chief Executive, e.g . Honourable Minister, in the
case of Ministries or to the General Manager, Managing Director or DirectorGeneral for parastatal , as the case may be. For ministries, it is not usual to
start with Dear sir, or Dear xyz. Sometimes, however, some Permanent
Secretaries or Chief Executives are known to put some familiar and personal
touches by starting with Dear Colleague or Dear xyz. The closing is also less
formal in that yours faithfully etc., are not included. This style is not very
common outside government establishments. The style differs remarkably
from that of letter going outside government establishments. Letters from
government ministries or departments to outsiders take a more formal format
as they are started with dear XYZ and close with Yours faithfully. As earlier
stated, in government to government correspondence, Dear Mr . XYZ may be
tolerated at higher levels and where the author and the addressee are fairly
familiar; otherwise it is usual not to include these.

3.4.3 Attachments
Whether letters are meant for government or non-government addressees, it
is necessary that attachments necessary for the circumstance of the given
letter should be added. Such attachments make for faster consideration of the
subject or matter at issue, in addition to assisting better appreciation of the
matter at hand. Attachments should be clearly indicated and signs for them
either shown at the left-hand margins or all the enclosures are spelt out at the
bottom end of the letter.

3.4.4 Redirected Letters

167

In situations where letters are mistakenly sent by a members of the general

public to a ministry that does not deal with the subject matter of the letter,
rather than sending back the letter to the author and asking to direct his letter
to the appropriate ministry, the mature and correct thing to do is for the
ministry that receives the misdirected letter to redirect it to appropriate
destination with a short letter. The original letter should be attached while
photocopy is made and retained in a file. The appropriate ministry should then
be requested to deal directly with the originator. Subsequently, the author
should be informed of the action taken with the advice that he or they should
also deal directly with the correct ministry in matters connected with the
subject matter of enquiry . This approach is superior to sending back the letter
to the author, which tends to portray government as an uncoordinated
organization.

3.4.5 Endorsements
An endorsement is letter written at the bottom of an earlier letter to person
or persons to which the original one was not addressed. The purpose is to pass
information to the new addressee with the appropriate request or directive as
to what he or she is required to do sequel to the body of the main letter.
Since definite actions are often required, unless the endorsement is for
information only, it is preferable to draw the attention of the person to whom
it is endorsed to the paragraph or paragraphs requiring his action. An example
is, the above is for your necessary action with particular reference e to the
issues raised at paragraphs 2 and 3 of my letter or of the ministry xyz letter or
circular referred to.

4.0CONCLUSION
Drafting encompasses all forms of writing, if should be appropriately done ,
others will fall in place. Minuting , memo writing and official letter writing are
all undertaken for decisions to be made officially, policies to be formulated or
approvals to be given officially also. Whatever actions are carried out
subsequently i.e implementations or executions must confirm with the

168

approval given in written. This underscores the importance of discussions in

this unit.

5.0

SUMMARY

The importance of discussions in this unit informed the systematic approach to

it in order to avoid confusion particularly with semantics. The unit therefore
started by explaining the concept of Draft and Drafting which cuts-across other
forms of writing and official letter writing. It must be noted however, that
there are other forms of writing that serve similar purpose such as Council
memo, Report and speech writing etc. These will be taken up by other units.

6.0

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

-.

Outline the format of a Good Memo

identify the difference between a Minute and a Memo

7.0FURTHER READING
Fadeyi, B. (1995); Minuting , Drafting, Report/Letter Writing, Paper
Presentation at an Induction Programme for Newly Employed
Officers of the Nigeria Public Service, Lagos.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (1997); Civil Service Handbook (Abuja: Office
of Establishment and Management services, the Presidency.
Little, P. (1975): Communications in Business, 2nd Edition, (London:
Longman Group Ltd).
Maduabum, C.P (2009): Drafting, Minuting, Memo Writing, Official Letter
Writing, in Chucks P. Maduabun (Ed) Writing Techniques for the
Management of Public and Private Affairs , ASCON Press, Badagry
Obiaku, D., (1999): Communication Skills (Lagos: Advertising
Practitioneners
169

MODULE 4
THE ART OF GOVERNANCE.
UNIT16

GOVERNMENT AND GOVERNANCE.

TABLE OF CONTENT

1.0

Introduction

2.0
3.0

Objectives
The Concept of Government and Governance
3.1
3.2
3.3

Branches of Government in a Democratic Setting

Role of the Constitution in Governance
Public Administration: A tool in Governance

4.0

Conclusion

5.0

Summary

6.0

Tutor-Marked Assignment and Marking Scheme

7.0

Further Reading

1.0

INTRODUCTION
170

This unit explores the basis of governance and the idea of government. Here,
various views on the concept of government and governance are undertaken.
This explanation will help you to appreciate and identify significant parameters
for subsequent discussions. The unit goes further to identify those things that
constitute apparatus of government. The role of the constitution in our guest
is clearly explained. It is usually difficult to talk about government without
discussing public administration. This is because public administration is the
main apparatus of government. The constitution merely provide the legal
framework for governance.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1.

Explain the concept of government and governance

2.

Identify the branches of government in Nigeria

3.

Outline the role of the constitution in governance

4.
Explain the concept of public administration as on apparatus of
government.

THE CONCEPT OF GOVERNMENT AND CONGERNANCE

The International Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, has this to say about
governance.

The art of exercising of legitimate authority, and protecting and

Adapting the community by making and carrying out decisions
171

(Sills, 1968:214-217)

It further explains that community here refers to a national autonomy

community while the use of legitimacy entails a sanction right to exercise
practical monopoly of coercive powers while carrying out the process of
governance in a sovereign state. And of course the body or group of
individuals charged with this responsibility, it refers to as government. From
the foregoing, it becomes imperative that a Government must be established
as one of the characteristics or features of a nation State. This agrees with the
conceptualization of a modern state as a collection of people in a certain
territory having organized government ad possessing autonomy with respect
to such units. Other features of a state of course emerge from this concept as:
people; territory; and sovereignty.

The term Government would be explained as instrument of a state by which

its existence
is maintained, its functions carried out and its policies and objectives realized.
The interrelatedness of some of the foregoing terms equally makes their
demarcation inevitable. While the term state comprises the entire
community of people which of course embraces both the government and
governed , Government is a mere agency which constituted by a very small
proportion of the population of the state. It is, thus, one of the several societal
organizations, though with its own unique characteristics. By the popular
maxim that Governments come and go while the state remains the existence
of a state as more or less permanent entity that survives every government is
further elucidated. Another concept People appears to be the most
important of all the features of a state. For it has severally been either
questioned or agreed that such other features like government and the state
itself cannot exist without the people because, each of them is made up of
people. Membership of a state therefore, becomes imperative because it is
automatic that an individual belongs to a state into which he is born. Even p in
situations where a citizen denounces his citizenship of a country, he
immediately acquires that of another country. This, again, underscores the
point that nobody can be stateless. As a concept, territory comes to the
172

gore due to the need to demarcate one state from another for mutual coexistence. Every state in the world is therefore located on a particular area of
the earths surface with clear-cut boundaries. The territory of a state therefore
features such things as
its geographical location, resources, technology and climate. Sovereignty on
the other hand, entails the supreme and final legal authority on a state above
and beyond, which no further legal power, exists. Thus, a sovereign state is
that which is able to conduct its own affairs independently of other states.

These explanations became necessary because of their impact on our subject

of discourse. For instance, Omolayo and Arowolaju (1987:35) explain that
government is instituted t maintain peace, law and order in the state, to
protect the citizens against external aggression or internal insurrection, to
settle disputes between individual citizens, between organizations, or between
citizens or organization and agencies of government, and to provide adequate
social services for the welfare of the people.

There are however, different forms of government. The form of government

existing in any state is sometimes used as its identity. This, therefore,
presupposes that different forms of government can be identified in different
states. We have such forms of government as socialist as practiced in the
erstwhile USSR and its components of Eastern Europe; Communist as
practiced in China, Capitalist as practiced in the Western world and their
former Colonies particularly in Africa; Federal as practiced in heterogeneous
states such as U.S.A., Canada, Australia, Nigeria, India etc; Unitary - the form
introduced by the Military, Aristocratic as witnessed in most Medieval states,
Democratic which is gradually taking over from Aristocratic form as the most
modern form of government. Other types of government include: competitive
or monolithic; democratic or totalitarian; pluralistic or monolithic; presidential
or monarchical. The overlapping of these governments within a given state
has however made it difficult to use one of them exclusively to identify a
particular state. For instance, in the United State of America (USA) we find
both capitals, federal and democratic forms of government all existing in that
state. Although the military impacted so much on the merging world
173

particularly the second and third world countries, our interest here is in the
most civilized and modern form of government, which is democracy.
3.1

GOVERNMENT IN A DEMOCRATIC SETTING

As earlier stated, the form of Government of interest to us is Democracy. Many

commentators and writers have articulated various perspectives of this
perception is that this form of government emerges from the people. The
term originated from the Greek words, demos meaning the people; and
kratein meaning to rule. By integrating the two words, democracy means
rule by the people. It is sometimes defined as government by many or
Government of the people by the people and for the people. Unlike the type
of democracy aptly referred to as direct democracy practiced in the Ancient
Greek-City states, the modern day democracy is highly representative. Infact,
this model type of democracy is sometimes referred to as liberal democracy.
This form of democracy, according to Heater (1964: 117) should possess five
basic elements. These are; equality; sovereignty of the people; respect for
human life; the rule of law; and liberty of the individual. Held (1993:16) could
not agree more for, in his perception, liberal democracy in its contemporary
form includes a Cluster of rules and institutions permitting the broader
participation of the majority of citizens in the selection of representatives who
alone can make political decisions. This Cluster, he further explains, includes
elected government; free and fair elections in which every citizens vote has an
equal weight; a suffrage which embraces all citizens irrespective of distinctions
of race, religion, class, sex and so on, freedom of conscience, information and
expression on all public matters broadly defined ; the right of adults to oppose
their government and stand for office; and associational autonomy the right
to form independent associations including social movements, interest groups
and political parties. While articulating the above views the deduction by
Enemuo (1999:145) becomes paramount. And that is, that democracy denotes
a set of ideals, institutions and processes of governance that allows the broad
mass of the people to choose their leaders and that guarantees them a broad
range of civil rights.

With a democratic form of government are such types as the Westminster

Parliamentary System once practiced by Nigeria as a direct inheritance from
her British Colonial Boss; The President-cum-Prime Ministers system
174

effectively practiced by France; and the Presidential System successfully

practiced by the United States of America (USA) and which Nigeria currently
adopts.

3.1.1 Branches of Government

The System of Government in Nigeria is both vertical and horizontal. Vertically
we talk of three levels of government viz:
Federal State and Local Governments: And horizontally are three arms of
government viz: Executive; Legislature and Judiciary. All these are fully put in
place in order to ensure true representativeness when it comes to protection
of interest and ensuring that the government is people-oriented. These
structures ensure minimal dominance, if at all, by any particular arm of level.
For instance, while the legislature which at the federal level in Nigeria is
bicameral and makes the laws, the judiciary which is supposed to be
independent interprets the laws, while the executive made up of elected Chief
Executive - President or Governor as the case may be and his appointed
members of the executive council, implements the laws by translating such
laws to policies for easy and smooth implementation. This is what is referred
to as separation of powers among the three branches of government and
which is a sine qua non for a successful operation of this system of
government.

The interplay among these branches of government is such that hardly are
they independent of one another. Their system of checks and balances gives
each branch of government the means of checking the power of the other
branches in certain circumstances. These checks enable each branch to keep
the power of the others in proper balance with its own power. Most checks
and balances involve a limited sharing of the same power by more Executive
performs legislative and judiciary functions, much the same way that the
legislature exercises executive and judicial powers. The Judiciary on the other
hand, regulates the activities of the executive and legislative arms of

175

government. A few examples of the interface in the functioning of the three

arms of government will suffice:

(i)

(ii)

Executive in a Presidential System of Government has power of veto

bills already passed by the legislature. A refusal to signify assent
prevents a bill from becoming a law unless the veto is overridden by
the legislature through two-thirds majority votes. The veto power is
a measure of control by the executive branch over the legislature. At
least this bit was provided for by sections 58 (21), (3) and (4) , and
100 (3) , (4) and (5) of the 1990 Constitution of the Federal Republic
of Nigeria;
The Legislature is specially empowered by the 1999 Constitution to
investigate all activities of the executive. The Legislature is
empowered to direct or cause to be directed an investigation into
any matter or thing with respect to which it has power to make laws
and the conduct of affairs of any person, authority, ministry or
government department charged, or intended to be charged with the
duty or responsibility for executing or administrating laws enacted
by the national Assembly.
It should be noted that the power to investigate the executive
department is normally a power of the executive branch of
government. Yet, the constitution specially empowers Federal and
State legislature to share in the investigatory power. Other executive
functions performed by the legislative arm of government include:
(a) The power of impeachment of executive (section 143 and 18);
(b) The power to enact treaties (section 12)
(c) control over public revenue (section 80 and 120); and
(d) Power over proclamation of emergency (section 305)

(iii).

through the power of judicial review, judges have power to

declare unconstitutional and void any executive or legislative
action which violates the constitution. This power serves as check
on the excesses of the legislative and executive arms of

176

government and hereby maintaining the balance of power among

all branches of government.

ACTIVITY
List the different branches of government both vertically and horizontally in
Nigeria.
ANSWER: Vertically we have Federal State and Local governments.
Horizontally we have the executive, legislature and Judicial arms
of government.

3.2

ROLE OF THE CONSTITUTION IN GOVERNANCE

Different perceptions of this concept has undated the literature on the

subject. Yet, a common denominator existing among these perceptions is that
the constitution is a reference point and a legal entity that perhaps surpasses
all other legal entities, which regulate the operation of government, or any
other body for that matter. Taking a cue from Omolayo and Arowolaju
(1987:52) the constitution can be defined as a body or system of fundamental
principles, rules and laws according to which a state is constituted and
governed. The Author cited Austin Ranneys views as the whole body of
fundamental rules written or unwritten, legal or extra legal according to which
a particular government operates. The foregoing agree with the perception of
Anifowose (1999:157) that the constitution is collection of norms or standards
according to which a country is governed. It contains statement intended to
define the relations between rulers and ruled, the basic institutional
framework of government, the rights and duties of citizens and many
important procedures to be followed in connection with these matters. Again
he points that the constitution defines the conditions for the exercise of
legitimate power, who shall exercise political power, how they shall exercise
their powers and limits of these powers.

These definitions point up to the fact that a constitution may be embodied in a

single detailed document like the 1999 Constitution in Nigeria; constitutions of
177

the United State of America; and most modern states or scattered through
various sources and legal documents like the British Constitution. It could even
portend a vague body of unwritten laws taking the form of usages,
understandings, customs or conventions which courts do not recognize as
laws, but which are not less effective in regulating the operations of
government. Constitutions are therefore universally regarded as embodying
the fundamentals of the political system. These fundamentals have the force
of law, enforceable by the courts.

In this wise, the constitution is superior to, and different from ordinary laws.
The constitution is less easily changed and more binding than ordinary law
which are made by the Parliament of National/State Assembly through the
ordinary law-making process and orders, rules and regulations made by any
person or authority in accordance with constitutional provisions. The very fact
that parliament or legislature derives its power from the constitution, places
the constitution over and above whatever laws made by the parliament or
Legislative. The constitution,, merely lays down broad principles guiding and
directing the making of ordinary laws with regards to the manner in which they
should be made and who should make them. It is in this sense that a
constitution is the fundamental law of the state. Even Military dictatorship
which operate with peculiar laws referred to as Decrees quite often recognized
the superiority of the constitution by setting aside some sections of the
constitution in order to legitimize their relevance in governance. In fact, some
of the decrees are coined from the constitutional provisions but made unique
to the whims and caprices of the military authorities.

The point still has to be made that in modern democracies the constitution is a
fundamental and highest law of the land hence, governments could hardly
operate recourse to the constitution. Unlike other laws like decrees which
could be a product of a few individuals, the constitution is usually a product of
a cross-section of the people (citizens) constituted as representatives of the
people either in a committee to draft the constitution or at an Assembly to
scrutinize a draft constitution and subsequently ratify the document as
containing the collective will of the people.
178

3.3

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION A CONCEPT

The concept of public administration attracts several commentaries from

different authorities. Omolayo and Arowolo (1987:366) argue that since
administration is present in all human organizations, public or private, open
or closed, it becomes necessary to begin the definition of public administration
from that of administration itself. Accordingly, they define administration as
referring to organization and management of men and materials to achieve the
goals of any collectivity of people. Such collectivity may be social, business,
military or public. From this standpoint, the authors define Public
Administration as administration in the public sector, that is, the means,
arrangements, actions and processes by which the policies, programmes,
purpose and goals of government are realized. In support, Dimock and Dimock
(1969:13) explain that because public administration is problem solving, it is as
much involved with the formulation of the policies by which agencies are
guided, as it is with the execution of polices through practical, down-to-earth ,
action-oriented programmes.

Consequently, they opine that public administration is the action, business side
of government, employing more than 90% of all public services and
programmes. One name that is so easily associated with the concept that he
cannot be easily glossed-over is Woodrow Wilson. In fact his recognition is in
association with pioneering the work in the field of public administration. His
ascertain is the public administration is the most obvious part of government;
it is government in action; it is the executive, operative, the most visible side of
government (Wilson, 1887: 197-222).

The foregoing definitions further confirm the inextricable linkage between

government and public administration such that there would be no meaningful
discussion on one without recourse to the other. One other concept however,
tends to agitate ones mind each time public administration is discussed. And
that is Private Administration. This has become necessary in that in a given
179

milieu or modern state is public and private sector contributing harmoniously

together towards the economic growth f the State/Nation. In other words,
there are public and private sectors existing side by side when we talk of
economic growth or national development. Whatever is done in the private
sector is ascribed by M.J.Balogun (1983:11-12) to business and to some extent
management. Hence, we have public administration representing operations
of government with a focus on the public-hence, the public sector, while
operations in whatever private enterprises is essentially business. Again,
Omolayo and Arowolaju (1987:306-307) dichotomize the co

Public Administration operates in a somewhat different environment

from
business
into the

administration. Public administration is tightly integrated

political system with the attendant implication of political involvement,

control
and influence. On the other hand, business administration runs in a
market
environment in which the main test of efficiency is profit.

4.0

CONCLUSION

In governance, particularly in a democratic setting like Nigeria, the people or

citizens are the focus, the will of the people is usually the guiding principle of
the leaders. Hence, government business is how to implement the will of the
people. The will of the people is interpreted as their welfare. The question is
what should government do and in what direction, to improve the welfare of
the people? Attempts at providing answers to this question leads us to the
issue of public administration and public institution as a process of ensuring

180

that the welfare of the people are improved upon through provision of
education, health, food, housing , infrastructure etc.

5.0

SUMMARY

This unit discussed the concept of government and the process of governance.
It explain government as an organ that has the responsibility of managing the
affairs of a nation state. The process of this management it refereed to as
governance. The unit equally identified the constitution as the bedrock of
governance particularly in a democratic setting such as ours. The unit also
explains the concept of public administration as an uncountable means of
reaching the people understanding their plight and improving their welfare in
order to fulfill the purpose of government.

6.0

TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Explain the role of government in Nigeria and how it performs this role.

7.0

FURTHER READING

Anifowose, R, (1999)Constitutions and Constitutionalism In Anifowose, Remi

and Francis Enemuo (Eds) Element of Politics (Lagos: Malthouse Press
Ltd.
Balogun, M.J (1983) Public Administration in Nigeria: A Developmental
Approach (London:
Enemuo, F, (1999) Democracy, Human Rights and Rule of Law In Anifowose,
Remi and Francis Enemuo (Eds) Elements of Politics (Lagos Macmillan
Press Ltd).
181

Maduabum, C.P (2008) The Mechanics of Public Administration in Nigeria:

(Badagry: ASCON Press.)
Omolayo, S and B Arowolaju (1987) Elements of Government: An Introductory
College Text on Political Science (Lagos: Friends Foundation Publishers
ltd)
Sills, L.D (Eds) (1968) International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, Vols 5
& 6 (New York: The Macmillan Company and Free Press)

UNIT 17
THE ENVIRONMENT AND ITS INFLUENCE ON GOVERANCE
TABLE OF CONTENT

182

1.0
2.0
3.0

Introduction
Objective
The Environment
3.1
3.2

Historical Antecedents
Social Factor

3.3

Human Relations Factor

3.4

Language

3.5

Educational System

3.6

Climatic Condition

3.7

Copy Cat Syndrome

4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0

Conclusion
Summary
Tutor marked Assignment
Further Reading

1.0

INTRODUCTION

In this unit, you will be able to identify variable within the Nigerian
environment which impact on government and the conduct of its business.
Government does not exist in a vacuum. It exists in the social setting of
Nigeria, conditioned by history and traditions, and by physical factors of
geography, climate and resources which are fundamental to the acquisition of
knowledge in this direction. The setting in this context is what the social
Scientifics refer to as ecology. That setting, we must appreciate is no static.
The dynamic nature of the world in which we exist has instigated efforts
towards that, it is from the environment that government perceives the
problems to be resolved, the alternative possibilities within which choices can
be made, the resources to be employed and the support and opposition to
policies and programs. Furthermore, within the environment are found the
183

clients to be served or regulated, the market focus which establish costs for
the goods and services produced by government, special interest groups that
have a particular concern about what the government does and other public
and private institutions that may offer support or opposition. Finally, it I within
that environment that the consequences of governance are to be judged right
or wrong.

3.1

Historical Antecedents

It would appear that the influence of colonialism in our national discourse is

gradually becoming an over-beaten path, yet it will equally appear fallacious
or, should we say, an administrative suicide for any discussion to be
undertaken on the history of governance in Nigeria without recourse to the
influence of colonialism. Simply put, the Nigerias colonial experience laid the
foundation for economic and political underdevelopment of the country. The
structural deformities and contract dictions inherited in 1960 have continued
to militate directly or indirectly against possibilities for growth, stability and
development. Political initiatives and regime initiatives have had to content
with structurally determined and conditioned crises and contradictions while
making it possible for new problems to emerge and fetter. The post-colonial
alignment and realignment of class forces in Nigeria have operated within the
overall deformities and distortions introduced and nurtured by the colonial
state and the colonial elite.

Political independence which Nigeria earned in 1960 without splitting any

blood, introduce novel institutions, political forces, and patterns into the
political terrain of the country. However, in spite of the alignment and
realignment of political and social forces, it would appear that Nigerias
political development has made very limited progress and it is hardly on the
path of addressing the conditions of backwardness, underdevelopment,
foreign domination, economic mismanagement, mass poverty, and
marginalization in the global division of labour-conditions which continue to
militate against effective development and the concrete development and
strengthening of political institutions and processes. The Nigerian social
formation, state and dominant elites appear to have failed woefully in
184

extricating themselves from the imposed distortions, forms of domination,

unequal exchange and subservience to foreign tastes, values, relations of
exchange and inability to be creative and productive.

The scenario is summarized by Ihonvbere, (2002:112) as follows:

(i)
(ii)

The creation of a weak, repressive, and non hegemonic state;

The development of indigenous elites and their marginalization in the
internal production and exchange systems;
(iii) The promotion and accentuation of primordial loyalties through the
divide and rule politics and the use of resource allocation to divide
the people along primordial lines
(iv) The unequal distribution of social and other amenities and the use of
bureaucratic manipulation to slow down developments in the North
and to pitch the North against the South;
(v)
Foreign domination of the local economy and the incorporation of
the emerging elites into the structures and systems of the
metropolitan elites as junior partners, agents advisers,
representatives, etc;
(vi) Through economic, educational, fiscal and administrative policies, the
reduction, as much as possible, of contacts between the North and
the South.
(vii) The encouragement of a culture of repression and violence through
the creation of a very violent and ruthless security and police force to
collect taxes, depose traditional rulers impose cash crops, and obtain
forced labour from communities.
(viii) He manipulation of the policies of decolonization to heighten the
differences between the emerging elites;
(ix) The looting of the resources of Nigeria, discouragement of relevant
and comprehensive education, the failure to create useful and
democratic institutions, and the failure to build infrastructures that
would facilitate mobility and contact amongst peoples; and
(x)
The structured incorporation of the Nigerian social formation into an
exploitive and unequal international division of labour thus,
concretizing its marginalization, vulnerability and dependent, a
185

condition which affects the ability of local elites to run the economy
in an autonomous manner beneficial to the local economy and
society in the first instance.

The consequence of the foregoing is that Nigeria is yet to recover from that
experience. Many of the leaders in contemporary Nigeria were creations of
the colonial system. Many of the officers in the bureaucracy were recruited
and trained under the colonial system. Several officers in the army, itself
originally a colonial creation was recruited and trained under the colonial
system. The countrys international trade is largely shaped by economic
structures and relations and entered into in the colonial era. The
educational and agricultural policies, even legal forms and patterns are
structured after these of the British who, ab initio had no positive designs
for Nigeria as a colony.

We therefore posit that one of the main predicaments of Nigeria today is

the weakness and fragility of civil society. The fragmentation of people
along ethnic, class, gender, communal, religious ,regional domains.

3.2

Social Factor

The consequences of this factor are enormous. Infact, continues to shape and
reshape the art of governance in Nigeria. It has tended to erode the national
consciousness of Nigerians. This is because, within the Nigeria societies, we
find that family, local, state and ethnic loyalties compete with and often take
precedence over loyalties to the nation. These are so deeply rooted that they
create problems in governance practically with their attendant nepotism in all
its forms. The consequences are that supervision and control, s management
functions, are difficult to exercise. Directly related to this s corruption which
has equally eaten deep into the fabrics of the Nigerian society such that the
Transparency International has continuously rated Nigeria for almost ten years
as one of the most corrupt nations in the world despite efforts being made by
the Government to reduce this practice. The tendency to see Federal
186

Governments funds or benefits accruing there from as national cake that

should be sliced from as much as possible is life.

The situation is even worsened by the recognition accorded such officials who
have corruptly enriched themselves within the society. They are almost always
welcomed with such recognitions as chieftaincy titles and the like. This
category of persons is found across and among various classes of the society
particularly the political class which appears to be the final point of abode
due to the concomitant protection enjoyed within that class. The truth of the
matter is that one can hardly penetrate this class unless he is very rich. Yet, we
find retired military officers, other public officers and professionals, within the
rank and file of the political class. The tendency and trends have equally
exposed that fallacity embedded in the art of governance as espoused by the
received wisdom in the field. Otherwise, how else can one explain virtually
unquestioned belief and sarcastic expressions and with impunity for that
matter, that political appointments in a democratic dispensation is an
opportunity to recoup electoral expenses rather than to render service to the
people in particular, and the nation in general.

Put differently, how else can the pitiable condition of a retired official or
successful businessman who sold all his landed properties both at home and
abroad in order to penetrate the political class, get nominated by his political
party, contest and win an election a a Senator are Local Government
Chairman be salvaged ? Infact, another trend is a situation where corruptly
enriched but retired public officials quickly gain entry into the political class to
escape being investigated since protection by the political class is guaranteed
into position =s where they use their new positions to torpedo any move that
would make such investigation possible. Cases abound of sharp practices in
various forms which influence governance in Nigeria.

3.3

Human Relations factor

187

As posited by the Udoji Commission (1974:4), governance is primarily bout

dealing with people in cooperative systems. However, in Nigeria, due to lack
of co-operation and teamwork between superiors and subordinates on
teamwork between superiors and subordinates on the one hand and
horizontal among peer mates on the other, spirit of animosity, jealousy and
conflict are the in-thing. The consequence of this is the reluctance of superiors
to delegate responsibilities to their subordinates and the reluctance of
subordinates to accepted responsibilities from their superior officers. This
reluctance results in excessive concentration of decision-making at the topmost levels, and the consequent inefficient use of the talents of both superiors
and subordinates. About this, we made the following observation elsewhere:
The Civil Service today is a total write-off. You allowed yourselves to be
whipped, instead of stopping; you inflict injury on yourselves and ask others to
wipe your tears (Maduabum, 2002:16). While analyzing the foregoing
statement, Okigbo (1986:6) was quoted as pointing-up the reality that the bulk
of the problems faced by public administrators are self-inflicted. This is
traceable to the lack of co-operation which exists among the public servants.
Sometimes this uncooperative attitude snowballs to an aggression which is
misplaced and transferred to the unfortunate public thereby resulting in poor
public relations with its attendant consequences of inefficiency,
ineffectiveness, poor performance and poor services delivery. As assessed or
pronounced by the same public.
3.4

Language

Nigeria, just like many other developing and developed countries lacks as
indigenous linqua franca. The implication of this is that below the topmost
levels in the various sectors of the society, most people are conducting their
business in a language which in varying degrees, they have not infact,
mastered. This adversely affects productivity in the conduct of government
business because, quite often, instructions and directives are not fully
understood, a situation that corresponding affects execution of such
instructions. To compound the problem, most managers in public sector
organizations, understandably, lack the patience with which to deal with
subordinates who lack the required proficiency in the linqua franca,, just as
most of them are equally poor communicators.
3.5

Educational System
188

This evolved from a colonially imposed elitist system of education with its
focus on liberal arts. As severally argued, the colonial maters were not
interested in educating members of their colonies, yet they required
interpreters that would assist them with the native hence the emphasis on
reading and writing only. This patterned what in later ears became popular,
first , focus on Arts and Social Science; and secondly , too much emphasis on
Paper Qualification rather than acquisition of skills Such Paper
Qualifications acquired in liberal Arts guaranteed Nigerians the much sought
after white collar jobs. The result is that today, students enrolment in
tertiary institutions slant more in favour of these liberal Arts than in Science
and Technology. This encourages generalists as against specialists in the
public service. As strong apostles f Lord Fultons in the dictum that the cult of
generalists is obsolete at all levels and in all parts of the service we uphold our
support for Science and technology which, we do know constitutes a
passport to economic development all over the world. It is obvious that a
country which de-emphasizes science and technology when one considers
interests of students in quest of advanced knowledge as demonstrate by the
enrolment figures in tertiary institutions in Nigeria, could not be said to be
seriously pursuing economic development.

Operations within the public service do not help matters because of the
division of the service into air-tight classes which stand in a hierarchy of power
and prestige and which is both undemocratic in spirit and a obstacle in efficient
management. The entire educational system of the nation seems to be
designed to uphold and reinforce this elitist philosophy to sort out, by stages,
the most worthy, who are crowned with the laurels of success certified by
diplomas and degrees, from the less worthy who at one stage or another in the
educational ladder, are crowed with the dunce-cap of failure. Hence the
common phenomenon of superior and inferior cadres in the service. About
this, we had severally pronounced that Bogous Certificates do not necessarily
make competent officers This is interpreted to mean that possession of chains
of degree and a certificate is not synonymous with performance because
certificates do not do the job. The job can only be effectively done through
demonstration by the individual about his acquired competences and skills.
Akin to this, is, fact of congruity between the quality of products of our
educational system and the economic direction of the nation or demonstrated
189

by the industrial sector which ought to absorb and utilize these products. The
result appears to be several cases of unemployment of educationally qualified
Nigerians.

3.6

Climatic Condition

Nigeria is situated within a climatic condition that is characterized by heat all

the year round. Some of the inefficiencies witnessed in operations in the
public service are traceable to health factors resulting from harsh climatic
conditions. Since this is a natural phenomenon, the challenge is to cope with it
by establishing a positive co-relationship between climate and working
conditions especially hours of work, rest periods, and recreational facilities.
The developed countries of the world have conquered this natural
phenomenon which is peculiar to them through various means hence their
productivity is hardly affected. We, too, can do the same with regards to our
harsh climate.

3.7

Copy cat Syndrome

There is that tendency to be too conscious of the way things are done in other
countries. This is particularly so in the public service, whether in the
organization of ministries, the administration of justice, the education of the
children or the method of keeping files This issue here is that, whereas these
model counties may have been modernizing many of their systems.
Nigerians seem to have more reverence for the past than for the present or
the future. Many policies and management practices in particular, are based
on experience and guess-work rather than on objective information obtained
through, reliable research. In addition, the tendency to copy from our model
nations at the detriment of our cultural values had brought cultural conflicts in
the areas of dress-code, attitude to life, mode of speaking and generally
believing that looking like an irresponsible person is by keeping up with the
Jones or Yankees of America. Provocative dressing among the female
gender in all works of life has attracted immense criticisms in recent times
leading to public discourse due to its conflict with our cultural values. These
190

have adverse effect on productivity in the governments organs, particularly

the distractions they portend

ACTIVITY
List the factor that influence the conduct of government business in Nigeria

ANSWER: These are historical Antecedent, Environmental factor such as Social

, Human relations, Language ,Educational system, climatic conditions., copy-cat
syndrome etc

4.0

CONCLUSION

As earlier stated, the environmental exerts immense influence on the

operations within any organization. Quite often we find that there is a mutual
relationship between the environment and the organizations. For instance
resources are obtained from the environment by the organization and the
organization releases its goods and services to the environment. This is exactly
the pattern with the conduct of government business which makes our
discussion in this unit a desirable exercise.

5.0

SUMMARY

Due to the influence of Environmental factors in the conduct of government

business, we devoted this unit to its discussion. In it, we explained the
historical antecedent antecedents, that is, the colonial administration that
pattern the way Nigerian government conducts if officials. We equally pointed
out how these lead to failure in policy and programme objectives. Other
factors are purely environmental. They include social, human relations,
language, educational system, climatic condition and the copy-cat syndrome.

191

6.0

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Discuss the environmental factors that influence the conduct of government

business in Nigeria.

7.0

FURTHER READINGS

1.

Adigwe, F.(1985) Essentials of Government for West Africa: (Ibadan :

Oxford
University Press)

2.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (1975) Main Report of the Public Service

Review
Commission (Lagos: Government Press).

4.

Maduabum , C.P (2003) The Civil Services under Military Rule, in

Modupeolu Faseke, The Civil Services in Nigeria: A Historical
perspective (Ibadan: Rex Charles Publications in Association
with Connel Publications)

5.

Maduabum, C.P.(2008) The Mechanics of Public Administration in

Nigeria (Badary: ASCON Pres)

UNIT 18
192

CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS
TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0
2.0
3.0

Introduction
Objectives
Main Content
3.1 What is Constitution?
3.2 Constitutional development in Nigeria
3.3 Implications for Political and Administrative Development in
Nigeria.
3.4

The 1999 Constitution

3.4.1 Main Features
3.4.2 Chapter in the Constitution
3.4.3 Schedules in the Constitution
3.4.4 A Critique of the 1999 Constitution

4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0

Conclusion
Summary
Tutor-marked Assignment
Further Reading.

1.0 INTRODUCTION
193

In Nigeria, as in most other successful Democracies in the world, the Rule of

Law constitutes the overriding factor in enhancing such success. The
constitution is recognized in such democracies as Nigeria as the most
important document upon which here successful democratization relies. Infact
some authorities argue that the constitution is the foundation of democracy
or, put differently is the building block of democracy. This importance which
the constitution commands has made it inevitable for a greater emphasis in
the study of democratic government is guided by laws the highest of which is
the constitution. In the process care is taken not only to resume fairness at all
times but that justice is seen to prevail.

2.0

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you will be able to

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

Explain the concept of constitution

Trace the constitutional development in Nigeria from its inception to
the present day.
Analyse the current constitution (1999) in use in Nigeria
Derive lessons from the analyses for use in the conduct of
government business.

3.0

MAIN CONTENT

3.1

What is Constitution?

A Constitution is a formal document having the force of law, by which a society

organizes and limits its powers and prescribes the relations of its various
organs, and with the citizen. (Nwabueze, 1973:2). It could e written or
unwritten.

Perhaps, a more comprehensive definition which further expands parameters

for analysis is that provided the Blacks Law Dictionary according to the
document:

194

Constitution is the organic and fundamental law of a nation,

which may be written or unwritten, establishing the character and
conception of its government, laying the basic principles to which
and internal life is to be conformed, organizing the government
and regulating , and limiting the functions of the different
departments, and prescribing the extent and manner of the
exercise of powers. It is a charter of government deriving its whole
authority from the governed. Agreed upon by the people of the
union s an absolute rule of action and decision for all departments
and officers of government in respect of all the points covered by
it. And in opposition to which any act or ordinance of any such
department officer is null and void

From the above definition, six cardinal characteristics emerge for a valid
constitution namely: Fundamental law of a nation; establishes the
government; prescribes the functions and powers of government; regulates
the exercise of those powers; and derives its authority from the people.
On the other hand, constitutionalism refers to the application of the spirit and
letters of the constitution. It is the anti-thesis of arbitrary rule. It follows from
the obvious fact that government is universally accepted to be necessity, since
man cannot fully realize himself except within ordered society. Yet, the
necessity for government creates its own problem for man, the problem of
how to limit the good of society. It is this limiting of the arbitrariness of
political power that is expressed in the concept of constitutionalism
(Nwabueze, 1973, Ibid). Thus, between constitution and constitutional
practice, we observed certain arbitrariness which now shaped the content and
character of constitutional amendments in Nigeria. It is also in the light of this
that we shall attempt to explain the political and administrative implications of
the constitutional developments in Nigeria.
3.2

Constitutional Development in Nigeria

Constitutional Development in Nigeria refers to the series of constitutional

changes, leading to land-mark political and administrative policies and
structures from the colonial era to post-independence era. A summary of
these constitutional developments in Nigeria is as follows:
195

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
(x)

The Lugard Council 1914

The Clifford Constitution of1922
The Richard Constitution of 1946
The Macpherson Constitution of 1951
The Littleton Constitution of 1954
The Independence Constitution 1960
The Republic Constitution of 1963
The 1979 Constitution;
The 1989 Constitution
The 1999 Constitution

The afore-mentioned stages of Constitutional development shall be examined

but with special emphasis on the significant political and administrative
changes introduced by each of them.

(i)

The Lugard Council of 1914:

The amalgamation of the Northern and Southern Protectorates of
Nigeria took place in 1914. This gave rise to the formation of a
Legislative Council known as the Lugard Council in 1914.

The significance of the Legislative Council were:

(a) It was made up of all members of the Executive, unofficial members and
minority Africans;
(b) It brought about a pooling of resources for the two administrations of
Southern and Northern Nigeria. For example, Northern Nigerian
administration was sustained by a share of the Southern Nigerian
Customs and grant in-aid from the Imperial Treasury (Faseke, 1988:8).

In 1919, educated elites both in Lagos and Calabar criticized the Lugard Council
on grounds that the illiterate Chiefs and Obas in the Council could not speak
English. This gave rise to the formation of the Clifford Constitution.

196

(ii)

The Clifford Constitution (1922):

Sir Hugh Clifford succeeded Sir Lord Fredrick Lugard as GovernorGeneral of Nigeria in 1922. The same year, he drafted what became
known as the Clifford Constitution. The significant features of the
Clifford Constitution were:
(a) It consists of:
- Legislative Council (legislate for peace and order and to approve
the estimates of expenditures for Northern provinces).
- Executive Council (advisory to the Governor-General:
(b)- It introduced the elective principle the electorates in Lagos and
Calabar were able to vote for the first time. In the case of Lagos,
the right of franchise was restricted to about 3,000 male tax
payers with an income of one hundred pounds and to return three
members to the legislative council every five years.
(c )

Consequent upon the above, political parties were formed . For

example: On June 24, 1923, Herbert Macaulay and his Associates
inaugurated into Nigeria.

The limitations of the Clifford Constitution especially in terms of Africans not

being represented in the executive council, limited franchise, etc. led to the
emergence of the Richard Constitution.

(iii) The Richard Constitution (1964)

Sir Arthur Richard became the Governor=General in 1943 after a brief stay
of Sir Bernard Bourdillion between 1935- 1943. The Richard Constitution
which came into effect on 1st January 1947 had the following significant
features:
(a) Establishment of Regional House of Assembly, also with unofficial
majorities elected through Electoral Colleges for the North, West and
East. In addition, the North also had a House of Chiefs.
(b) Introduction of Policy of regionalism with the division of the country
into three regions.

197

(c) It marked the beginning of the regionalization of the hitherto Unitary

Civil Service as some attempts were made to regionalized the central
departments such as Education, Forestry, Labour, Medical and Public
Relations (Faseke, 198:54).
(d) Arising from the above , Sydney Phillipson was commissioned to Study
Comprehensively and make recommendations regarding the
administrative and financial procedure to be adopted under the new
constitution The Report which was ltr adopted , led to the evolution of
the policy of establishing Boards and Corporations such as Electricity
Corporation of Nigeria (ECN) and the Nigeria Railway Corporation (NCR).
(Faseke, 1988:56).The limitations of the Richard Constitution include:
writing the constitution without consulting the people; division of the
country into unequal regions; non-provision of House of Chiefs for the
Western and Eastern regions , etc. These led to the emergence of the
Macpherson Constitution.

(iv)

The Macpherson Constitution (1951)

Sir John Macpherson became Governor-General of Nigeria in 1948.
The significant aspects of the Macpherson Constitution ere:

(a)

For the first time, Nigerians were involved in the Drafting of the
Constitution from the grass-root level to the national level.
It established a central legislature and a central executive for the
country.
It established a council of ministers charged with the responsibility of
formulating policies and directing executive action. It should be
noted here that the ministers together with the Lt. Governor, the
Civil Secretary, Legal , Financial and Development Secretary formed
the Regional Executive Council. Under the new arrangement, head of
government departments ceased to be members f the Executive
Council. This was a change of great magnitude in the sense that it
marked the crucial dividing line between politics and administration.

(b)
(c )

(d) It provided for a supremacy of central law. The central law is

supreme to regional law hence, in the event of a clash between the
two over certain constitutional matters, the central law is adopted.
198

The limitations of MacPherson Constitution which were: no provision for the

post of a Federal Minister or Regional Premiers: lack of responsible
government at the centre; the absence of a federal structure; and problems
generated by the Action Groups move for independence in 1956 by Chief
Anthony Enahoro. All these led to the emergency of the Lyttleton Constitution
in 1954. It is also to be noted that the Northern Peoples Congress (NPC) was
averse to the Action Groups motion, and preferred to substitute it with the
clause: as soon as practicable.

(v)

The Lyttleton Constitution (1954)

The Lyttleton Constitution was put in place in October, 1954 following
the London and Lagos Conference held to review the problems which
arose as a result of the demand for independence.

The significant features of Littleton Constitution were:

(a) Federalism was established as a system of government in Nigeria

(b) It provided for division of powers through the three (3) legislative lists.
(1)

Executive Lists: These denote the items on which the federal

government has power to legislate on I.e University, currency,
telecommunication, defence, mines and power.

(2) Concurrent Lists: These specify matters on which the federal and state
governments have powers to legislate on i.e., Agriculture, industrial
development, insurance, higher education, etc.
(3) Residual Lists: This borders on items or matters not under exclusive ad
concurrent lists i.e Local Government, Chieftaincy Affairs, etc
(c ) There was the establishment of the Supreme Court and Regional Courts.
199

(d) Premiers and Ministers were appointed in the various regions and
ministers at the
Federal level were now given portfolios.
(e) Apart from the institution of the Public Service Commission, other
Administrative changes took place with the setting up of the Gorsuch
Commission, which recommended among others the introduction of the
technical grade. The Civil Service was divided into two distinct classes

1.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Sub-Clerical
Clerical
Executive
Superscale

General Administration
2.
Professional Class
Minor Technical
Technical
Higher Technical
Superscale

The

The limitations of the Lyttleton constitution which include: its failure to

provide for the office of prime Minister at the Centre, division of the country
into 3 regions without constitutional recognition of the status; problems of the
minorities; and the growing yearnings for independence etc. led to the
emergence of the independence constitution.

(iv) The Independence Constitution (1960)

The Independence Constitution was the outcome of the London
Constitutional Conference of 23rd may 26th June, 1957 and the resumed
conference in Lagos between 29th September and 27th October, 1958
under Mr. Alan Lennox Boyd, the Secretary of State for the Colonies as
Chairman.

200

The significant features of the Independence Constitution were:

(a)

(b)

(c)
(d)
(e)

It granted independence to Nigeria: However, the Queen of England was

represented by the Governor-General as Nigerian was still under the
Queen.
It provides for a parliamentary or cabinet system of government by which
the post of Head of State was distinct from the head of Government. For
example, whereas Alhaji Tafawa Balewa was made Prime Minister as Head
of Government, Rt. Hon. Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe was Governor-General as
Head of State.
It provided for State Creation to allay the fears of the minorities.
The fundamental human rights were entrenched to safeguard the rights of
the citizens.
It provided for Nigerian citizenship:

Those born in Nigeria after 1st October, 1960;

Anybody born in Nigeria after 30th September, 1960 where one of
the parents was a citizen of Nigeria; and
Those who have registered as Nigerian citizens and other
qualifications etc.

The limitations of the Independence Constitution were: the Queen of England

was still the ceremonial head of Nigeria despite Nigerias Independence; the
Supreme Court was not the highest court in the land except the Privy Council
in London; etc. These led to emergence of the 1963 Republican Constitution.

(vi)
The Republican Constitution (1963)
Nigeria became Republic on 1st October, 1963 with adoption of the Republican
Constitution. The significant features of the Republican Constitution were:

201

(a)

(b)

(c)
(d)
(e)

It brought to an end the dominance of British rule as Nigeria. The Office

of Governor-General was changed and replaced by the office of
President, who was elected, but was only a ceremonial head.
All appeals, formally going to the Privy Council in London were
abolished. The Supreme Court in Nigeria became the highest court of
appeal.
It provided for the establishment of Federal Electoral Commission for
the conduct of elections in the country.
Nigeria remained a federation of four regions and a federal territory,
with the creation of the mid-west region.
The Federal Government had the power to declare a state of emergency
in any region in cases of violence or breach of peace.

With the Republican Constitution in force, Nigeria became a sovereign nationstate. The politicians of the 1st Republic became political masters, who
unfortunately could not manage the transfer of political power to them by the
British. Hence, the mis-rule and the irresponsible manner the politicians
conducted the affairs of the nature led to the military take-over of government
on 15th of January, 1966. The bloody coup, which was led by Major Chukwuma
Kaduna Nzeogu was characterized by certain anomalies in terms of its
operations. Thus, contradictions arose within he military class which led to
counter coups in military administrations from General Aguiyi Ironsi to General
Yakubu Gowon n the one hand, and from General Murtala Mohammed to
General Olusegun Obasanjo, with the murder of the latter, on the other.
However, the duo promised and instituted a transitional programme which
was to return Nigeria to democratic rule in 1979. To achieve this lofty aim, the
1970 Constitution came into being as mid-wifed by General Olusegun
Obasanjos regime through a 50-Man Member Committee headed by Chief
F.R.A Williams (Odanye, 2002:5-106).

(vii)
The 1979 Constitution:
The 1978 Constitution ushered in Nigerias second Republic with Alhaji Shehu
Shagari as President . The significant features of the Constitution were:

202

(a) It provided for a Presidential System of Government. The President was

head of State and Head of Government as a means of avoiding the
conflict of leadership in the parliamentary system of government
witnessed in the first republic.
(b) It provided for separation of powers between the executive, legislative
and judicial arms of government.
(c) It created a nullified Local Government System as the third their of
government in other to bring about development to the rural areas.
(d) The House of Chiefs was abrogated in order to insulate Chiefs from
partisan politics.
(e) It established the Code of Conduct Bureau and Code of Conduct tribunal.
(f) It created a Bi-cameral Legislature at the Federal level (i.e Senate and
House of representatives) and a Unicameral Legislature at the State level
(i.e House of Assembly).
(g) It proclaimed the Supremacy of the Constitution in order to avoid
conflicts and arbitrariness.

(ix) The 1989 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria:

Following the overthrow of the Alhaji Shehu Shagaris government of the
second Republic by general Mohammadu Buharis led military Coup in 1983;
the Nigerian State went through another trauma of military rule. By 1984,
when Geneeral Ibranhim Babangida over-threw the General Buharis military
government. It was evident that accusation of corruption against over throne
leaders was no longer a factor for military intervention in Nigerias politics.
However, it was instructive to note that General Babangida put in place a
political transaction programme, which manifested in the birth of the 1989
Constitution for Nigerias Third Republic. But this was set aside owing to the
annulment of the June 12 1993 Presidential Elections.
The 1989 Constitution was a product of the transition to Civil Rule (political
programme) Decree of 1987 which set up the Constitution Review Committee
to review the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1979, in line with
the accepted recommendations of the political Bureau inaugurated by the
Federal Military Government on 13th January, 1986. In summary, the 1989
Constitutions with slight modifications, adopted, among others the
fundamental provisions of the 1979 constitution with respect to:
203

(a) That Nigeria remains a Federal State

(b) That Nigeria shall continue to operate the Presidential System of
Government;
(c) That Nigerian shall apply the Federal Character for promoting national
unity and to command National loyalty.

We wish to note that the Nigerian policy, being guided by Constitutional and
Transitional Decrees under general Babangida, the Military Government gave a
purposeful direction on the political and ideological commitment of Nigerian
politicians without ethnic bias. This led to the /first generally accepted and
widely acclaimed free and fare presidential elections in Nigeria. It was rather
unfortunate that the acclaimed winner of the presidential election, late Chief
M.K.O Abiola was prevented from exercising that mandate, thereby creating
obstacles on the path of Nigerias match to democracy and development. But
this contradiction itself has today led to another constitutional experience: the
birth of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria as against
Decrees and Edicts (with respect to Federal and States respectively).

Activity 1

ANSWER:

List the different Constitution in Nigeria from 1944 to date.

i. Lugard Council of 1914

ii. The Clifford Constitution of 1922

iii. The Richard Constitution of 1946
iv. The MacPherson Constitution of 1951
v. The Littleton Construction of 1954
vi.The Independence Constitution of 1960
vii. The Republican Constitution of 1963
viii.The 1929 Constitution
ix.The 1989 Constitution
x.The 1999 Constitution

3.3Implications for Political and Administrative Development in Nigeria

204

The totality of Nigerias constitutional development experience is the

emergence of Nigeria as an independent and sovereign nation among the
comity of independent nations of the world. By this, Nigeria has achieved selfesteem, which is concerned with the feeling of self-respected and
independence as espoused by Goulet, an authority in development paradigm,
who argued that a society is developed when she has achieved three basic
components or core values, which he calls life sustenance, self esteem and
freedom (Thirlwall, 1992). This has some implications for Nigerias political and
administrative development, some which are:

i. Nigeria is governed by her own indigenous leaders with an application of

the norms of democracy.
ii. Nigeria conducts her external relations in equal terms with other nations
of the world, regional and sub-regional bodies like the United Nations
Organisation. (UNO). Commonwealth, the African Union (AU) , Economic
Community of West Africa States (ECOWAS) etc.
iii. Nigerian has the choice of adopting its economic and political policies,
programmes and projects, which are peculiar to her interest despite the
odds of globalization and internalization.
iv.
Nigeria today has a civil service with an inbuilt bureaucratic and
administrative
disposition to serve the political masters. This separation of
administration from
politics is a world standard, which ensures that the civil servant moral
the custodian of stability in the Nigerian nation.
v.

Finally, the cumulative constitutional experience is a sine-qua-non for

a better state policy initiation, formulation, implementation and
evaluation for purposes of guaranteeing the unity, peace and
progress of Nigeria and her citizen.

The 1999 Constitution in Focus

The 1999 Constitution starts with the following preamble:

205

(a) We the people of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, having firmly and
solemnly resolved to live in unity and harmony as one indivisible and
indissoluble sovereign nation under God dedicated to the promotion of
inter-African solidarity, world peace, international co-operation and
understanding.
(b) And To Provide for a Constitution for the purpose of promoting the
good government and welfare of all persons in our country on the
principles of freedom, equality and justice, and for the purpose of
consolidating the unity of our people.
(c) Do Hereby make , Enact and Give To Ourselves the following
Constitution

It contains Eight Chapters and Seven Schedules. They include:

Chapter 1;

General provisions.

Chapter II:
Policy

Fundamental Objectives and Directive Principles of State

Chapter III:

Citizenship

Chapter IV

Fundamental Rights

Chapter V:

The Legislature

Chapter VI.

The Executive

Chapter VII:

The Judicature

Chapter VIII:
Provisions

Federal Capital Territory, Abuja and General Supplementary

Schedules:

(First, Second, Third, Fourth, Fifth, Sixth and Seventh).

3.4.1 The main features of the 1999 Constitution are outlined as follows:
(a)

That the Nigerian Constitution is supreme;

(b)

That it is written, rigid and federal;

206

(c )

That Nigeria shall operate a Presidential System of Government;

(d)
That Nigeria shall operate a two-chamber legislature at the
federal level and a unicameral at the states level;
(e) That there shall be rule of law and constitutional separation of
powers;
(f)

That there shall be an Independent Judiciary;

(g)

That there shall be code of conduct for public officers; and

(h)

That the composition of government of the federation or any of

its agencies and the conduct of its affairs shall be carried out in
such a manner as to reflect the federal character of Nigeria,

A brief analyses of each of the chapters is undertaken subsequently.

3.4.2 Chapters in the Constitution

(a)

Chapter One
This chapter is divided into two parts (Part 1 and Part 2). Issues treated
under Part 1 titled: Federal Republic of Nigeria include: Supremacy of
the Constitution and the status of the Federal Republic of Nigeria as well
as its components. It also contains (in terms of making references to)
schedules that help to clarify what is treated under this part like
schedules 1 and 2 to the Constitution. Part 2 titles Powers of the
Federal republic of Nigeria deals with Legislative Powers; Executive
Powers; Judicial Powers; Local Government System; the processes of
creating new states and boundary adjustment; mode of altering
provisions of the Constitution; prohibition of State Religion; Public Order
and Public Security, and Implementation of Treaties. (Sections 4-12 of
the Constitution).

(b )

Chapter Two
This section outlines the Fundamental Objectives and directive Principles
of State Policy. Section 13 of the chapter directs as a matter of
207

fundamental obligation on the part of all those who exercise

governmental responsibility to conform to the provisions of the chapter
and apply same in the exercise of this responsibility . Section 14, upholds
the principles of democracy and social justice as the basis of the state of
the federal Republic of Nigeria. In line with the motto of the Federal
Republic of Nigeria, which is Unity, Faith, Peace and Progress the
political objectives are outlined in Section 15 with the promotion of
national nitration as its focus, by breaking through the visible barriers of
language, religion and ethnic diversity of the people. In Section 16 the
economic objectives are geared towards harnessing the resources of the
nation through a fair, private and public participation in the economic
activities, to promote a planned and self-reliant economy that would
benefit the generality of Nigerian in equitable and justifiable order.
Section 17 refers to the social objectives which are to be founded on the
ideals of freedom, equality of rights, obligations, and opportunities
before the law.

(c )

Chapter Three
This chapter focuses on citizenship. Citizenship can be described as the
Legal right which an individual acquires to belong to a particular country.
The doctrine of citizenship has far-reaching implications in terms of
rights, obligations and status of the citizen. According to the oxford
English Dictionary, a citizen is an inhabitant of a city; a person with full
rights in a country. The concept of citizenship therefore deals with the
way and manner a country determines who her nationals are. The
chapter is divided into six sub-sections that deal with the various
concept of citizenship. These include: (i) Citizenship by Birth, (ii)
Citizenship by Registration, (iii) Those who naturalize as Nigerians; (iv)
Dual citizenship, (v) Renunciation of citizenship, and (vi) Deprivation of
citizenship by the President.

(d)

Chapter Four
This chapter deals with Fundamental Human Rights. Fundamental
human rights complement and enhance our harmonious existence and
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continuance of the nation state of Nigeria. Without citizens there

cannot be a country and without these rights, the citizens would be like
slaves in their own country. Freedom from fear and want can be
achieved if conditions are created whereby every citizen may enjoy
his/her civic and political rights. Furthermore, these rights guarantee
the protection of life and property of every Nigeria citizen (Abdullahi,
2000:41 and Adele, 2003:34.) Fundamental human rights are basic to
the existence of every individual. They include: the rights to life (Sec.
33); right to dignity of human person (Sec . 34); right to personal liberty
(Sec. 35); right to fair hearing (Sec. 36); right to private and personal life
(Sec.37).

Others are the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion (Sec.
38); right to freedom of expression and press (Sec.39), the right to
peaceful assembly and association (Sec. 40); the right to freedom of
movement (Sec . 41); the right to freedom from dissimilation (Sec.42); it
also dealt with compulsory acquisition of property(Sec.44); restriction on
and derogation from fundamental right (Sec 45); and special jurisdiction
of high court and legal aid. (Sec . 46).

(e)

Chapter Five
The focus of this chapter is the Legislature; the Legislature is the
sovereign organ of the state powers. It is the law-making today as far as
Nigerian constitution is concerned. This fact is attested to in Sections
47-129 of this chapter which stated that there shall be a national
Assembly for the Federation which shall consist of the House of Senate
and House of the Senate shall consist of three senators from each state
and one from the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. While, the House of
the representative shall consist of three hundred and six members
representing various constituencies of nearly equal proportion in the
country. There shall be a President and a Deputy for the Senate and the
Speaker and Deputy Speaker for the House of Representatives who shall
be elected from among the members of those houses.

209

(f)

Chapter Six
This chapter, focuses on the Executive Arm of Government at National
and State levels. Various conditions for the election of the President and
State Governors and their removal from office, are clearly enunciated in
this chapter. There are also provisions for the setting up off special
Federal and State Executive bodies (Commissions and Councils). Others
important provisions are in respect of Public Revenue and the Public
Services of the Federal and States. Part III of this chapter contains
supplemental provisions which are in Sections A,B,C and D that pertain
to the national Population Commission, the Nigeria Police Force, the
Armed Forces of the Federation , and Political parties , respectively.

(g)

Chapter Seven
Judicature is the subject matter of this chapter and it relates to the
judicial system. It is the body of lawyers, (Judges and Lawyers in the
Benches and Bars) that constitute the third estate of the realm. In
essence, the Constitution of the country is the supreme law meant to
regulate the conduct of affairs in both our public and personal lives. The
chapter is divided into four parts. Part 1 focuses on Federal Courts; Part
II, State Courts,; Part III, Election Tribunals and Part V, Supplemental.

(h)

Chapter 8
This chapter deals with the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja and general
supplementary provisions. The chapter consists of 4 parts. Part one is
made up of sections 297 to 304. This part highlights
the
establishment of the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja, as the capital of
the Federal and seat of Government of Nigeria. This part of the
constitution accords the Federal Capital Territory the status state.
Additionally, this section provides for the appointment of a Minister of
210

the Federal Capital Territory to oversee the Federal Capital and he/she is
to be appointed by the President of the federal Republic of Nigeria. The
administrative structure and the organs of government in the Federal
Capital Territory are enshrined in this portion.Section 305 to 308 make
up part of the Chapter. This part contains miscellaneous provisions.
Some of these provisions include the procedure for declaration of the
state of emergency as well as the presidents power to proclaim a state
of emergency.

Part III of the chapter deals with transitional provisions and savings and
these are contained in Sections 309 to 307. The concluding part of the
Chapter is contained in Sections 318 to 320 and it deals with
interpretation, citation and the commencement of the 1999 on 29 th
May, 1999.
3.4.3 Schedules in the Constitution
The schedules are 1-7, The first schedule has parts one and two whereas part I
titled States of the Federation lists the 36 States of Nigeria and local
government areas in each state, thus totalling 747 local government areas.
(Including those of the Federal Capital Territory, FCT). Part II titled: Definition
of Federal Capital Territory, Abuja lists the Seven Area Councils in the FCT.
Second schedule has Parts 1 to III. While Part I addresses Exclusive Legislative
list, Part II addresses concurrent legislative list and Part III addresses
supplemental and interpretation. As explained by Akande (2000:478), in this
schedule is the distribution of legislative powers between the Federal and
State Governments. There are 66 numbered items and two items of matters of
incidental and supplementary to those mentioned in the Exclusive List and 12
main items on the concurrent list subdivided into 30 subsidiaries.

The third schedule equally has three (3) parts. Part I outlines Federal Executive
Bodies such as Code of Conduct Bureau; Council of State; Federal Character
Commission; Federal Civil Service Commission; Federal Judicial Service;
Independent National Electoral Commission; national Defence Council;
national Economic Council; National Judiciary Council; national Population
Commission; national Security Council and Revenue Mobilization Allocation
211

and Fiscal Commission. Part II explains the States Executive Bodies such as
State Civil Service Commission; State Independence Electoral Commission and
State Judicial Service Commission. Part III on the other hand explains the
Executive Body of the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja.

The Fourth Schedule explains the functions of the Local Government Council.
The Fifth schedule deals with the Code of Conduct for Public Officers which
includes the Code of Conduct Bureau and the Code of Conduct Tribunal. Part II
identifies public officers for the purposes of the code of conduct. The sixth
schedule dwells on Election Tribunals. Here are the National Assembly
Tribunal and the Governorship and Legislative Houses Election Tribunal.

Finally, the seventh schedule focuses on Oath. Here, we have Oath of

Allegiance; Oath of Office of President; Oath of Office of Vice President
Governor, Deputy Governor, Minister, Commissioner, Special Adviser; oath of
member of the National Assembly or of a House of Assembly; and Judicial
Oath.

3.4.4 The 1999 Constitution: A Critique

Several commentators on the 1999 Constitution had identified certain lapses
especially in the drafting of the document. The common denominator among
their criticisms is that the document was initiated and midwived, by the
military and as such, cannot truly and fully reflects the collective aspirations of
Nigerians in a democratic setting. Infact some views are that the document is
skewed towards protection of the military interests as it did not categorically
pronounce on the illegitimacy of military regimes and outright condemnation
of military coup d etat. The fact that the constitution was promulgated by an
outgoing military regime without any provision for its acceptance either
through a resolution of the National Assembly or by a Referendum ha
generated a lot of debate as to the legitimacy of the document. Indeed, many
212

eminent jurists have condemned not only the process of its making but also ,
many of its provisions and called for its abrogation (Akande, 2000:vi).

However, the fact still remains that the present civilian administration has
operated the 1999 constitution since assuming power in May, 1999.
Experience garnered while the operation lasted revealed in more practical
terms lapses of the constitution. In recognition of this and in response to the
peoples wish for another constitution, the Federal Government inaugurated
the Presidential Committee on the Review of the 1999 Constitution on 19 th
October, 1999. The report of the Committee was submitted on 30 th February,
2001. On this report, Ibe, (2004: B.6) has this to say:

However. Like all Committees constituted to serve certain

interests,
the committees Report only succeeded in identifying the problems
without making any concrete efforts to offer useful suggestions to
solve them

of self-preservative machinery which they could truly call their own, thus, they
established these dreaded forces. These forces sometimes engage in
protection of lives and property thereby counting the intention of section 214
of the constitution which insists on the establishment of a centralized Nigeria
Police Force. The point being made is that the burning issues of state police,
sharia system, local government creation, resource control and the
composition of some bodies like the National Judicial Council are some of the
detectors which signal the morbid inadequacies of the constitution on the
issue of true federalism.

6.

The 1999 Constitution, like its predecessors , we aver, is a myth and an

expressed elitist document as against that of the people. Thus, the
preamble of the constitution We the people .. is a charade.
213

7.

Chapter II of the constitution contains the fundamental objectives and

directive principles of state policy. This enunciates what the objectives
of the state are. From all indications, these principles and objectives
parade the socio-economic rights of citizens under another
nomenclature. Apart from stating these objectives, there Is no provision
to commit the state towards fulfilling them nor has the citizen the right
to use the government in the law courts when the government fails to
fulfil what it has promised. (Babalola 2004:43.)

In view of the foregoing, we posit that a more credible constitution is

desirable. The constitution being proposed should be put together by a crosssection of Nigerians and not the National Assembly as presently constituted
because, that body is weak, too weak to act independent of executive
interference. More importantly, the National Assembly is a conglomeration of
politicians and the constitution is not that of the politicians alone but that of
the Nigerian people.

4.0

CONCLUSION

Our proposed constitution must therefore address more adequately such

issues as supremacy and defence of the constitution, the structure of the
federation, traditional institutions, public revenue (derivation and sharing
formula), devolution of powers, local government autonomy, state and
religion, legislative/executive relationship, rights, judicial powers and
independence of the judiciary , status of the federal capital territory, anticorruption and transparency, political party system, state police, land use act,
and tenure of elective offices.

Above all, no constitution in Nigeria has a legitimacy status hence the move for
a National Dialogue or Sovereign National Conference. Here, whatever
issues that are decided should be subjected to a Referendum in order to get
sufficient inputs from generality of Nigerians. By so doing, the product of such
214

conference would be a Constitution that will for the first time be accorded
legitimacy.

5.0

SUMMARY

A nations Constitution, we aver, is the bedrock of a democratically elected

government practiced in such a nation. In view of this, this unit set out by
explaining the concept of the constitution, traces the constitutional
development in Nigeria from inception to date.
Demerits or inadequacies of each constitution which lad to the formulation of
another constitutions of the constitutional development for political and
administrative development in Nigeria. The unit therefore focused its
attention on the 1999 Constitution which is currently in use in Nigeria. It
indentified the eight chapters and seven schedules of the constitutional and
briefly explained the provisions of each.

Finally a critique of the constitution was undertaken which led the unit to
recommend constitutional review.

It is our belief that acquisition of knowledge in this direction will assist in the
adoption of Due Process in the conduct of government business.

6.0

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1.

Critique the 1999 Constitution and provide remedial measures.

7.0

FURTHER READINGS

1.

Akande, J.O (2000) Introduction to the Constitution of the Federal

Republic of Nigeria, 1999 (Lagos: M.I.J Professional Publishers Ltd

2.

Faseke, M, (1998) The Civil Service in Nigeria: A Historical Perspective

(Ibadan: Rex Charles Publishers).
215

3.
of

Federal Republic of Nigeria (1999) Constitution of the Federal Republic

Nigeria (Lagos federal Ministry of Information, Painting Division).

4.

Maduabum, C. P (2008) The Mechanics of Public Administration in

Nigeria( Lagos : Concept publications

5
Nwabueze , B.) (1973) Constitutionalism in the Emergent States (London:
C. Host.

216

MODULE FIVE.
UNIT 19
INTRODUCTION TO LOCAL GOVERNMENT ADMINISTRATION
Table of Content
1.0

Introduction

2.0

Objectives

3.0

Main Content
3.1

Evolution of Local Government in Nigeria

3.1.1 Meaning of Local Government in Nigeria
3.1.2. History of Local Government in Nigeria

3.2

3.1.2.1

Pre-Colonial Period

3.1.3.2

Post-Colonial Period

3.1.4.3

Early Military Era (1967 1976)

3.1.5.4

Late Military Era (1976 1979)

3.1.6.5

2nd Republic Era (1979)

3.1.7.6

2nd Military Era (1987 1999)

The Principles Underlying the Creation of Local Government

Institutions.
3.2.1 The Legal Framework of the Local Government

4.0

Conclusion

5.0

Summary

6.0

Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0

References/Further Reading.

1.0

INTRODUCTION
217

In the last section, you had an idea about what the types, styles and process of
planning and decision-making are all about. This unit will take you a step
further into the Introduction to Local Government Administration. In this unit,
the focus is on Introduction to Local Government administration, we shall be
looking at the meaning and evolution of Local government institutions, in pre
and post-colonial era, the Principle underlying the creation, as well as the Legal
Framework of Local Government administration in Nigeria.
2.0

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1.

Explain the evolution of Local government administration in Nigeria.

2.

Identify the Legal Framework and principles underlying the creation of

Local government institutions.

3.0

MAIN CONTENT

3.1

EVOLUTION OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT ADMINISTRATION

3.1.1 Meaning of Local Government Administration

The Nigeria system of Local Government administration started with the British
system and later change to the Americans System of administration. This is to
achieve efficiency of service delivery. Local Governments are semi-autonomy
in their votes and powers allocated to them. Local government as a tier of
government has generated much interest globally. It is seen as a sub-organ of
the state or central government at the Local level where government
administration is practiced at the grass-root and closer to the people.
A Local government institution is a subordinate existence to a State which
derives its powers from the general laws made by the state. Usually, it has a less
complete governmental framework. In some Francophone countries of the
World, e.g. France, Local governments administration is rigidly supervised by
the central government. In the Anglophone countries e.g. U.S.A., Local

218

government are autonomous except where they are subordinate to the state,
Local government administration in Nigeria fall within this group.
(Orewa and Adewumi, 1992) points that Local government is a system of Local
communities and towns which are organized to maintain law and order provide
some limited range of social services and co-operation of the inhabitants in join
endeavours towards the improvements of their conditions of living. From the
foregoing definitions on Local government, one can deduce that Local
government provides the community with a formal organizational framework
which enables them conduct their affairs effectively and regulates the actions of
their members for the general public.
The Federal Republic of Nigeria guidelines for Local government reforms of
1976, defines Local government councils as government exercised through
representative councils established by law to excise specific powers within
defined areas.

3.1.1 History of Local Government Administration in Nigeria

For the purpose of clarity, the Evolution of the modern Local government
system in Nigeria shall be discussed in six (6) analytical phases, which are:
a.

The Pre-Colonial Period.

b.

Post-Colonial Period.

c.

Early Military Era (1967 1976).

d.

Late Military Era (1976 1979).

e.

The Second Republic 1979.

f.

The Second Military Era.

3.1.2. The Pre-Colonial Period

219

This period marked the beginning of modern Local government system in the
country. Prior to this period; the traditional institutions were at liberty to
practice any system of administration that suits their environment. This period
saw the establishment of the native administration or native authorities, where
the people were enlightened on political and administrative education. This
system of administration allowed the traditional authorities to flourish under the
closer supervision of the resident who introduce the indirect rule system.
However, under this system, the British were able to penetrate and exploit the
vast territory of Nigeria prior to the indirect rule system. The traditional
institutions were inferior before the colonial authorities did not accept of parity
of status between the Local chiefs or traditional rulers and the Resident
Officers. Oyediran (1988), states that, the structure of Local government
administration is described as a military-like chain of responsibility extending
from the Governor and Lieutenant Governor down to the Resident, District
Officer, Chief Emir, District Head, Chief and Village Head.
In summary, authorities of Local government administration during this period
where centralized but despite the advent of indirect rule system, the traditional
native authorities were still able to carry out Legislative, Executive and Judicial
functions. The problem during these periods was corruption of the chiefs and
Obas. They were arrogant and over bearing, making Local government
administration during this era a failure.
3.1.2.2

Post-Colonial Period

Local Government Administration in Nigeria during the post-colonial period

was essentially the responsibility of the regions or what is termed as
regionalization or Localization of Local governments in Nigeria. The system of
administration varies slightly from one region to another. In the Northern
region, they adopted and retained the status as it was under the colonial master,
which was the native authority system. The emirs adopted and retained the
enormous powers, influence and prestige of the colonial masters to have a
220

stronghold and control of the political will of the region. In the Eastern region,
they practiced a two tiered system; District and Local Council System in the
Local areas and a three tiered system compose of an all-purpose municipal,
urban county and county councils. During this period, members of the various
councils were mostly elected. These councils were supposed to be autonomous
since the members were elected representatives of the people. The control over
the councils was from the Ministry for Local government Inspectorate and the
Local Government Service Board (Obiajulu and Obi, 2004). In the western
Region, the Local government administrative system was similar to that of the
Eastern region in terms of administration and elections. Three tiered structure
was in operation, the municipal, urban county and county councils. The councils
were thus seen and used as avenues from planting the coalitions surrogates at
the grass-roots. The major achievements in the three regions during the postcolonial era were primarily to maintain laws and order, prevention of crime etc.
The institutions were poorly financed and over staffed; there was no proper
election into key positions.
3.1.2.3

Early Military Era (1967 1976)

This era witnessed a period of great political instability and all efforts were
geared towards maintaining stability and combating the Biafran treat of
succession. The entry of the military did witness some changes in the councils
as the Local government administrations were dissolved and new care-taker
imposed on them. The nature of military regime which was usually centralized
and authoritarian affected the Council since the various regional governments
made no pretence of allowing the Councils a semblance of authority. Nothing
really remarkable happened at the Local government councils during this
period.

3.1.2.4

Late Military Era (1976 1979)

221

This period was a watershed of the evolution of the Local government

administration in Nigeria; it witnessed remarkable reforms of the Local
government system in Nigeria. The main thrust of the reform was the
standardization of the Councils nationwide.
The objectives of the reform were:
1.

To bring even and

rapid development of

Local government

administration at all levels throughout the country.

2.

To facilitate the exercise of democratic self-government at the Local

levels and to encourage initiative and leadership potentials.

3.

To mobilize human and natural resources through the involvement of

members in Local development.

4.

To appropriate serious and development activities responsible to Local

wishes and initiative by developing or delegating them to Local
representative bodies.

5.

To provide a two way channel of communication between the Local

communities and the government.

Criticism of the Reform

Some scholars have argued that the changes induced by the reform were not as
far-reaching as it ought to be. To this group, they believed that the changes
induced were more apparent than real. Egwurube (1991), states that the reform
was more symbolic than real and that the changes it introduced were cosmetic.
3.1.2.5

The Second Republic (1979)

This period is tagged to be the anti-climax in the evolution of Local government

administration in Nigeria. The Councils were empowered with avenues for
rewarding their political allies. Appointments were made into the Councils on
partisan patronage, thereby employing corrupt and unqualified personnel to man
the affairs of Local governments. This period did not record any remarkable
achievement in the evolution process. Local government administration during
222

this period was highly ineffective, unnoticed and made little or no significant
impact on the lives of the people.
3.1.2.6

The Second Military Era (1984 1999)

The second military era, led to the present status and transformation of the
Local government system in Nigeria. The military were quite unsatisfied with
the state of the Local governments. The Dasuki Panel (1984), was set up to look
into the affairs of the Councils and stipulate guidelines for operation and
efficient administration. The Committee, in its report attributed the problems of
Local government as operational factors arising directly from the behaviour and
attitude of the persons who operated the system.
Some of the recommendations of Alhaji Ibrahim Dasuki Panel were as follows:
1.

The councils should be directly funded and granted autonomy status.

2.

The abolition of the Local Government Ministries.

3.

Decentralization of the services provided by Local Governments.

However, these recommendations of the Committee could not be implemented

as Buharis administration was overthrown in a palace coup by General
Babangida in 1985.
Self-Assessment Exercise:
1. Explain the phases of Local Government System in Nigeria
2. What are the main objectives of the reforms on Local Government
System in the late Military era (1976-1979)
3.2 THE PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING THE CREATION OF LOCAL
GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS.
The need for Local government institutions emanated from the facts that
different geographical areas have diverse people, visions, and potentials. The
vision and potentials of the people to a great extent influence in the creation of
Local government institutions. In establishing Local government institutions
223

and in assigning powers to them to be autonomous the state should put the
following into considerations.
1.

The State should attempt to set Local units that are homogenous in nature

and whose affairs need Local management. Two un-identical communities

cannot stay together under the umbrella of one Local government. During the
2nd military era, General Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida delineated Ife and
Modakeke into two different Local Government Councils because of
uncommon interest. However, a measure can be achieved if only the boundaries
are shifted or adjusted to enable peace to reign.
2.

The State should guide against designating on excessive number of units

as councils as would result in overlapping powers, duplication of
functions and consequent wastage of public funds.

3.

The State government should properly supervise on exercise of power

within Local units; they should work towards the prevention of
dishonesty and inefficiency of officers. The State should reserve the
executive power to appoint and remove officers entrusted with the
administration of state laws.

3.2.1 The Legal Framework of the Local Government.

Local government institutions are corporations with perpetual succession
(Bello et al 2004). They have legal existence like an ordinary individual, they
are legal entitles which can sue and be sued in the court. The Local institutions
once established can never die; they are continually in existence as far as the
state provides them with the necessary allocations. The Local government
institutions can only act within the framework of the law in which it was
established. Unlike an ordinary individual who can do anything against the law
forbid him to do. The Local government institutions may only do those things
which the law specifically order or permit them to do. The Local government
will not for any reason assist the State in carrying out or to maintain its
224

responsibilities. Any contrary action would infringe the doctrine of ultra-vires,

which means acting beyond the powers given to it.
The law which binds Local government institutions may be either mandatory or
permissive. A mandatory law is one which orders Local government institutions
to do something e.g. the provision of schools markets etc. while a permissive
law is that which permits the council to establish a rural health service centre
within its jurisdiction. However, Local government institutions may pass byelaws, which is the power and authorities to enable them to carry out their
responsibilities.
4.0

CONCLUSION

From the foregoing discussion on, Local government administration is a suborgan entity of the state, where government administration are practiced at the
grass-root areas and closer to the people. The evolution of Local government
system in Nigeria could be traced back to the colonial era of the British
administration. There are six analytical phases of Local government
administration in Nigeria, the colonial, the past colonial, the early military era,
late military era, the second republic and the second military era and all
recorded remarkable achievements in the history of Nigeria. The essentials of
Local government administration cannot be ignored because it brings the
government closer to the people.
5.0

SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt about the evolution of Local government
administration in Nigeria. The powers of the Local government institutions are
derived from the State. The underlying principles for the creation of Local
government institutions vary in geographical areas and diversity of people and
culture.
6.0

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Question:
225

1.

Define Local Government Administration?

2.

Explain the Evolution of Local Government in Nigeria.

7.0

REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Bello, S. A,

Ojodu, H.O, Ogunyomi, P.O, Legbeti, P (2004), Public

Administration System In Nigeria, Revised Edition, Raamson Printing

Service
Egwurube, J. O. (1991),The Evolution Of Local Government In Nigeria. A
Systemic

Government

Administration,

(Enugu

Fourth

Dimension

Publishers).
Federal Republic Of Nigeria, The Constitution Of Local Government Reforms
1976, Kaduna Government Press.
Federal Republic Of Nigeria, The Constitution Of The Federal Republic Of
Nigeria 1976, Apapa Daily Times Publication.
Federal Republic Of Nigeria (1999), The Constitution Of The Federal Republic
Of Nigeria, Lagos Government Press.
Obiajulu Sunday And Obi Emeka Anthony (2004) Public Administration In
Nigeria, A Developmental Approach Bookpoint Limited.
Orewa, G. O. And Adewunmi J. B. (1983), Local Government In Nigeria, The
Changing Scene Benin Ethiopia Publishing Co-Operation
Oyediran,O. (1988) Essays On Local Government And Administration In
Nigeria, Lagos Government Press.
Nwatu, D. N (1995) Local Government In Nigeria: An Introduction, Enugu
Agatha Service Publisher Ltd

226

UNIT 20
FUNCTIONS OF THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN NIGERIA

Table of Contents
1.0

Introduction

2.0

Objectives

3.0

Main Content
3.1

Comparative Perspective of local government functions in some

selected
3.2

countries.

Functions of Local Government in Nigeria

3.2.1 Exclusive /Mandatory Functions of Local Government

Institutions
3.2.2 Concurrent /Permissive Functions of Local Government
Institutions
4.0

Conclusion

5.0

Summary

6.0

Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0

Reference/Further Reading

1.0

INTRODUCTION

In the last section, you learnt about introduction to local government. This unit
will take you a step further into the functions of the local government in
Nigeria. In this unit, we shall be looking at the roles of rural and urban local
government institutions, the different between Concurrent and Exclusive
functions of local government and a comparative view of some selected Local
government institutions in some countries.
2.0

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

227

a.

Explain the importance of Local government institutions.

b.

Differentiate between rural and urban Local government administration.

c.

Distinguish between concurrent and exclusive functions of the Local

government institutions.

d.

Make a comparison of the functions of the Local government in USA and

Nigeria.

3.0

MAIN CONTENT

3.1

COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT

FUNCTIONS IN SOME SELECTED COUNTRIES.

Local government as the third tier of the government performs primary

functions. The central government controls more of the funds. The central
government has better competence and expertise to handle secondary
programmes. The urban local government takes-up greater and more
sophisticated functions because of the demands and challenges of urban
communities. The Acts or constitution of local government institutions
established functional areas that they can engage in. Some functions are
concurrent between the local government and the State, while others are
exclusive such as: revenue generation, welfare, maintenance, agriculture, health,
education and other functions as prescribed from time to time by the State
House of Assembly (Nwatu, 1995).
The Soviet Union before its disintegration operates a Central system of
government. The Union was sub-divided into a variety of local government
institutions each headed by a Council called Soviet. The councils are large
sometimes numbering several hundred numbers and operate through a system
of committees. Council men are not necessary members of the communist party
but drawn from a wide cross section of the workforce. The Council has
considerable decision making authorities on Local matters although all policies
must operate within constraints established by the Communist party. The
Soviet pattern of Local government institutions has been copied in many
228

Communist countries for example, China on either a two or three level basis
(Nwatu, 1995).
In France, financing local government institutions is the primary control of the
Ministry of Interior. This makes the Local government to be weak and this had
adverse effects on the paste of services administered both at the rural and urban
centres. The most important and substantive functions of the French Local
government institutions are provision of free education, that provides political
education and participation as well as police services. The French Local
government councils have great authority over items that are more difficult and
local in character such as parks or gardens, recreations centres and street
maintenance (Nwatu, 1995).In Britain, Local Government performs three broad
functions and these are classified as: (A) Environmental (B) Protective and (C)
Personal. The environmental functions of Local government in Britain are
concerned the with the immediate physical environment via, land, air and
water, through the protection of the atmosphere, road construction and
maintenance, labelling, cleaning and provision of street lights, water supplies,
refuse disposal etc. The protective functions are those that deal with safety of
citizens, police and fire services, while the Personal service deals with
individual well-being such as health, schools, housing, museum, libraries
services. In Britain today, the most significant complex and cumbersome
function of Local government is the provision of housing for the teeming
population. However, not all Local government institutions can perform these
functions. In rural districts, parish councils have limited control in matters of
Local interest such as allotments, burial grounds, lighting and provision of
amenities (Nwatu, 1995). In the United States, special districts are created to
carry out specific functions or projects. The main function of Local government
administration is the management of the public schools system. The other
functions performed by Local government in the USA are policing, public
works, libraries and recreation, public utilities, city planning, public health,
229

airports, harbour and housing. These are indeed gigantic functions which
municipal city government can take on (Nwatu, 1995).
In India, Local government administration is known as Panchyali-Raj. The
functions of Local government institutions in India follow a similar pattern like
that of the USA except for police and the gigantic function of harbours and
airports. The functions of Local government administration are similar to the
Nigerian situation. Their functions can also be classified as obligatory and
discretionary, such functions include agricultural programmes, animal
husbandry, building and communications, education administration, fishery,
forestry, small-scale industries, medical services, security disposal etc. The
urban councils could perform obligatory functions like conservation, street
lighting, drainage construction, waste management and road maintenance, while
the larger councils could also engage in water supply, street cleaning and
labelling; refuse disposal, fire service, primary educations etc. (Nwatu, 1995).
In the Nigerian situation, the functions of Local government institutions are
usually spelt out by the Central government, and the local units are expected to
operate within the framework of the status establishing it. The urban Councils
provide more services because of challenges than their rural counterparts. The
functions of Local government institutions in Nigeria as discussed in the 1999
Constitution (fourth schedule) are discussed in the next section.
Self-Assessment Exercise:
1. Identify the functions of local government institutions in the USA,
Britain, France, India and USSR.
3.2

FUNCTIONS OF THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT

The functions of the Local government are usually spelt out by the central
government. The administration of Local government can either be rural or
urban. The functions of rural Local government institutions are simpler than
their urban counterpart. The Local government institutions are subjected to the
standards required by the Central government especially in the provision of
230

efficient services. Functions of Local government institutions can be divided

into two, the Exclusive or Mandatory and the Concurrent or Permissive
functions:
3.2.1 Exclusive or Mandatory Functions of Local Government Institutions
(Revenue Generation)
The exclusive functions of local government in Nigeria are:
a.

The consideration and the making of recommendations to a State

Commission on Economic Planning and Development; particularly in
area of authority of the council.

b.

Construction and maintenance of trunk C roads, cleaning and labelling

of houses, drains construction, open spaces or public facilities as may be
prescribed from time to time by the state House of Assembly.

c.

Assessment of privately-owned houses or tenement for the purpose of

levying such rates as may be prescribed by the State House of Assembly.

d.

Registration of all births, deaths and legal services e.g. marriages.

e.

Establishment and maintenance of communities, and homes for the

destitute.

f.

Establishment, maintenance and regulation of slaughter houses, slaughter

slab markets, motor parks, sewage and refuse disposal and public
convince.

g.

Collection of rate, radio and television licenses, licenses of bicycles,

trucks, (other may be mechanically propelled trucks) canoe wheel barrow
and carts.

h.

Control and regulations of the following:

(i).

Licensing regulation and control of the sale of liquor.

(ii).

Movement and keeping of pets of all description.

(iii). Shops and kiosks.

231

(iv). Restaurants, bakeries and other places for sale of food to the public.
3.2.2 Concurrent

or

Permissive

Functions

of

Local

Government

Institutions
The functions of a Local government institution shall include-participation of
such Council in the government of a State in respect of the following matters:
a.

The provision and maintenance of health and environmental services such

as public health inspection of drains and sewages;

b.

The provision and maintenance of primary-adult and vocational education

centre;

c.

The development of agriculture and natural resources other than mineral

resources;

d.

The provision of legal services e.g. marriage registration; and

e.

Such other functions as may be conferred on a local government

institution by the House of State Assembly. However, the above are
social functions of the local government.

In a nutshell, local government institutions are saddled with a lot of functions

from mere political enlightenment and integration of the people to the provision
and maintenance of essential services.
4.0

CONCLUSION

From the foregoing discussion on, the functions of Local government

institutions are virtually the same in all parts of the World. Urban Councils
performed more functions due to the demands and challenges than the rural
councils. In Nigeria, the functions of Local government institutions are
classified into 2, Mandatory and Concurrent functions which are the provision
and maintenance of essential services to the people at the grass root. In USSR
and France, the primary functions of the Local governments administration are
similar in nature. In Britain, the functions of Local governments are classified
into three: environmental, protective and personal while in the USA, the major
function of Local government administration is in the management of public
schools.
232

5.0

SUMMARY

In this unit, you learnt about the functions of Local government administration
in Nigeria. The functions are classified into two, the exclusive or mandatory and
the permissive or concurrent. In India, local government institutions are called
Panchayali-Raj. The Urban councils performed more functions than their rural
counterparts. The functions of Local government institutions in France, and
USSR, are majorly in the provision of primary education. In USA, Local
government institutions are classified into three; environmental, protective and
personal.

6.0

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Question:
1. Explain the functions of Local government institutions in Nigeria.
2. Explain the functions of the French system of Local government
administration.

7.0

REFERENCE/FURTHER READING

Ademolekun, L And Rowland, L (1979), The New Local Government System

In Nigeria, Problems And Prospects For Implantation, Heinemann, Ibadan
Adewunmi J. B. (1983), Local Government In Nigeria, The Changing Scene
Benin Ethiopia Publishing Co-Operation
Egwurube, J. O. (1991) The Evolution Of Local Government In Nigeria. A
Systemic

Government

Administration,

(Enugu

Fourth

Dimension

Publishers).
Federal Republic Of Nigeria, The Constitution Of Local Government Reforms
1976, Kaduna Government Press.
Federal Republic Of Nigeria, The Constitution Of The Federal Republic Of
Nigeria 1976, Apapa Daily Times Publication.

233

Federal Republic Of Nigeria (1999), The Constitution Of The Federal Republic

Of Nigeria, Lagos Government Press.
Federal Republic Of Nigeria, Operational Guidelines For Local Government
Councils, Abuja 1997
Obiajulu Sunday And Obi Emeka Anthony (2004) Public Administration In
Nigeria, A Developmental Approach Bookpoint Limited.
Oyediran, O.(1988) Essays On Local Government And Administration In
Nigeria, Lagos Government Press.
Nwatu, D. N (1995) Local Government In Nigeria: An Introduction, Enugu
Agatha Service Publisher Ltd

234

UNIT 21
FINANCING LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN NIGERIA
Table of Content
1.0

Introduction

2.0

Objectives

3.0

Main Content
3.1

Internal Sources
3.1.1 Property Tax
3.1.2 User Charges
3.1.3 General Administration Revenue

3.2

External Sources
3.2.1 Grants
3.2.2 Loans

3.3

Central Government Control over Local Government

3.3.1 Legislative Control
3.3.2 Administrative Control
3.3.3 Financial Control
3.3.4 Judicial Control

4.0

Conclusion

5.0

Summary

6.0

Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0

References/Further Reading.

1.0

INTRODUCTION

In the last section, you had an idea of what the functions of Local government
are all about. This unit is on financing Local government in Nigeria. In this unit,
the focus is on the finance, sources of revenue and Federal government control
over Local government financing in Nigeria. We shall be looking at the sources
of revenues (externally mobilized and internally generated) how funds are
raised.
235

2.0

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

a.

Identify the various sources of revenue to Local government councils in

Nigeria.

b.
Explain the Federal government financial controls of Local government
council in
Nigeria.

3.0

MAIN CONTENT

Local government institutions need adequate funding to be able to service the

functions assigned to them by the Federal government. Local government funds
are raised in different ways. Anifowose and Enemuo (1999), states that the
sources of revenue to Local government can be grouped into two categories via
internally generated or domestically mobilized revenue and externally
mobilized income. Internally generated revenues are funds collected within the
jurisdiction of the Local government council.

The externally generated

revenues are funds mobilised outside its territories, which could be in form of
grants and loans.
3.1

INTERNAL SOURCES OF REVENUE

Internal sources of Local government revenue are those generated within the tax
jurisdictions of Local government. As mentioned earlier, such jurisdictions are
sometime in line with the constitution while others are conventional. In the
Nigerian case, these sources are specified in the constitution. There are also tax
laws to support revenue generation. Local government internal revenue can be
classified as Local tax revenues, user charges and administrative revenues. The
most common of these three, is tax revenue or levies by the Councils on the
people for services rendered. The principles of taxation are efficiency, equity
and revenue productivity. Tax administrations are better managed at the city or
urban areas than rural ones. A local tax is generally seen as a tax whose base or
236

rate is determined or decided by the local government (Anifowose and Enemuo

1999).
Local government taxes include property rates, poll or community tax, graduate
rate (based on income levied on all inhabitants of the Local authoritys area).
Special rates levied on the whole or a section of the community for a particular
purpose e.g. school, building of water supply and business tax. However, in the
rural areas the tax system is structured in a way that it relates to either persons
property or transactions. Community taxes are easily collected in rural areas
while taxes on property and transactions are more applicable to urban Local
governments.
3.1.1 Property Tax/ Tax Revenue
Property Tax is the tax on properties acquired by individuals and companies. It
is a highly reliable tax in terms of revenue generation for the Local governments
all over the World (Anifowose and Enemuo, 1999). Local government councils
in the developed world e.g. Britain, U.S.A., France, Japan, Germany, and a host
of others depend greatly on it. The percentage of tax derived varies from one
urban government to another (Anifowose and Enemuo, 1999).
In Nigeria, property taxes are collected in major cities (Lagos, Part-Harcourt,
Ibadan, Kano, Benin, Abuja, etc.) than in rural areas. Examples of urban
property taxes are:
a.

Site value tax on vacant or unapproved vacant land (tenement)

b.

A tax on urban housing or building not subject to the site tax.

Despite the promising nature of this tax, it is associated with some problems.
These constraints are mainly administrative, technical and political. The
administrative problems have to do with the attitude of the tax collectors who
are not usually efficient and effective. The problem is technical, where the
machines for computation of data and classification of property malfunction and
are limited in supply, and political, where political forces influence compliance
237

with property valuation. In Nigeria, the rating of property tax mostly in rural
areas are faced with a lot of challenges such as unwillingness to comply while
in the urban areas there is no clear measure of determining property tax.
3.1.2. User Charges
Taxes of this kind are fees paid in exchange for a service provided by the Local
government. Most of the exclusive and concurrent functions assigned to Local
government as earlier mentioned are sources of revenue. These could be
classified as user charges administrative or general revenues. They come from
the sale of economic goods, services and resources by the government, fares in
Local government buses, fees for using Local government properties, car park
etc. In Nigeria, the Council generates more of these fees and charges from the
urban Local government councils than the rural ones.
3.1.3. General Administrative Revenue
Local government powers over revenue are largely residual. In Nigeria, the
following cases are codified under the following Local government revenue
heads (Anifowose and Enemuo, 1999).
1001 Taxes
1002 Rates
1003 Local licenses, fees and fine
1004 Earnings from commercial undertaking
1005 Rent in Local government property
1006 Internal payments and dividends.
Part of what has been treated under property tax and user charges fall under
1001 and 1004 respectively. In Nigeria, Local governments heads 1003 1004
continue to be the mainstay of Local government revenue. A few revenue items,
such as market and motor parks licences and fees from television and radio have
shown to be visible sources of revenue. However, most items of internal
238

revenue in Nigeria Local governments are inelastic, this means, that the
administrative cost of collecting them could exceed the benefits. Furthermore, a
revenue head like Head 1003 alone covers a range of items or subhead of 1001
items. These include licenses on dogs, bicycles and other minor permits which
may add up to little.
From the foregoing, one can deduce that the internal sources of revenue of
urban areas are likely to raise higher revenue than local areas. Hardly do rural
governments in Nigeria go beyond the 10% of total Local government revenue,
and in some cases less than 5%, while urban Local government may generate up
to 15 20%. However, the survival of Local governments rests largely with
external sources rather than internal ones, despite the huge internally generated
revenues realized by some selected states or urban Local government council.
Self-Assessment Exercise:
1. Explain the differences between grants and loans as sources of revenue to
Local government institutions
2. Identify and explain the central government control over Local
government institutions
3.2

EXTERNAL SOURCES (GRANTS AND LOANS)

3.2.1 Grant/Statutory Allocation

External sources or externally mobilized incomes of the local governments
areas are revenue generated outside their jurisdiction or territory. They include
inter-governmental grants and loans. External sources are the mainstay of most
Local governments in most developing countries of the world. There are two
main types of inter-governmental grants (A) general revenue or unconditional
grants (B) specific or conditional or matching grants. Inter-governmental grants
are funds from the Federal to Local government councils or government
allocations to Local governments. The Federal government is required by law to
transfer 20% of the federation account to the Local government and States are
expected to disburse 10% of its internally derived income to Local
239

governments. The general revenue or unconditional grants where consistent and

stable enable Local governments to plan their budgets effectively. In Nigeria,
the proportion of sharing grants or statutory allocation has changed over time. It
had changed from 10% 20% in the past to the present 20% that Local
government enjoy its share of statutory allocation, while the State governments
are to pay to Local government 10% for the following reasons.
a.

To augment the resources of the Local authorities;

b.

To meet the exceptional needs or the limited means of particular areas;

and

c.

To influence aggregate Local government expenditure as part of the

process of controlling the national economy.

The specific or conditional or matching grants are those motivational grants

from the Federal to Local government council to meet specific projects e.g. the
Universal Primary Education. In Nigeria, Local government areas would not
have been in existence without statutory allocation from the federal
government. Most Local government institutions in West African countries
obtain about 40% - 50% of the incomes from the Central government. Such
grants are often in the form of percentage grants or block grants (Anifowose and
Enemuo, 1999).
3.2.2 Loans
Local government institutions are empowered by law to borrow funds from
external sources, usually to finance major capital projects. These loans may or
not be necessary need to be guaranteed by the State governments. They can be
raised either from financial institutions or specialized municipal credit agencies.
This may not however apply to overdraft especially since their statutory
allocation goes straight into their account for now. Local government
institutions everywhere need loan (1) to provide infrastructural services such as
health, roads etc. (2) for productive investment such as motor parks or mass
transit-ventures etc. Local government institutions either rural or urban have
240

access to acquired loans, be it urban or rural. The purpose of such loans is

purely for infrastructural development and investment projects.
3.4 FEDERAL

GOVERNMENT

CONTROL

OF

LOCAL

GOVERNMENTS
There are various controls or bodies charged with the supervision of Local
government councils. The three main federal government organs the
Legislature Executive and Judiciary exercise different forms of control over
Local government institutions.
These forms of controls are:
a.

Control by Service Commission.

b.

Control by the Ombudsman.

c.

Control through Administrative Tribunal.

d.

Control within each Administrative Agency.

3.3.1 Legislative Control

Local governments operate within the framework of the laws passed by the
legislature because Local government institutions are the creations of the
supreme legislative organ of the State. The Legislative controls may include
fiscal, supervisory, disciplinary and constitutive controls. The Legislature can
amend the law establishing such Local government and also enact laws
forbidding the Local councils to do certain things. Moreover, since Local
authorities exercise only delegated powers, all bye-laws passed by such
authorities must be approved by the Minister for Local government.
3.3.2 Administrative Control
a.

The Federal governments through the Ministry of Local government and

the Local Government Service Commissions have administrative controls
and regulatory powers over the conditions of service and dismissal of
Local government personnel.
241

b.

The Local Government Service Commission have the powers to appoint,

suspend and dismiss staff of the Local authorities, and in some situations
order for public inquiry into Local government affairs. Where this occurs,
a Management Committee may be set up to take over the administrative
controls of the affected councils areas.

c.

The State appoints a Commissioner who takes control and responsibility

of the affairs of Local government administration in line with the
directives of the Local Government Service Commission.

3.3.3 Financial Control

a.

The bulk of Local government revenue comes from grants from the
Federal government. The Federal government may decide to reduce the
grant or to withhold it entirely if the services for such grants have been
allocated are either not being provided for satisfactory, the grant to Lagos
state was with-held for a while during Obasanjos second term in office
over the creation of additional Local councils development areas. When
grants are withheld, the Local government councils can hardly function
with regards to the provision of essential services.

b.

The Local governments institutions are compiled to prepare Annual

Accounts at the end of the financial year. These accounts show actual
revenue and expenditure of the Councils. The accounts are subjected to
audit and all improper or unauthorized funds detected against any
persons by the auditor must be refunded to the Local government
institutions.

3.3.4 Judicial Control

Judicial control of Local government institutions are exercised by the courts
under the doctrine of ultra-vires. The Court may declare void any act of Local
authorities which is contrary to the law or in excess of the powers granted her
by the legislature. Any person or group of persons who consider themselves to
be aggrieved by any action of a Local government can institute a legal action
242

against the Local institutions. They have the power to pardon and grant amnesty
to any person or officers that contravene Local government laws.
4.0

CONCLUSION

From the foregoing discussion, revenues constitute the mainstay of Local

government institutions in Nigeria. No Local government councils can survives
without allocations from the government. Financing of Local government
councils can be from internally and externally generated revenues. The most
common source of internally generated revenue is the tax collection from
government employees and user charges. Grants and loans constitute the
external sources of revenue to Local government. Urban Councils generate
more revenues than their rural counterparts. In Nigeria, the proportion of
sharing grants has changed from 10 20%, State governments pays 10% from
their revenues for the financing of Local government institutions.
5.0

SUMMARY

Local government institutions need adequate funds to operate. The sources of

revenues to Local government institution are internally and externally
generated. There are tax laws to support revenue generation. Local government
institutors are empowered by law to borrow funds from external sources. The
Federal government is required to transfer 20% of the Federal accounts to Local
governments. Each state is expected to disburse 10% of its internally generated
revenues to Local government.

6.0

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Question:
1. Explain the Sources of Revenues of Local government institutions in
Nigeria
2. Differentiate between judicial and administrative control of Local
government

7.0. References And Further Reading

243

Egwurube, J. O. (1991), The Evolution Of Local Government In Nigeria. A

Systemic

Government

Administration,

(Enugu

Fourth

Dimension

Publishers).
Obiajulu Sunday And Obi Emeka Anthony (2004), Public Administration In
Nigeria, A Developmental Approach Bookpoint Limited.
Federal Republic Of Nigeria, The Constitution Of Local Government Reforms
1976, Kaduna Government Press.
Federal Republic Of Nigeria, The Constitution Of The Federal Republic Of
Nigeria 1976, Apapa Daily Times Publication.
Federal Republic Of Nigeria (1999), The Constitution Of The Federal Republic
Of Nigeria, Lagos Government Press.
Federal Republic Of Nigeria, Operational Guidelines For Local Government
Councils, Abuja 1997
Orewa, G. O. And Adewunmi J. B. (1983), Local Government In Nigeria, The
Changing Scene Benin Ethiopia Publishing Co-Operation
Oyediran, O.(1988), Essays On Local Government And Administration In
Nigeria. Lagos, Government Press.
Remi Anifowose And Francis C. Enemuo (1999), Elements Of Politics, Sam
Iroanusi Publications
Nwatu, D. N (1995), Local Government In Nigeria: An Introduction, Enugu
Agatha Service Publisher Ltd

244

UNIT 22
PROBLEMS OF LOCAL GOVERNMENTS AND
REFORMS/COMMITTEES
Table of Content
1.0

Introduction

2.0

Objectives

3.0

Main Content
3.1

Problems of Local Government Councils

3.1.1 Finance
3.1.2 Administration
3.1.3 Political and Leadership Constraints
3.1.4 Community
3.1.5 Intergovernmental Relations

3.2

Local Government Reforms

3.2.1 The President Olusegun Obasanjo Reform

3.2.2 The Dasuki Reforms Committee
245

3.2.3 The Babangida Reforms

3.2.4 Local Government Reforms in the Fourth Republic
3.2.5 The 2003 Local Government Reform Committee
4.0

Conclusion

5.0

Summary

6.0

Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0

References/Further Reading

1.0

INTRODUCTION

In the last section, you had an idea of what the sources of revenue and Federal
government control over Local government are all about. This unit will take you
a step further into the problems facing Local government and reforms of Local
Government in Nigeria. This unit discussed the problems of finance,
administration, inter-governmental relations among others. It also discussed the
reforms under President Obasanjo and Babangida administration among other.
2.0

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

a.

Identify the problems of Local government system in Nigeria.

b.

Explain the various reforms of Local governments institutions in

Nigeria.

3.0 PROBLEMS OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT COUNCILS

The problems facing Local governments in Nigeria are enormous. It is the
general consensus in Nigeria that Local governments have not made any
significant mark in the countrys attempt to promote rapid social and
economic change. These problems facing Local government reforms
include; inadequate finance, administration, leadership community attitude,
inter governmental relations, planning and ideology (Egwurube, 1991)
246

3.1.1 Finance
Inadequate financial resource is a major problem facing Local government
administration and in Nigeria. The collective impact of several factors have
compounded these problems, for instance, some Local governments are
generally poor. Many citizens do not see the need to pay taxes, as the amenities
on which they are taxed are inadequate in supply or never provided. Other
financial problems of Local Government in Nigeria are:
a.

Too much money is spent by the Local governments on recurrent budget,

sometimes up to 80 90% leaving a smaller percentage for social and
economic services.

b.

With the low level of finance, massive corruption takes place in Local
governments

institutions,

money

realized

are

either

embezzled

administratively or by elected officials. Politicians see Councils as a place

for rehabilitation and not service to the community. Money that would
have been channelled into projects finds its way into private pockets
(Egwurube, 1991).
c.

Problems of proper methods of revenue collection as mentioned earlier

had in the past resulted in inadequate financial support of Local
government institutions. The method of collection was inefficient.

3.1.2 Administrative
a.

Despite, the Federal government controls over Local government

institutions, there is lack of strict enforcement. Some Local government
authorities have in certain areas neglected the performance of the
statutory functions with impunity.
247

b.

Surveys have shown that in recent years, the quantum of staff has
increased. Though, there have been more quality staff in administration
than the technical (Engineers, Architect) and professional fields (Planning
and Research) in Local government, the appointment of incompetent staff
is rampant. The resultant effects of this are mismanagement,
incompetence, embezzlement, misappropriation, corruption and failure to
provide the necessary opportunities for the Local people (Egwurube,
1991).

c.

The problems of boundaries disputes amongst some Local government

authorities have led to killings and arson. The crises in Ife-Modakeke
(Oshun) and the Biliri-Kaltungo (Bauchi) have led to the splitting of these
communities into different and Local Government areas. The reason for
the frequent crises in the Southern part of Jos in Nigeria may not be far
from this (Nwatu, 1995)

3.1.3 Political and Leadership constraints

a.

Changes in government are accompanied with changes in Local

government structure. These changes bring interference in the operations
of the Local authorities which might affect the people negatively or
positively. However, these changes in Local government structure have
not provided the needed stability and performance that Local government
Councils need to fulfil.

b.

Political constraint has been the lack of political or ideological framework

with its consequent ill-defined functions of Local government Councils.
There have been duplication of duties, operational inefficiencies and
wastage of materials and human resources because the Federal
government agencies at the Local level used to exercise similar functions.

c.

The problems of ineffective and incompetent political functionaries in the

membership of the councils are also critical.
248

3.1.4 Community
The communities often feel marginalized in development. Community
development efforts are not adequately supported by Local government even
where intervention occurs. The net effect of this is that, the community feels
marginalized

from development programmes

and efforts.

The

more

programmes and projects are community driven and participatory, the more the
community would want to own and sustain the programme. Community attitude
also reinforces the corruptive attitude of politicians. Instead of demanding for
accountability from politicians who amass lots of wealth and status symbols
while in office, they perceive this as the ultimate objectives of politics. Such
political actors are acclaimed. They have on the basis of this is his time. This
is a very negative attitude to anti-corruption and development.
3.1.5 Intergovernmental Relations
Intergovernmental relationships in Nigeria exist among the three organs of
government legislature, executive and judiciary. The Legal or Constitutional
Framework, within which these relations take place and the position of the
government functions in the hierarchy are institutionalized. However, there
exist four (4) types of intergovernmental relations; these are vertical, horizontal,
diagonal and external intergovernmental relations (Obiajulu and Obi, 2004).
a. Vertical Intergovernmental Relations: This is where the institution at the
higher level has a position of influence and authority over the institution at the
lower level e.g. the influence of Public Service Commission on Local
government Councils.
b Horizontal Intergovernmental Relations

occur between government

institutions which find themselves at a particular level of government, for

instance, State or Local governments can decide to institute a programme aimed
at assisting other States or Local government in dire need e.g. Security Watch
249

programme of the Local governments for the purpose of overseeing the

neighbourhoods and reducing armed robbery in this type of relations.
c. Diagonal Intergovernmental Relations: This takes place between two or more
government institutions, it occurs when liaison takes place across government
institutions of different location e.g. a Local or State government, a State finds
itself in a relationship with another State or Local government.
d. External Intergovernmental Relations: This exists when the central or Federal
government enters into relationship with another government or institutions
outside its geographical areas or boundaries. There exist three sub-divisions of
external intergovernmental relations, which are regional, international and
external relations.
Self-Assessment Exercise:
1. Explain the problems facing Local government administration
2. Explain the Babangida reforms on Local government administration

3.2 LOCAL GOVERNMENT REFORMS

3.2.1 President Olusegun Obasanjo Reforms on Local Government
The 1976 Local government reforms by President Olusegun Obasanjo gave
Local government areas full governmental support to manage their finances and
initiate their own programmes. The reason for the reforms was due to the
increase in the number of States and subsequent increase in Local governments
institution throughout the federation without adequate consideration for their
viability. The creation of Local government areas in Nigeria is clear expression
of patronage by revenue distribution to favour some areas or interest groups.
The reforms were carried out by a ten-man technical committee headed by Esta
Nupe.

Obasanjo, believes that Nigerians have worked for democracy and

deserved qualitative lift in their living conditions at the grass-root areas

(Obiajulu and Obi, 2004).
250

The terms of reference for the Committee are as follows:

a. To examine the problem of inefficiency, high cost of governance and to
proffer solutions to reduce cost and wastage.
b. To review all Local government performance from 1971-1976, and to
determine the need of retaining them or not.
c. The look at the possibilities of assigning specific roles to traditional
institutions in the Local government areas.
d.

To examine the high cost of election serving in the country.

3.2.2 The Dasuku Reform Committee

Alhaji Ibrahim Dasuku Local government Reform/Committee was set up by
Buhari administration in 1984 with the aim of revamping the system of the
Local government administration, finance and control. Before now performance
and service of the Local government areas were grossly unsatisfactory. The
Committee was charged with the responsibility of looking into the problems of
Local government administration and recommend solutions.
Committees Observations
1. The major problem to Local government was attributed to operational factors,
which hinder equitable distribution of amenities of Local government through
the federation.
2.

A proposal for decentralization of the services provided by Local

government Councils, but these recommendations could not be implemented as

Buharis administration was overthrown in a palace coup by General Babangida
in 1985 (Egwurube, 1991
3.2.3The Babangida Reforms
Babangida reforms on Local government councils complemented the reports
and recommendations of the Dasuki Committee and that of the National Service
Scheme for Local government employees. Babangida administration set up a
251

ten-man Committee to produce National Scheme of Service for all cadres of

Local government Councils. The Committee from its findings recommended
autonomy for Local government Councils. The following were some of the
reforms:
a.

The release of National Scheme of Service for Local government

employees, in 1988 afforded the Local government the chance to promote their
staff up to grade level fifteen. This created opportunities for the employment of
professionals such as engineers, legal officers, health officials, architect etc.
b.

The power given to elected Local government Chairmen to appoint their

own government secretaries had made them real Chief Executives in their
domains while the creation of Local Government Legislative Assemblies made
the separation of powers and responsibilities complete. Local governments
became a distinct third-tier level of government in the country.
c.

The remitting to States of annual Local government grants was stopped.

Local government Councils started getting their grants directly from the Federal
government.
d.

State Ministries of Local governments were abolished and State

Governments were directed to terminate their joint services with Local

governments.
e.

Federal government reviewed the grants allocated to Local governments

from 10% to 15% in 1989 and to 20% in 1992.

f.

The scrapping of Local government Services Commission in January,

1992, made the Local government autonomous with regards to issues of

discipline, promotion and even development.
The channel through which the State Government controlled and influenced
Local government was thus terminated. However, the major constraint in the
Babangida reforms was that staff of Local governments, were not prepared for
the reform, no induction course was organised to familiarize them with the new
252

system. Secondly, government lacked the financial base to sustain the autonomy
of these Local government Councils (Egwurube, 1991).
3.2.4 Local Government Reforms in the Fourth Republic (1979)
The implementation of Babangida reforms boosted the performance and
activities of Local government Councils but the major setback was the
frequency of postponed elections. The Council Chairmen and their councilors
were voted into office. Decree 36 of 1998 specified three year tenure for them
which ought to expire on 29th of May, 2003 but the Council chairmen demanded
of a-four year tenure. They felt that what was obtains at the Federal level should
apply to them. They formed an Association of Local Government Chairmen of
Nigeria (ALGON) and lobby the National Assembly for one year extension of
tenure as contained in the Electoral Act 2007. However, this resulted in a court
case and on the 28th of March, 2002 the Supreme Court ruled against the Local
government Chairmen. The judgement was a big blow to Council bosses that
were preparing to spend one more year in office; State governors thereafter
started making arrangements for council polls. The Council polls that were
fixed for April 13th, 2002 could not hold until March 2004. This was due to the
inability of the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) to provide
the electoral register, and the registration of new parties and all those led to the
change of date till, 2004, after the general election of 2003 (Obiajulu and Obi,
2004).
3.2.5. The 2003 Local Government Reforms
The 2003 Local government reforms were set up due to the problems of Local
governments in the fourth republic. The President in a nationwide broadcast on
the 18th of June, 2003, informed the nation that the Council of State, (made up
of the President, his Deputy, the 36 State Governors, all past Presidents and the
leaders of National Assembly) has agreed on a reform of the nations Local
government system.
The decisions of the Council of States were based on:
253

(a) The non-performance or gross-performance of the Local government

(b) The high cost of government and high cost of electioneering campaigns
to individual political contestants in Nigeria and
(c) Fragmentation of Local government councils etc.
A technical committee was drawn from the six-geopolitical zones headed by the
Etsu Nupe to examine the way forward for Local government affairs. Their
terms of reference were;
a. To examine the problem of inefficiency and high cost of government with
a view to reducing cost and wastages.
b. To review the performance of Local government within the last four
years and desirability of retaining the Local government as the third tier of
government.
c. To examine the high cost of electioneering campaign in the country and
consider any other matter of the Local government system.
The report of the Committee to the President states that The Federal, State and
Local governments have failed in meeting the aspirations of the people. They
recommends was that, there is the need to grant the Local governments third tier
status, abolish the State Joint Local government account and retain the 774
constitutionally recognized Local government councils, among others. The
committee faced a lot of challenges especially from opposition parties (Obiajulu
and Obi, 2004).
4.0

CONCLUSION

From the foregoing discussion, Local government institutions were faced with
many challenges and problems ranges from Finance, Administrative,
Community, Political and Leadership and Intergovernmental Relations. Various
Reforms and Committees were set-up to reviews the activities and make
recommendations on Local government systems in Nigeria. The reports have
similar views and intentions. There is the need to grant Local governments third
254

tier status. Changes in government are accompanied with changes in Local

government structure.
5.0

SUMMARY

Inadequate funding poor administration, political and leadership constraints are

among the

problems of Local government councils

in Nigeria. Grants

allocated to Local government institutions were reviewed from 10% to 15% in

1959 and to 20% since 1992 till date.
6.0

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Question:
1.

What are the objectives of the Obasanjo Local government Reforms

2.

List two important recommendations of the Dasuki Local Government

Reforms

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Ademolekun, L. and Rowland, L. (1979) New local government system in
Nigeria, problems and prospects for implementation, Heinemann, Ibadan.
Egwurube, J.O (1991) The evolution of local government in Nigeria, a systemic
government administration (Enugu: fourth dimension publishers)
Federal Republic of Nigeria, The local government reforms 1976, Kaduna
government printer.
Federal Republic of Nigeria, The constitution of the federal republic of Nigeria,
1979 Apapa daily times publication.
Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999, The constitution of the federal republic of
Nigeria Lagos government printer.
Federal Republic of Nigeria, Report of the bureau directorate for social
mobilization production, 1987.

255

Federal Republic of Nigeria, Operational guideline for local government

councils, Abuja 1997
Obiagulu Sunday and Obi Emeka Anthony (2004), Public administration in
Nigeria; a developmental approach. bookpoint limited
Orewa G. O. and Adewunmi D. B. (1983) Local government in Nigeria, the
changing scene bein Ethiopia publishing co-operation
Nwatu, D. N. (1995) Local government in Nigeria; an introduction; Enugu,
agatha service Publisher Ltd.

UNIT 23
CONCEPT OF BUREAUCRACY
TABLE OF CONTENT
1.0

Introduction

2.0

Objectives
256

3.0

Main Content
3.1

Meaning of Bureaucracy
3.1.1 Forms of Power/Authority in Bureaucracy
3.1.2 Power and Authority

3.2

The Process of Bureaucratization

3.3

Elements of Bureaucracy

3.4

Functions of Bureaucracy

3.5

Criticisms of Bureaucracy

4.0

Conclusion

5.0

Summary

6.0

Tutor Marked Assignment

7.0

References/Further Reading.

1.0

INTRODUCTION

In the last section, we discussed about what training and manpower

development are all about. This unit will take you a step further into the concept
of bureaucracy. In this unit, the focus is on the process of bureaucracy, the
elements of bureaucracy, the functions of bureaucracy, and the criticism of
bureaucracy.
2.0

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

a.

Define Bureaucracy

b.

List and explain the elements of Bureaucracy

c.

Enumerate the functions of Bureaucracy.

d.
3.0

Explain the criticism of Bureaucracy an Organization.

MAIN CONTENT
257

3.1

MEANING OF BUREAUCRACY

Generally people think of bureaucracy as unexplained delay and general

frustration, red-tapeism, pettiness and silly rules that seem to create barriers that
prevent the working of common sense (Krimmer, 1977). Bureaucracy could be
referred to as the general formal structural elements of a type of human
Organization, particularly the collective personnel and structures of a
government organization (Weber, 1918). The concept of bureaucracy is
generally used in modern organizations to refer to orderly and structural
arrangement of things in organizations. It is pertinent to note that, pure
bureaucracy does not exist in the real sense of it (Mai, 1897). .However, it is
believed that bureaucracy has contributed immensely to the precise and reliable
ways to efficiently achieve organizational aims and objectives. The term
bureaucracy is identifiable with the 19th century German sociologist. Max
Weber, who was referred to as the founder and widely acclaimed to have
propounded the concept of bureaucracy believes that, there was the need to
differentiate universalism and particularism model and traditions, and between
inscriptive and merit. He further states that, there is a difference between public
administration and bureaucracy. Weber believes that public administration is all
about formalized and institutionalized process where defined rules and
procedures are operated in an organizational setting. Weber, (1918) states that
for bureaucracy to hold there is the need for unity of command and hierarchical
structure. Weber (1918) was more concerned about the concept of power. He
was concerned specifically with power domination in terms of how the
proportion of the population dominates or controls the rest of the society.
3.1.1 Forms of Power/Authority in Bureaucracy
Weber, (1918) built his model of Bureaucracy on authority which he divided
into three types as follows:
(A). Traditional Power or Authority: In this form of power, authority is
derived through traditional rules, customs and beliefs. In this situation authority
258

is inherited through established customs and traditions e.g. the Institution of

Obaship, Emir and Igwe in Nigeria.
(B). Charismatic Power or Authority: In this form of power, authority is
based on the innate personal qualities and ability of the leader to command
obedience of his followership. Leaders with this authority exist because of the
extra-ordinary qualities they possess and authority exercised. For example, the
late, Obafemi Awolowo, Moshood Kasimawo Abiola, Nmandi Azikuwe,
Nwame Nkrumah of Ghana, Senegal Senghor and a host of others were
charismatic leaders who had a strong control over their followers.
C.

Legal Rational Power or Authority: Legal Rational Authority is

based on the obedience which is owed to the legally established impersonal set
of rules rather than a personal ruler. Weber, (1918) Legal-rational authority and
power rest in the office rather than, the occupier of the office. Legal rational
authorities reside in rulers who are rationally appointed by people and can be
changed through a formal process or through an established procedure.
3.1.2 Power and Authority
Weber (1918), defines power as higher forces which compel a person to do
what he would not have done; while authority is referred to a legitimate power
which wills makes a holder responsible for certain functions. He further states
that, authority is inseparable from responsibility for the achievement of goals
for which any organization was established.

3.2 The Process of Bureaucratization

One feature of all government organizations is to implement policies through an
administrative body of officials. However, the appointment of these officials
and the way they carry out their tasks differentiate one type of political structure
from another. Under the Feudalism System of government, Weber observed the
following Process of Bureaucratization (Weber, 1918).
259

(A). The ruler appoints his loyalist to court; he granted them powers and
commissioned them to perform these tasks.
(B).

Household officials and favourites were often recruited into sensitive

positions on patrimonial basis from among the slaves.

(C).

Qualifications for officers depend on the rulers personal judgement of

quality among his household officials.

(D). Through abrupt changes in appointment and the series of other arbitrary
acts, the rulers make every efforts to prevent the identification of anyone
household official or favourite with the office he occupies at any one given
time.
(E).

The ruler himself and his subordinates conducted the affairs of

government when appropriate.

The Feudal system of government was considered an extension of the rulers
private domain and the officials had no rights and securities. However, this was
the situation before Webers Bureaucracy came into practice. During the
Industrial Revolution and with a determined movement towards rationalization
and secularization of the mind; reactions against the personal subjugation,
nepotism, cruelty, and subjective judgement paved the way for the development
of a new and more accommodative bureaucratic machine model. Bureaucracy
emerged out of the Organizations need for order and precision and workers
demand for impartial treatment. Weber conceived an ideal type bureaucracy
exhibiting some major characteristics anchored firmly on a body of impersonal
rules and regulations. His ideal type bureaucracy is a triumph of complex
impersonal rules and an effective separation of the organization from their
incumbents. He further stated that organizational rules, orders, and structures
are necessary and sufficient conditions for organizational efficiency.
Ideal bureaucracy in advanced countries of the world is practiced using the
merit type of bureaucracy as against the anti-merit system and quota system.
260

Weber believed that in the developed world, selection of people is based on

competence, qualification and examination.
Negro and Negro (1973), subscribed to this conception, they believes that in an
ideal form of bureaucracy the best candidates should be able to secure jobs.
The Characteristics of an Ideal Bureaucracy include:
(1) Knowledge of entry requisites (2) Selection based on competition and
examinations (3) Adoption of Principle of equal job (4) Maintenance of rank on
the job (5) Political independence of the officials (6)Incentives given for prompt
performance (7) Security of tenure e.g. pensions and gratuity (Victor, 1998).
However, for the purpose of clarity, Webers Characteristics of Bureaucracy
are:
(a) Uniformity (b) Continuity (c) Hierarchical Structure and (d) Competence
Self-Assessment Exercise:
1. Explain the Elements of Bureaucracy
2. What are the Criticism of Bureaucracy

3.2 ELEMENTS OF BUREAUCRACY

The elements of bureaucracy are discussed as follows:

A.

Hierarchy of Authority

This is the hallmark of all bureaucratic organization. The pyramidal structure

assures that the superior offices direct the activities of their subordinate. The
ultimate authority resides at the apex. Consequently, the pyramid narrows as it
moves upward. There are more people and less power at the base and in that
order until it reaches the apex. Hierarchy gives the organization its structure and
allows the organization authority to follow the chain of command. The reason
261

for this supervision is to oversee the activities of the lower officers with a view
to training the junior employees and ensuring their activities tilt towards
realizing organizational aims and objectives.
B.

The Framework of Law-Rules/Regulations

Bureaucracy operates within the framework of law which guides both the
superior and the subordinates. (The rule of law requires the administration of
actions affecting individuals rights and should reflect: (i) precedents and (ii)
legal sanctions not personal discretion of the official. The pre-imminent position
of the rule of law means:
(a) The official leans heavily toward precedents (b) He leans towards
inflexibility in his actions; (c) He is dependent on legal and financial assistance
(d) There is strict conformity to established rules, procedures and legal
regulations. The framework of law is to regulate the employees behavioural
patterns in the organization. This will help to coordinate activities in the
organisation and ensure uniformly in the actions of the employee.
C.

Technical Specialization

Weber (1918), in conjunction with Taylor (1917) believes in the preference for
scientific methods of appointing employee into sensitive positions. Weber
emphasized the need to base promotion on security and ability of employee to
meet the targets agreed with him/her. He emphasized the need for training and
development of workers through internal movement from one position to the
other.

Every organization seeks

to

ensure

stability and continuity.

Organisational processes are reviewed, over and over again, to make the
workers more specialized and competent. The division of activities called
routinization of work and it is implicit in the idea of specialization. Another
aspect of specialization is that bureaucratic Organizations tend to divide its
entire aims and goals, to sub-units until it reaches the level of targets for
individual.
D.

Search for Rationality

262

This is the ability to think and make decisions on reasons. It was the search for
rationality that hastened the development of bureaucracy. Rationality represents
the systematic organization of task and individuals to maximize efficiency.
Bureaucracy facilitates the channelling of individuals behaviour into
productive ends by means of rule, regulations and sanctions. It provides its
members with valuable and factual premise for decision making. The goals of
rationality are promoted by the principles of unity of command, ultimate
authority as well as rules and organisations.
E.

Written Records/Documentation

Organizations place high importance on written records and documentation.

Weber, (1918) emphasized the need for documentation of records. This allows
for community decisions, instructions and adequate planning.
F.

Value System

Bureaucrats work within a value system that determines the conduct of their
actions. Values consist of opinion of colleagues and cultural values of the
society. Bureaucracy and its characteristics vary from society to society. This
phenomenon modified Webers contention that bureaucracy is universal.
Bureaucrats identify value system with the rules of their organization;
bureaucrats rarely attach loyalty to persons, but attribute loyalty to the
impersonal functions they perform. This notwithstanding, they are also, under
the influence of other loyalties e.g. social clubs, church, ethnic group, political
parties, relations, colleagues e.g. (giving job or admission to a brother who is
qualified, first before any other person).
3.4

FUNCTIONS OF BUREAUCRACY

The functions of bureaucracy are as follows: (Obiajulu and Obi, 2004)

1. Implementing Policies: The traditional role of Bureaucratic organisation is
to execute the programmes and policies of government. This function is more
essential and complex in this age of rapid technological and social change.
263

Modern society is becoming complex and professionalized, special knowledge

and technology are brought to bear on major policies. Legislators are not well
equipped in this area; naturally they fall back on the bureaucratic information,
advice and deliverance.
2. Framing Legislation: When bureaucrats discover a discrepancy in
Legislation, they use their discretion to fill in the gap and if the action is
sustained, they help in framing Legislation. Under military regimes Bureaucrats
play important role in legislation primarily because the Armed Forces were not
well equipped with legislative knowledge and information.
3. Influencing Legislature: Bureaucrats influence Legislative activities at
various stages. In the advanced countries e.g. United State of America for
example, Bureaucrats are summoned to congressional committees to give
evidence in some measure of Legislation. Bureaucrats possess the wealth of
information which is necessary for effective debate of a proposed bill. In a
parliamentary system of government, the Legislative influence on the
Bureaucrats could be more pronounced and direct. Here a Minister could
propose a Bill, which his Permanent Secretary had initiated. Since Ministers
come and go bureaucrats remain. As career officers they are in better position to
advise the government on any proposed Legislation.
4. Ensuring Survival and Growth: Michel (1923), describes the tendency for
survival and growth as the Iron Law of Oligarchy. He states that
Organizations tend to perpetuate themselves even when the primary goals have
disappeared.

Bureaucracy ensures survival of the polity as an entity by

performing certain crucial functions. For example, during the turbulent period
(1966-1970) in Nigerian, the survival of Nigeria as a nation owed much to the
dedication and actions of the Federal Bureaucrats.
5. Environmental Functions: Environmental functions which are performed
by bureaucrats include:

264

a.

Balancing of public and private interests: Ideally: bureaucrats weigh

every issue first and foremost against public interest. Unfortunately, there is no
way of determining what public interest is, especially in situations where they
are vague and ambiguous.
b.

Balancing professional and ethical considerations: This happens when

a Bureaucrat is in a dilemma arising from conflict between loyalty to his

supervisor and loyalty of his official function. This happens in areas where
professional consideration differs from political considerations.
c.

Carrying Routine Work Government: This is perhaps the most

important and least appreciated function of the Bureaucrat. Junior officers in

government organizations carry out the routine work of government, ranging
from refuse disposal and protections of public utilities.
6. Economic Planning and Management Functions: In contemporary
societies of the world, whether developed on developing Bureaucracy is
enmeshed in the planning and management of the State economy.
3.5

CRITICISMS OF BUREAUCRACY

From Webers (1918), submission on Bureaucracy and types of authorities, it

could be observed that bureaucracy cannot be practiced in its totality in
developing nations like Nigeria. Boulding, (1920), expresses concern over
growing roles of Organizations in modern societies. He claimed that, ethical
values as love, freedom, justice, laws etc., tend to run at cross purposes as such
loose out to such Organizational features as power, impersonality etc. Argyris
(1957), made a case for inevitable conflict between the needs of the individual
and those of the Organization. This conflict is self-perpetuating since the
employee and manager have divergent interests.

Another criticism of

Bureaucracy is that, it attempts an up-hill task of removing all undesirable

extra-organizational influence upon the behaviour of members. For example,
the ideal official is supposed to conduct his office in a spirit of formalistic
impersonality. Bureaucracy does not provide for rapid and unplanned changes.
265

It thrives best under stable routine conditions. Weber (1918), failed to recognize
that men are endowed with limited intelligence. Men are not Omniscience and
therefore all Organizations must be designed for the normal man and not for a
superman. Knowledge of organizational effectiveness of operations may not
always come from the superior. There are situations where the subordinate
could be very relevant to the success of the Organization than the boss. Weber,
(1918), did not recognize that environmental factors affect the operation of the
Bureaucrats, for example, Nigeria Bureaucracy is affected by ethnicity, Federal
character and Quota systems and such other cultural and environmental factors
which a dynamic Bureaucracy must put into consideration for harmonious coexistence its members.
Marx (1848), a prudent scholar of Bureaucracy, sees bureaucracy as an
apparatus of the state, that emerged under capitalism as an auid pro quo. He
states that bureaucracy emerged because of the division of people into social
classes. To Marx, bureaucracy is not directly related to production but it
constitutes the unproductive sector of economy. Lenin (1984), argues that,
bureaucracy is historically contingent on the capitalist mode of production, and
this mode of capitalism production pre-supposes a situation in which there is
division of people into social class namely Bourgeoisie and Proletariat
(privileged and less privileged people).However, reutilization and rigid
adherence to rules have made bureaucracy sluggish, drudgery and full of red
tapeism. The ideal form of bureaucracy brings about precision, speed,
effectiveness, efficiency and increased productivity and performance.

4.0 CONCLUSION
Bureaucracy refers to orderly and structural arrangement of things in an
organisation. The essentials of bureaucracy are to implement policies of large
entities such as government and non-governmental organizations. The purpose
and mission of bureaucracy are to determine efficiency of organisations.
266

Bureaucracy ensures division of labour, hierarchy, rules and regulations and

impersonal relationship in organisational set-up. Power is a higher force that
compels ones to do what he would not want to do. Power can be in the form of
traditional, charismatic and legal-rational.
5.0

SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that Bureaucracy centred on human organizations
particularly the collective personnel and structure of government organizations.
Bureaucratization processes ensures the execution of laws and commands and
the need for security of tenure of officer. Pure bureaucracy does not exist in the
real sense. The Functions of Bureaucracy are Policy implementation, framing
legislation, influencing Legislature, ensuring survival and growth of
organization, economic planning, and environmental functions etc.
6.0

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

QUESTION:
1a.

Define Bureaucracy

b.

List the process of Bureaucratization

2.

Explain the functions of Bureaucracy

7.0

REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Adamolekun, L. and Gboyega A. (Ed.) (1979), Leading issues in Nigeria public

services, ile-Ife, and university of ile-Ife.
Krimmer, Robert. (1917), Bureaucracy and reforms; pengum books; new york;
usa
Micheal, Hill.(1923), The journal of public administration; volume 2; tennessee
Negro, F.O and Negro I.G (1973), Modern public administration; London;
harper and row publishers.
Obiajulu, Sunday O. & Obi, Emeka A. (2004), Public administration in
Nigeria, a developmental approach. bookpoint Limited.
267

Patrick Mbieli (2006), Public administration, a broad view, meavons (west

africa) Limited.
Remi Anifowose and Francis C. Enemuo (1999), Elements of politics, sam
iroanusi publications
Taylor, W. (1917), Public affairs and administration; a primer and case books
Victor Abia B. E. (1998), A ground work of public administration. olucity
printers limited
Weber, M. (1918), Characteristics and paradoxes of bureaucracy; new york, usa

UNIT 24
THE NIGERIAN CIVIL SERVICE
TABLE OF CONTENT
1.0

Introduction

2.0

Objective

3.0

Main Content

3.1

Meaning and Evolution of the Nigerian Civil Service

3.1.1 Organisational Structure of the Nigerian Civil Service

3.2

Personnel Practices Performed by the Civil Service

3.3

Principles/Characteristics of the Civil Service

3.3.1 Hierarchy
3.3.2 Anonymity
3.3.3 Neutrality
3.3.4 Performance
3.3.5 Loyalty and Impartiality
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3.4 Functions of the Civil Service

3.4.1 Policy Implementation
3.4.2 Continuity of Public Administration
3.4.3 Advising Policy Makers
3.4.4 Provision of Input Policy
3.4.5 Informative Functions
3.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Civil Service
4.0

Conclusion

5.0

Summary

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0References/Further Reading.

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last section, you had an idea of what bureaucracy is all about. This
section will take you a step further into the concept of the Nigerian Civil
Service. In this unit, we shall be looking at the meaning and evolution of the
Civil Service; the organizational chart of the service, the principles or
characteristics of the Nigerian Civil Service, the functions, advantages and
disadvantages of the Nigerian Civil Service.
8.0

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

a)

Explain the meaning and evolution of the Nigerian Civil Service

b)

Identify the principles of the Nigerian Civil Service.

c)

List the functions of the Nigerian Civil Service

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d)

List the advantages and disadvantages of the Civil Service

3.0MAIN CONTENT
3.1

MEANING AND EVOLUTION OF THE NIGERIAN CIVIL

SERVICE
The Civil Service is an institution created by the government to take care of the
various needs of the society or a country either directly or through agencies
responsible or answerable to the service (Nwosu, 1977). The Civil Service had
laid down rules and regulations but the service is designed primarily to govern
the conduct of governmental affairs and to safeguard public interests. The
service spent time taken in considering issues thoroughly and ensure that
decisions are not based on wrong conclusions and premises but that facts are
made available. The Civil Service is the body of permanent officials employed
to assist the political executives in implementation of governmental policies.
The effectiveness of the Civil Service in the discharge of its functions depends
on the will of the society it serves and also on its ability to respond in practical
terms to its policy decisions (Nwosu, 1977). It can therefore be said that, civil
service is narrower in scope and exclude some government employees who are
public servants. According to the defunct 1998 Civil Service reforms, civil
servants exclude the President and Commander-in-chief of the Army Forces,
Governors,

Local

Government

Chairmen,

Ministers,

Commissioners,

Supervisory Councillors etc. (precisely all political office holders). The term
civil service therefore covers all employees of the State other than those holding
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political appointments who are employed into the Civil Service. The vision of
the civil service is to develop professionally sound, highly competent and
qualified personnel, technological-driven and performance-oriented. The Office
of the Head of Service of the Federation is responsible for providing leadership
and direction to the service through the promotion of good relations between
Ministers and the civil servants. The mandate of the Head of Service is to
provide management leadership, training and motivation of civil servants in all
the ministries and departments of the government.
Ademolekun, (1983), believes that the civil Service is meant to provide social
services to the populace. Public service as a term is broader in scope than civil
service.

It includes not only those who are employed into government

ministries and departments but also, statutory cooperation e.g. (PHCN, NITEL)
etc. and the armed forces. Public service means the totality of services that are
organized under government authorities. The evolution of the Civil Services in
Nigeria started from 1900 when Britain formally established her authority in
most areas in Nigeria.

The British divided the country into three regions

(Colony of Lagos, and the Protectorates of Northern and Southern Nigeria). In

1906, the Colony of Lagos was merged with the Southern Protectorate and by
1914 the Northern and Southern protectorates were amalgamated, and
subsequently became the colony and protectorate of Nigeria. Before now, the
British imposed an alien Civil Service on Nigeria without giving much thought
to the impact on the Nigeria traditional communities, their conflicting values,
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interest, norms, and structures. Despite the amalgamation and its attendant
unification the two regions developed at their own space. The major function of
the Civil Services at that time was mainly the maintenance of law and order and
secondly to raise revenue to sustain the colonial authorities. Economic and
social Development were never the major objectives of the administration.
However, Nwosu, (1977), outlined the structure of the colonial service in
Nigeria thus: The Governor-general was the Head of Public Service; he was
accountable to the colonial secretary in London. The colonial secretary was
himself accountable to the British cabinet and to the parliament.

The

Governor-general delegated his authority to the Chief Secretary as the effective

Head of Service. The Chief Secretary divided the activities of public services
into two parts for effective coordination. A department, comprises of (technical,
professional) and the political administration class. This category of personnel
assists the Chief Secretary in overseeing the territory. The departmental and
political heads, do not only advise the governor, but initiate policies,
participates in legislation, and supervised the execution of enacted Bills and
approved policies.
The Head of the technical and professional departments operate from the
Central Secretariat in Lagos with the assistance of the Field Officers. They
carried out their duties without deference to any clientele. The Field Officers
who were referred to as Lieutenant Governor do not rule the people directly;
instead they ruled them through their own people-indirectly. In the North, the
272

indirect rule system was easy because the Emirs were fully in control of the
people before the advent of colonialism; they had unquestionable powers. In the
West, the indirect rule was also successful; the Obas were fully in control
(though with some measures of checks and balances). In the East, it was a
different scenario all together, with the exception of few areas. The diffused
system of authority was described as segmentary /fragmented; this made it
difficult for the indirect rule system to be introduced. However this did not
deter the colonial officials from building an administrative. They created the
warrant chief and made them to perform the roles of their counterparts in the
North and Western regions. However, the system of administration in the
Eastern region undoubtedly encountered many problems as stated in Unit six of
module one (Ecology and Evolution of Public Administration). During this
period, Nigerians were restricted to the lower echelons of the civil service.
3.1.1 Organisational Structure of the Nigerian Civil Service
The defunct 1988 Civil Service reforms recommended the organisational
structure of the Nigerian Civil Service as: (a)Secretary to the Government (b)
Permanent Secretary (c) Directors (d) Deputy Directors (e) Assistant Directors
(f) Principal Officers (g) Senior Officers(h) Administrative Officer I&ll (j)
Junior Officers. However, the Structure of the Civil Service can be divided into
the following categories: (A) The Administrative Class (B) The Executive Class
(C) The Professional Class (D) The Junior Cadre.

273

The Administrative Class: The administrative classes are officers admitted

into the Civil Service with a University degree in any discipline or with the
attainment of a Professional qualification. These categories of staff are referred
to as the core Civil Servants. They could rise to the peak of the Civil Service. A
university graduate enlisted into the Nigeria Civil Service starts from the
position of an administrative officer ll and can rise to the position of the
Permanent Secretary and probably Secretary to the Government.
The Executive Class: These categories of Civil Servants are called
Assistants. They are admitted into this class with a Polytechnic degree, Higher
National Diploma (HND) or other lower qualifications and can rise through the
ranks. Unlike the administrative officers, the highest level for them in service is
Grade Level 13. On the attainment of this level, they either obtain additional
qualification (a degree or professional qualification or mark time on the level
until they retire). These categories of Civil Servants can be converted to
administrative class only if, they have the necessary qualification.
The Professional Class: These categories of Civil Servants are the Engineers,
Doctors, Lawyers, Architects and Accountants etc. The academic and
professional qualifications they possess determine their positions as officers or
assistants. They can rise to the peak of the Civil Service.
The Junior Cadre: These are Officers on Grade Level 01-07, their academic
qualifications may range from First School Leaving Certificate to National
Certificate of Education (NCE) they are not specifically trained, and they are
274

not professional. They constitute the unskilled and semi-skilled labour. They
constitute about 40-60% of the workforce of any Organisation. These categories
of civil servants are the clerical officers, drivers, massagers/office assistants,
cleaners, typist, gardeners, security guards, key punch operators, receptionist
etc.
Self-Assessment Exercise:
1. Explain the Personnel practices performed by the Civil Service
2. Explain the Organisational Structure of the Civil Service
3.2 PERSONNEL PRACTICES PERFORMED BY THE CIVIL SERVICE
The Civil Service like any other organisation has organisational goals (provision
of social services) Personnel management in the civil service encompasses the
following functions:
(a) Recruitment: The mode of recruitment into the civil service is through the
Civil Service Commission for officers on grade level 08-17 on the completion
of civil service form, while the individual ministries recruited officers on grade
level 01-07.

A written and oral interview is conducted before suitable

candidates are offered appointment. A list of the successful candidates is sent to

the Office of the Secretary of the Government for posting to the different
Ministries and Departments. Civil service appointments are pensionable. There
is also contract appointment (the appointment of Officers who have retired from
the service of the government on the attainment of the retirement age of 6o
275

years or who has put in 35 years of service). However, this is a form of

contractual agreement between the employee and the employer. This
appointment is not pensionable and subject to termination with one Month
Notice by either party involved or as stated in the condition of service.
(b) Confirmation of Appointment: On appointment into the Civil Service, an
officer will be placed on probation for two years. This period is to test the
persons abilities and behaviour on the job. On satisfactory performance during
this period he or she is given Letter of Confirmation.
(C)Training and Development: The defunct 1988 Civil Services reform
placed emphasis on training and re-training of personnel. The reform suggested
that each Ministry should have a departmental training officer to train people on
level 0112, while the office of establishment, pension to training, and train
officer on level 1317. Training makes workers to be more efficient on specific
areas of the job to the accomplishment of the organisational set objectives.
Training and development constitutes one of the major cardinal areas of
personnel management as it entailed the process where successful employees
are subjected to some systematic process to acquire technical knowledge, skill
and attitude required to perform a specific task. In organising training
programme either internal or external, top management staff are involved to
share their worth of knowledge, experience and skills acquisition to the newly
recruited employees.
(d) Promotion: Civil Servants are entitled to promotion. Each Department or
Ministry prepares at the end of the year a comprehensive list of staffers,
showing the order of seniority of all the staffer in each grade, within each cadre
officers are eligible to undertake promotion.
(e) Annual Increment: Civil Servants are entitled to an annual increment of
salary on the same grade, different steps until the person is due for promotion
(Attwood, 1985).
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3.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CIVIL SERVICE

The Characteristics of the Civil Service encompass the features of the German
Sociologist (Weber, 1914).
3.5.2 Hierarchy: The nature of the Civil Service in Nigeria is hierarchical in
structure. It involves the supervision and control of lower officers from the
higher class. For instance, we have the administrative class, professional class,
executive class and the junior cadre. Each unit exercise some measure of control
over the unit below.
3.2.2 Anonymity: The principle of anonymity states that, Civil Servants should
be seen and not heard. Though they advise political office holders on issues
relating to government, they either take neither the blame nor the glory for such
policies. They are not expected to be seen defending such policies, that job is
better left for political office holders and not the career officers. Civil servants
thus work for the Minister but they are not mentioned.
3.2.3 Neutrality: The Civil servant must be politically neutral, it major
responsibilities is to serve the government of the day with full dedication
irrespective of what they feel about a particular government. He is not expected
to carry placard or get involved in partisan politics. He is expected to vote at
election time: they not expected to have a strong attachment of any particular
government. This is to enable them give their best and to make government
policies to succeed.
3.2.4 Performance or Permanency: Politicians are birds of passage, they are
essentially temporary administrators. The Civil Service is often defined as a
permanent body of officials that carry out government decisions. It is permanent
and its stewardship is not tired to the life of any particular government. A Civil
Servant is sure to keep his post, and pensionable unless he misbehaves.
3.5.3 Loyalty and Impartiality: The Civil Servant is expected to treat
everybody with a high degree of impartiality. Favouritism is against the
principle of Civil Service and should not be encouraged; they performed their
duties without fear, favour and with equal loyalty to any government of
whatever complexion.

3.4 FUNCTIONS OF THE CIVIL SERVICE

The civil service covers all staff of ministries and departments from the
Permanent Secretary to the daily rated employees in the local government
277

councils and whose remuneration are paid out of the money voted by the
legislature. The following are the functions of the Civil Service:
3.4.1. Policy Implementation: The major function of the Civil Service is the
implementation of government policies. Civil Servants are not policy makers
and are not really in a position to question government policies. Whenever
policy is made, it becomes the role of the civil servants to implement the policy
the way it ought to be implemented. Often times, it is when policies are being
implemented that most people become aware of the policy and its effects and
where the policy is unfavourable to the masses, they may react adversely to it.
Policies are subject to adjustment and the Civil Servants give feed-back to the
political office holders who are policy makers.
3.4.2. Ensuring Continuity of Public Administration: The Civil Service
being a body of permanent officials of the state stands for continuity, this helps
to stabilise the state by ensuring the continuity of government activities mostly
to societies like Nigeria with unstable political history. As governments come
and go, the civil service makes sure that vital activities of the state do not break
down.
3.4.3 Advising Policy Makers: Civil servants are people with a lot of
experience and are expected to advice political office holders on policies
(formulation and implementation). This role was more emphasized during the
military regimes were young military officers with little experience found
themselves in power. Being novice in parade they had no choice than to rely
on the expertise of top Civil Servants. Where the advice of the civil servant is
rejected, he must go ahead to implement the decision of the government even
though it is against his personal wish.
3.3.4. Provision of Input for Policy: Civil Servants with vast knowledge of
experience make provision of inputs for policy formulation. Whenever a policy
is to be formulated, some top level Civil Servants (professional and seasoned
administrators) makes their inputs with the elected office holders (Ministers,
Governors, Special advisers, Commissioners) etc.
3.3.5 Information Function: It is one of the duties of the Civil Servants to pass
information from the political office holders down to the masses and vice versa.
It is expected that the Civil Servants who come into contact with the masses,
should give a feed-back to the political office holders who are policy makers
who can then adjust the policy, to suit the demands of the people. The core civil
servants are always on ground to give information to the public.
278

3.5 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE CIVIL SERVICE

3.5.1 Advantages of the Civil Service:
(a). As a career service; there is a measure of security of tenure of Office,
Pension and Gratuity etc.
(b). It gives room for speed, precision, unambiguity, continuity, discretion,
unity, strict subordination and restriction of friction of materials.
(c). The sense of being fulfilled and the achievement of being appointed to a
senior post call for high qualities of judgement, ability and knowledge.
(d). Recruitment is usually based on the merit, quota and federal character
system
(e). It placed total emphasis on effectiveness and efficiency of services
delivered and less on profit making.
3.5.2 Disadvantages of the Civil Service
(a). There is too much red-tapeism, the excessive use of formalities and overdevotion to precedence and or reliance on established practices.
(b). Lack of segmented control as Civil Servants have no opportunity to
exercise individual judgement. The power of control rests on the boss (political
office holders) and this does not encourage efficiency
(c). Under the umbrella of anonymity, civil servants sometimes ill-advice the
governments which brings about confusion in the society. Some of them
exercise wide discretion of power simply because they have access to vital
information and power than public office holders
(d). Most officials join the service straight from the University with additional
qualifications and limited experience.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The Nigerian Civil Service started in 1900 when the British established her
authorities in Lagos, Northern and Southern Nigeria and by 1914 the country
was amalgamated into two regions, the Northern and Southern protectorate.
There have been remarkable differences in the organisational structure of civil
service during the British era and the current civil Service. The programmes and
projects of the government are well implemented by the Civil servants.
Emphases are placed on hierarchy of structure and anonymity of personnel. The
279

Nigerian civil service is characterised with security of tenure of office, pension

and gratuity of personnel while the major default is on red-tapeism and lack of
segmented control.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt that, civil servants are the body of permanent
officials appointed
to assist the political executives in formulating and
implementing governmental policies. They provide social services to the
populace. The personnel practices performed by the civil services are
recruitment, confirmation of appointment, training and manpower development,
promotion and discipline of personnel. The principles of the civil service of
Nigeria are hierarchy, neutrality, anonymity, permanent and impartial in the
discharge of their duties. The functions of the civil service are policies
implementation, ensuring continuity of public administration, advising policy
makers, provision of inputs for policy and informative functions. There is
security; gratuity and tenure of office holders in the Civil Service.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain the evolution of the Nigerian Civil Service
2. List the advantages and disadvantages of Civil Service
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Ademolekun, L (1983), Public Administration. A Nigeria Comparative
Perspective, London Longman
Attwood, M.(1985), Introduction To Personnel Management (London
Breakthrough Pan Books).
Bankole Akanji (2000), Principles Of Personnel Management, Published By
Fadec, Ebute- Metta, Lagos
Bello, S. A, Ojodu, H.O, Ogunyomi,P. O, Legbeti, P (2004), Public
Administration System In Nigeria, (Revised Edition) Raamson Printing
Services
Nwosu, H.N (1977), Political Authority And The Nigeria Civil Service: Enugu
Fourth Dimension Publishers
Obiajulu Sunday And Emeka Anthony Obi (2004), Public Administration In
Nigeria, A Developmental Approach. Bookpoint Limited
280

Remi Anifowose And Francis C. Enemuo (1999), Elements Of Politics, Sam

Iroanusi Publications
Weber, M. (1914), Public administration and public policy; new york, usa

281