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Course outcomes: At the end of the module students will be able to:
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Introduction
The earliest application of ac current was for heating the filament of an electric lamp using the
single-phase ac supply. When ac motors were developed, it was found that single-phase ac
supply was not very satisfactory as the single-phase induction motor-the type most commonly
used was not self-starting unless it was fitted with an auxiliary winding. It was found that by
using two separate windings with currents differing in phase by 90 or three windings with
currents differing in phase by 120, the induction motor became self-starting, had better
efficiency and power factor.
The system utilizing two windings is referred to as a two-phase system and that utilizing three
windings is referred to as a three-phase system.
Almost all the electrical power used in the country is generated and distributed in the form of
three-phase ac supply. The single-phase ac supply used in homes, offices, factories, etc.,
originates as a part of 3-phase system.
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eR
eY
eR
R
eY
R
eB
B
120
120
E RR
120
eB
E YY
- 0.866Em
- Em
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Figure 4a illustrates the principle of generation of three-phase voltage system. The three coils
RR', YY', and BB' wound on a rotor have a space-displacement of 120 from one another.
The rotor is rotated counterclockwise in a uniform magnetic field with a uniform angular speed
.
Magnetic Field
R
120
S120
N
B
(a)
Fig.4. Generation of three phase emf
(b)
A sinusoidal e.m.f is generated in each coil. Because of the space-displacement of the coils, after
one-third cycle of rotation, coil YY' occupies the same position as the coil RR' did. Therefore
the e.m.f in coil YY' lags behind the emf in coil RR' by 120. Similarly the e.m.f in coil BB' lags
behind the e.m.f in coil YY' by 120. Thus, if the three coils are identical, we get three e.m.fs
having the same amplitude and frequency but time-displaced by 120, as shown in Fig. 3.
For generating an e.m.f in a coil what is needed is the relative motion between the coil and
magnetic field. Thus, instead of rotating the coils in a fixed magnetic field, we can do the reverse
and still get the same result. Figure 4(b) shows such an arrangement. Here, three coils RR', YY'
and BB' are wound on a stator space-displaced by 120. The magnetic field is provided by the
rotor. The rotor (and hence the magnetic field) is made to rotate clockwise at a uniform angular
speed . The effect would be the same as if the three coils were rotated counterclockwise at a
uniform angular speed in a stationary magnetic field.
In practice, the scheme of Fig. 4(b) is preferred over that of Fig. 4(a). It is much safer and easier
to make external connections to stationary coils rather than to rotating ones.
Note that each coil has two terminals-start and finish. The finish (or return) terminal of a coil is
diametrically opposite to its start. Thus, the terminals on the periphery (Fig. 4b) appear in the
order: R, B',Y, R', B, Y. We maintain same sequence of coil terminals in three-phase generators
and motors.
For convenience, the three phases of Fig. 4 can be represented as in Fig. 5. Here, the phases are
shown isolated from one another. We assume an e.m.f to be positive when acting from 'finish' to
'start' of the phase winding. Thus, the three e.m.fs can be represented by arrows eR, eY and eB in
Fig. 5. These three e.m.f are shown connected to three respective loads L1, L2 and L3. This
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arrangement necessitates the use of six line conductors. It is cumbersome and expensive. It may
be simplified. Depending on the interconnection of windings, there are two kinds of three-phase
systems: (i) Star or wye (Y) connection, and (ii) Delta (L\) or mesh connection.
1
Start
R
L1
R
Finish
Start
3
Y
L1
Y
Finish
Start
5
B
L1
Finish
Z1
Z3
Z1
Z3
Z2
Z2
(a)
(b)
Fig.6. three phase loads (a) star connection (b) delta connection
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In a three-phase load, if all the three impedances are equal (both in resistive as well as in reactive
parts), the load is said to be a balanced load. An example of such a balanced three phase load is a
three-phase motor, which has three identical windings. To such a balanced load, if a balanced
three-phase supply is applied, the currents will also be balanced. Conversely, if it is carrying
balanced currents, the voltages across the circuit will also be balanced.
Star connected Three Phase System
In Fig. 5 join together the three 'finishes', R', Y' and B' at N, as shown in Fig. 7a.
This way, the three conductors 2, 4 and 6 of Fig. 5 are replaced by a single conductor NM of Fig.
7a.. Since the e.m.f has been assumed positive when acting from 'finish' to 'start', the current in
each phase must also be taken as positive flowing in that direction, as shown in Fig. 7a. Let iR,
iY and iB be the instantaneous values of the three phase currents. Then the current in the
common wire MN is ( iR + iY + iB) having positive direction from M to N. This arrangement is
referred to as a four-wire star-connected voltage system. It is more conveniently represented as
in Fig. 7b. In appearance, the three windings look like a star or 'Y'. Hence, it gets its name. The
junction N is referred to as the star or neutral point. Three-phase motors are connected to the line
conductors R, Y and B. However, simple phase gadgets such as lamps, heaters, microwave
ovens, etc. are connected between the line and neutral conductors, as indicated by L1, L2 and L3.
Start
R
L1
R
Finish
Start
L2
Y
Finish
Start
B
L3
Finish
In such cases, the total load is distributed as equally as possible between the three lines. If the
three loads are exactly equal, the phase currents have the same peak value, Im, and differ in phase
by 120. Hence, if the instantaneous current in L1is represented by iR = Imsin t, The
instantaneous currents in L2 and L3, respectively, are iY = Im sin (t- 120) and
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R
Line conductors
N
B
L2
L1
Neutral
conductor
R
R
Z
R
N
B
Z
B
Generator
Line
Conductors
Balanced Load
Fig. 7(c) Three wire star connected system with balanced load
Unbalanced Three-Phase System
We prefer using a three-phase system to supply power both to the domestic consumers as well as
to the industrial consumers, as shown in Fig.8. The industrial load (such as a 3 phase motor) may
be connected in star or in delta. It constitutes a balanced load.
In a residential colony, one set of houses, constituting load Ll is provided electric supply from
phase Rand common point (or local neutral point) M; the second set of houses, constituting load
L2, from phase Y and common point M; and the third set of houses, constituting load L3, from
phase B and common point M.
Although an effort is made to make this star-connected domestic load balanced, but practically it
may not be possible to do so all the time.
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Three phase
Voltage
System
L3
L2
Domestic Load
(Star Connected)
L1
Industrial Load
(Star or Delta Connected)
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Start
R
R
B
Finish
Start
B
Y
Finish
Start
Finish
(a)
Y
Y
(c)
(b)
Fig.9. Connecting three phase windings to make delta connected three phase system
The circuit derived in Fig.9b is conventionally drawn as in Fig. 9c. In appearance, it looks like
Greek letter delta (). Hence, this connection is given this name. Note that in Fig. 9c, the 'finish'
of one phase is connected to the 'start' of another phase. This ensures that the arrows representing
the positive directions of the e.m.fs point in the same direction round the mesh formed by the
windings.
VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS RELATIONS IN 3 PHASE SYSTEMS
In a three-phase system, there are two sets of voltages: (i) line voltages, and (ii) phase voltages.
Similarly, there are two sets of currents: (i) line currents, and (ii) phase currents. We shall now
determine the relations between these two sets of voltage and two sets of currents in both the
star-connected system as well as delta connected system.
(1) Star Connected System
Assume the e.m.f in each phase to be positive when acting from the neutral point outwards,
as shown in Fig.10. The rms values of the e.m.fs generated in the three phases are ERN, EYN and
EBN. In practice, it is the voltage between two lines or between a line conductor and the neutral
point that is measured. Due to the impedance voltage-drop in the windings, this potential
difference (Pd) is different from the corresponding e.m.f generated in the winding, except when
the generator is on open circuit. Hence, in general it is preferable to work with the potential
difference, V, rather than the e.m.f, E.
In a three-phase system, there are two sets of voltages we are interested in. One is the set of
phase voltages, and the other is the set of line voltages. In Fig.10, VRN is the rms value of the
voltage drop from R to N. That is, this is the phase voltage of phase R. Thus, VRN, VYN and VBN
denote the set of three phase voltages. The term 'line voltage' is used to denote the voltage
between two lines. Thus, VRY represents line voltage between the lines R and Y. The other line
voltages are VYB and VBR.
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R
R
R
Y
N
B
Three Phase
Load
Line Conductors
Generator
30
120
120
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Geometrical Analysis Because of the symmetry in Fig.11, it is evident that the line voltages
are equal and are spaced 120 apart. Further, since sides of all the parallelograms are of equal
length, the diagonals bisect one another at right angles. Also, they bisect the angle of their
respective parallelograms.
Since the angle between VRN and -VYN is 60, we have
VRY= 2(VRNCOS30) or VL =2 Vph(0.866) = 3Vph
In a star connection, any current that flows out of the line terminal R must be the same as that
which flows due to the phase source voltage appearing between terminals Rand N. Therefore, for
star-connection, we have IL = Iph
(2) Delta-Connected System
Let IR'R, IYY, IB'B, be the rms values of the phase currents in the three windings of the generator.
Their assumed positive directions are indicated by arrows in Fig. 12. Since the load is assumed
balanced, these currents are equal in magnitude and differ in phase by 120, as shown in the
phasor diagram of Fig. l2.b.
R
B
Three Phase
Balance
Load
Generator
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30
120
12
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(iii) Two-Wattmeter Method This can be used for any balanced or unbalanced load, star or
delta connected. Details of this method are explained below.
iR
Power Measurement by Two-Wattmeter Method
R
Suppose that the three loads L1, L2 and L3
are connected in star, as shown in Fig. 15.
W1
L1
The current coils (CC) of the two wattmeters
W1 and W2 are connected in any two lines,
L2
say, the R and B lines. The potential coils (PC)
Y
N
of the wattmeters are connected between these
i
Y
lines and the third line. The sum of the wattmeter
readings gives the average value of the total power
W2
L3
absorbed by the three phases.
B
iB
iR + iY + iB = 0
iY = - (iR + iB )
P = iR vRN + iB vBN + vYN iY = total instantaneous power
The power measured by each wattmeter varies from instant to instant, but due to the inertia of the
moving system the pointer stays at the average value of the power.
Since the above proof does not assume a balanced load or a sinusoidal waveform, it follows that
the sum of the two wattmeter readings gives the total power under all conditions. The above
proof was derived for a star-connected load. One could derive the same conclusion for a deltaconnected load.
Power Factor Measurement by Two-Wattmeter Method
Consider a balanced three-phase inductive load at a power factor Cos (lagging), connected to a
3-wire, 3-phase system, as shown in Fig. 16. The phase sequence is R Y B. The current coils of
the two wattmeters W1 and W2 are connected in the line conductors Rand Y; respectively. Their
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potential coils are connected between the corresponding line conductor and the third line
conductor B.
R
R
W1
Three -Phase
Three wire
Power supply
IR
Y
Y
W2
IY
Three Phase
Balanced
Load
Star or Delta
Connected
B
IB
and
30
P2 = VYB lY Cos(30 + ) = VL IL Cos(30 + )
Adding P1 and P2
30 -
60
P1 + P2 = VL IL Cos(30 - ) + VL IL Cos(30 + )
= VL IL {Cos(30 - ) + Cos(30 + )}
= VL IL 2Cos30 Cos
30 +
Subtracting P1 and P2
P1 - P2 = VL IL Cos(30 - ) - VL IL Cos(30 + )
= VL IL {Sin(30 - ) + Sin(30 + )}
= VL IL 2Sin30 Sin
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Simplifying,
and
We can calculate the phase angle from the above relation, and then determine the power factor
Cos .
We get the power factor
****
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4. Three similar choking coils each having resistance 10 and reactance 10 are
connected in star across a 440 V, 3 phase supply. Find the line current and reading of each
of two wattmeters connected to measure Power.
Solution:
Coil resistance = 10 ohm
coil reactance = 10 ohm. Star connection.
Supply voltage = 440 V.
Impedance = 10 +j 10 = 14.14 45 ohm.
Phase current = phase voltage / impedance
= (440/3) / 14,14 45 = 8.983 - 45 Amp.
Line current = phase current = 8.983 A
Wattmeter reading W1 = VLILcos(30 - (Vph, Iph) )
= 440 x 8.983 x cos(30 - 45) = 3817.84 watt. = 3.82kW
Wattmeter reading W2 = VLILcos(30 + (Vph, Iph) )
= 440 x 8.983 x cos(30 + 45) = 1022.65 W = 1.02265 kW
5. Three similar impedances are connected in delta across a 3 phase supply. The two
wattmeters connected to measure the input power indicate 12 KW. Calculate Power input
and Power factor of the load.
Solution:
Delta connection.
The two wattmeters connected to measure the input power indicating 12 KW. (both are
reading equal)
Wattmeter reading W1 = VLILcos(30 - ) = 12kW
Wattmeter reading W2 = VLILcos(30 + ) = 12kW
Power input = 12 + 12 = 24kW.
We have W1 = W2
VLILcos(30 - ) = VLILcos(30 + ) ; = 0
Power factor of the load = cos(0) = 1, unity power factor.
OR
Wattmeter reading W1 = VLILcos(30 - ) = 12kW
Wattmeter reading W2 = VLILcos(30 + ) = 12kW
power factor angle = tan -1{3 (WA WB)/(WA + WB)}
with WA = WB = 12kW, = 0
Therefore the power factor Cos = 1
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6. The power flowing in a 3 Phase,3 Wire balanced load system is measured by two
wattmeter method. The reading in Wattmeter A is 750 Watts and Wattmeter B is 1500
Watts. What is the power factor of the system?
Solution:
Wattmeter A = 750 Watts
Wattmeter B = 1500 Watts.
power factor angle
= tan -1{3 (WA WB)/(WA + WB)}
= tan 1{3(750 1500)/(750+1500)} = -30
power factor of the system = cos(- 30 )
= 0.866 lagging.
7. Three similar coils each having resistance of 10 Ohm and reactance of 8 Ohm are
connected in star across a 400 V, 3 Phase supply, Determine the i)Line current ii)Total
Power and iii)Reading of each of two wattmeters connected to measure the power.
Solution:
Coil impedance = 10 + j 8 Ohm
Star connected.
Supply : 400 V, 3 Phase supply,
i) Line current = phase voltage / impedance
= (400/3)/(10 + j 8) = 230.94 /12.8 38.66
= 18.042 - 38.66 Amp
Ii) Total Power = 3 x 400 x 18.042 x cos(38,66) = 10 kW
iii) Reading of each of two wattmeters:
W1 = VLILcos(30 ) = 400 x 18.042 x cos(68.66) = 2.626kW
8. Three similar impedances are connected in delta across a 3 Phase supply. The two
Wattmeters connected to measure the input power indicate 12 KW and 7KW calculate:
Power input and Power factor of the load.
Solution:
Wattmeter A = 12kW = 12000 Watts
Wattmeter B = 7kW = 7000 Watts.
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With the help of connection diagram and phasor diagram show two Wattmeters are sufficient to
measure the active power in a three phase wire system with balanced star connected load.
2.
With the aid of a phasor diagram obtail the relationship between the line and phase values of
voltages in a three phase star connected system.
3.
4.
5.
Show that two wattmeters are sufficient to measure power in 3-phase balanced connected circuit
with the aid of neat circuit diagram and phasor diagrams
6.
7.
With relevant vector diagram, show that two wattmeters are sufficient to measure three phase
power.
8.
9.
Obtain the relationship between line voltages and phase voltages in balanced 3-phase supply
system
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