PBL BLOOD DONATION

1. Justification for blood donation

-Trauma
-Help patient with medical condition
-Accident
-Bleeding problem
-Haemorrhage
2. Requirements needed to be a blood donor.
Male:

Be healthy and feeling well

Be at least 17 years old in most states

Be at least 5'1"

Weigh at least 130 lbs.

Female:

Be healthy and feeling well

Be at least 17 years old in most states

Be at least 5'5"

Weigh at least 150 lbs.

3. Blood component of whole blood

Whole blood contains red cells, white cells, and platelets (~45% of volume) suspended in
plasma (~55% of volume).
Red cells, or erythrocytes, carry oxygen from the lungs to your bodys tissue and take carbon
dioxide back to your lungs to be exhaled.
Platelets, or thrombocytes, are small, colorless cell fragments in the blood whose main
function is to interact with clotting proteins to stop or prevent bleeding.
Plasma is a fluid, composed of about 92% water, 7% vital proteins such as albumin, gamma
globulin, anti- hemophilic factor, and other clotting factors, and 1% mineral salts, sugars, fats,
hormones and vitamins
4. Blood is classified as a connective tissue and consists of two main components:
1.
Plasma, which is a clear extracellular fluid
2.
Formed elements, which are made up of the blood cells and platelets
The formed elements are so named because they are enclosed in a plasma membrane and have a
definite structure and shape. All formed elements are cells except for the platelets, which are tiny
fragments of bone marrow cells.

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Formed elements are:

Erythrocytes, also known as red blood cells (RBCs)

Leukocytes, also known as white blood cells (WBCs)
Platelets
5. Formation of blood cells.

Blood Formation
Hemopoiesis ( hematopoiesis) is the process that produces the formed elements of the blood.
Hemopoiesis takes place in the red bone marrow found in the epiphyses of long bones (for example,
the humerus and femur), flat bones (ribs and cranial bones), vertebrae, and the pelvis. Within the red
bone marrow, hemopoietic stem cells ( hemocytoblasts) divide to produce various blast cells. Each
of these cells matures and becomes a particular formed element.
Erythropoiesis
Erythropoiesis, the process of making erythrocytes, begins with the formation of proerythroblasts
from hemopoietic stem cells. Over three to five days, several stages of development follow as
ribosomes proliferate and hemoglobin is synthesized. Finally, the nucleus is ejected, producing the
depression in the center of the cell. Young erythrocytes, called reticulocytes, still containing some
ribosomes and endoplasmic reticulum, pass into the bloodstream and develop into mature erythrocytes
after another one or two days.
Erythropoietin
Erythropoietin (EPO), a hormone produced mostly by the kidneys, stimulates bone marrow to
produce erythrocytes (stimulates erythropoiesis). When inadequate amounts of oxygen are delivered
to body cells, a condition called hypoxia, the kidneys increase EPO secretion, which in turn stimulates
an increase in erythrocyte production.
The average production rate of erythrocytes in healthy individuals is two million cells per second.
Normal production requires adequate amounts of iron, vitamin B 12, and folic acid. Vitamin B 12 and
folic acid are necessary for the proper development of DNA in the erythroblasts. This DNA is
responsible for the organization of the heme molecule of which iron will become a component. Proper
DNA development is also necessary for erythroblast reproduction. A lack of either vitamin B 12 or
folic acid can result in pernicious anemia.
Leukopoiesis
Leukopoiesis, the process of making leukocytes, is stimulated by various colonystimulating factors
(CSFs), which are hormones produced by mature white blood cells. The development of each kind of
white blood cell begins with the division of the hemopoietic stem cells into one of the following
blast cells:

Myeloblasts divide to form eosinophilic, neutrophilic, or basophilic myelocytes, which lead to

the development of the three kinds of granulocytes.
Monoblasts lead to the development of monocytes.
Lymphoblasts lead to the development of lymphocytes.

Thrombopoiesis

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Thrombopoiesis, the process of making platelets, begins with the formation of megakaryoblasts from
hemopoietic stem cells. The megakaryoblasts divide without cytokinesis to become megakaryocytes,
huge cells with a large, multilobed nucleus. The megakaryocytes then fragment into segments as the
plasma membrane infolds into the cytoplasm.
7.Blood Components
Normally, 7-8% of human body weight is from blood. In adults, this amounts to 4.56 quarts of blood. This essential fluid carries out the critical functions of transporting
oxygen and nutrients to our cells and getting rid of carbon dioxide, ammonia, and
other waste products. In addition, it plays a vital role in our immune system and in
maintaining a relatively constant body temperature. Blood is a highly specialized
tissue composed of more than 4,000 different kinds of components. Four of the most
important ones are red cells, white cells, platelets, and plasma. All humans produce
these blood components--there are no populational or regional differences.
Red Cells
Red cells, or erythrocytes

, are relatively large microscopic cells without nuclei.

Human erythrocytes or "red cells"

(cell diameter about .0003 inches)
In this latter trait, they are similar to the primitive prokaryotic cells of bacteria. Red
cells normally make up 40-50% of the total blood volume. They transport oxygen
from the lungs to all of the living tissues of the body and carry away carbon dioxide.
The red cells are produced continuously in our bone marrow from stem cells at a rate
of about 2-3 million cells per second. Hemoglobin
is the gas
transporting protein molecule that makes up 95% of a red cell. Each red cell has
about 270,000,000 iron-rich hemoglobin molecules. People who are anemic
generally have a deficiency in red cells, and subsequently feel fatigued due to a
shortage of oxygen. The red color of blood is primarily due to oxygenated red cells.
Human fetal hemoglobin molecules differ from those produced by adults in the
number of amino acid chains. Fetal hemoglobin has three chains, while adults
produce only two. As a consequence, fetal hemoglobin molecules attract and
transport relatively more oxygen to the cells of the body.
White Cells
White cells, or leukocytes
, exist in variable numbers and types but make up a
very small part of blood's volume--normally only about 1% in healthy people.
Leukocytes are not limited to blood. They occur elsewhere in the body as well, most
notably in the spleen, liver, and lymph glands. Most are produced in our bone
marrow from the same kind of stem cells that produce red blood cells. Others are
produced in the thymus gland, which is at the base of the neck. Some white cells
(called lymphocytes
) are the first responders for our immune system. They seek
out, identify, and bind to alien protein on bacteria, viruses, and fungi so that they can

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be removed. Other white cells (called granulocytes

and macrophages
) then
arrive to surround and destroy the alien cells. They also have the function of getting
rid of dead or dying blood cells as well as foreign matter such as dust and asbestos.
Red cells remain viable for only about 4 months before they are removed from the
blood and their components recycled in the spleen. Individual white cells usually
only last 18-36 hours before they also are removed, though some types live as much
as a year. The description of white cells presented here is a simplification. There are
actually many specialized sub-types of them that participate in different ways in our
immune responses.

erythrocyte (left), thrombocyte

(center), and leukocyte (right)
Platelets
Platelets
, or thrombocytes
, are cell fragments without nuclei that work with blood
clotting chemicals at the site of wounds. They do this by adhering to the walls of blood
vessels, thereby plugging the rupture in the vascular wall. They also can release
coagulating chemicals which cause clots to form in the blood that can plug up narrowed
blood vessels. Thirteen different blood clotting factors, in addition to platelets, need to
interact for clotting to occur. They do so in a cascading manner, one factor triggering
another. Hemophiliacs lack the ability to produce either blood factor 8 or 9.
Platelets are not equally effective in clotting blood throughout the entire day. The
body's circadian rhythm system (its internal biological clock) causes the peak of
platelet activation in the morning. This is one of the main reasons that strokes and
heart attacks are more common in the morning.
Recent research has shown that platelets also help fight infections by releasing
proteins that kill invading bacteria and some other microorganisms. In addition,
platelets stimulate the immune system. Individual platelets are about 1/3 the size of
red cells. They have a lifespan of 9-10 days. Like the red and white blood cells,
platelets are produced in bone marrow from stem cells.
Plasma
Plasma is the relatively clear, yellow tinted water (92+%), sugar, fat, protein and salt
solution which carries the red cells, white cells, and platelets. Normally, 55% of our
blood's volume is made up of plasma. As the heart pumps blood to cells throughout
the body, plasma brings nourishment to them and removes the waste products
of metabolism. Plasma also contains blood clotting factors, sugars, lipids, vitamins,
minerals, hormones, enzymes, antibodies, and other proteins. It is likely that plasma
contains some of every protein produced by the body--approximately 500 have been
identified in human plasma so far.
9. Describe the mechanism of haemostasis.
Mechanisms of Blood Coagulation

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Blood coagulation refers to the process of forming a clot to stop bleeding. Coagulation is a
complicated subject and is greatly simplified here for the student's understanding.
To stop bleeding, the body relies on the interaction of three processes:
Primary hemostasis involves the first two processes.
1. Vasoconstriction. Vasoconstriction is the body's first response to injury in the vascular wall. When
injury occurs, vessel walls constrict, causing reduced blood flow to the site of injury.
2. Platelet plug. Platelets aggregate to the site of the injury. They stick together acting as a "plug."
Platelets also activate the process which causes a fibrin clot to form, known as secondary hemostasis.
Secondary hemostasis.
3. Platelets alone are not enough to secure the damage in the vessel wall. A clot must form at the site
of injury. The formation of a clot depends upon several substances called clotting factors. These
factors are designated by roman numerals I through XIII. These factors activate each other in what as
known as the clotting cascade. The end result of this cascade is that fibrinogen, a soluble plasma
protein, is cleaved into fibrin, a nonsoluble plasma protein. The fibrin proteins stick together forming
a clot.
The clotting cascade occurs through two separate pathways that interact, the intrinsic and the
extrinsic pathway.
Extrinsic Pathway
The extrinsic pathway is activated by external trauma that causes blood to escape from the vascular
system. This pathway is quicker than the intrinsic pathway. It involves factor VII.
Intrinsic Pathway
The intrinsic pathway is activated by trauma inside the vascular system, and is activated by platelets,
exposed endothelium, chemicals, or collagen. This pathway is slower than the extrinsic pathway, but
more important. It involves factors XII, XI, IX, VIII.
Common Pathway
Both pathways meet and finish the pathway of clot production in what is known as the common
pathway. The common pathway involves factors I, II, V, and X.