Journal of Sedimentary Research, 2015, v.

85, 12581274
Research Article
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2110/jsr.2015.82

QUANTITATIVE CHARACTERIZATION OF ARCHITECTURE ELEMENTS AND THEIR RESPONSE

TO BASE-LEVEL CHANGE IN A SANDY BRAIDED FLUVIAL SYSTEM AT A MOUNTAIN FRONT
SHUNLI LI,1 XINGHE YU,2 BINTAO CHEN,3

AND

SHENGLI LI2

College of Geosciences, China University of Petroleum, Beijing 102249, China

2
School of Energy Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China
3
Northwest Branch, PetroChina Exploration and Development Research Institute, Lanzhou 730020, China

ABSTRACT: The Rockcave Member of the Yungang Formation (Middle Jurassic), in the Datong Basin, China, is a multistory
sandstone that is interpreted as a sandy braided fluvial deposit based on grain size, lithofacies, and architectural elements. The
depositional setting was the mountain front of the Datong Basin, which was tens of kilometers from the shoreline of a lacustrine
basin during the Middle Jurassic. The concept of base level is used to analyze the architectural elements of the braided system
obtained from photographic mosaics and high-resolution measurement of six outcrop sections from Yungang Rock Cave. Grain
size, lithology, and bounding surfaces together with scale and dimension parameters of the sedimentary structures in various
architectural elements were used to quantitatively characterize each group of architectural elements and stratigraphic units.
Width/thickness values of trough crossbeds were found to be a fundamental component of the hydrodynamic regimes. During
base-level rise the braided fluvial system developed large-scale channel units, bar units, and overbank fills. The relatively high
proportion of bar units and overbank fills reflect processes operating during positive accommodation. However, during baselevel fall there are a high proportion of small-scale channel units that reflect incision-dominated processes such as channels with
low W/T values for trough crossbeds and less common overbank fines.

INTRODUCTION

Architecture analysis and depositional models of braided rivers can

aid in the prediction of the nature of fluvial reservoirs (Bridge 1993;
Bridge and Lunt 2006). Architectural elements as a significant method
of facies analysis has been applied to fluvial deposits since first proposed
by Allen (1983) and expanded by Miall (1985, 1988, 1993, 2014). Miall
(1996) standardized fluvial architectural analysis, defining architectural
elements and a hierarchy of superimposed strata by ordering their
bounding surfaces. A wide variety of depositional models for braided
fluvial systems have been established (Williams and Rust 1969; Miall
1977; Cant and Walker 1978; Bluck 1979; Walker and Cant 1984; Miall
1992; Bridge 1993; Collinson 1996; Miall 1996; Bridge 2003; Lunt and
Bridge 2004; Bridge and Lunt 2006), and architectural elements have
been categorized into several classifications (Allen 1983; Miall 1985,
1988, 1996; Hjellbakk 1997; Hornung and Aigner 1999; Jo and Chough
2001; Yu et al. 2002; Miall and Jones 2003; Finzel and McCarthy 2005).
The depositional models should reflect the sedimentary processes that
led to the deposits and contain detailed, quantitative sedimentary
information and parameters (Bridge and Lunt 2006). The increasing
interest in dynamic and predictive stratigraphy has diverted effort from
routine facies studies towards the quantitative analyses and mechanism
research.
In general terms, fluvial style and shifts from aggradation to
degradation reflect the balance between stream power and sediment
supply (Miall 2006; Holbrook et al. 2006). The architecture in fluvial
systems is controlled by the interplay between the rates of change in
sediment supply and accommodation, which reflect changes in the
base level (Blakey and Gubitosa 1984; Adams and Bhattacharya 2005;
Published Online: October 2015
Copyright E 2015, SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology)

Holbrook et al. 2006; Catuneanu 2006, 2009). There are two complementary schools of thought regarding the concept of base level. One
school argues that base level is a dynamic surface of equilibrium between
deposition and erosion (Barrell 1917; Sloss 1962; Cross 1991; Cross and
Lessenger 1998), which is how accommodation is defined in marine
systems. The second school emphasizes the idea that base level is the level
of the body water into which a river debouches, where an abrupt decrease
in fluvial-energy flux is recorded (Powell, 1875; Davis 1908; Bates and
Jackson 1987; Schumm 1993; Posamentier and Allen 1999; Catuneanu
2003). The relationship between relative base-level changes and fluvial
architecture in proximal to marine settings has been discussed by
sedimentologists (Shanley and McCabe 1993; Schumm 1993; Takano
and Waseda 2003; Miall 2002, 2006; Komatsubara 2004; Holbrook et al.
2006). In this study, however, in fully nonmarine depositional settings
located far enough from the contemporaneous shoreline the geomorphic
base-level effects are insignificant (Martinsen et al. 1999; Holbrook et al.
2006). Therefore, the concept of base level adopted in this study is that the
dynamic surface of equilibrium between erosion and deposition
(stratigraphic base level) in nonmarine strata (Sloss 1962; Wheeler
1964; Cross and Lessenger 1998), which corresponds to the base-level
buffer zone in valley-scale cut-and-fill in the upstream fluvial system
(Holbrook et al. 2006; Holbrook and Bhattacharya 2012). The concept of
the base-level buffer (Holbrook et al. 2006; Holbrook and Bhattacharya
2012) is the zone of accommodation that exists along a fluvial graded
profile can explain the distribution of channel and overbank facies.
The purpose of this study is to establish a schematic model for fluvial
sequence deposition that shows how the upstream base-level controls
braided fluvial architecture by using the quantitative characters of cross

1527-1404/15/085-1258/$03.00

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FIG. 1.Geological setting of the Yungang

Formation in the Datong Basin, showing
location of outcrops and stratigraphic column.
Note that the Rockcave Member, which presents a fining-upward sequence consists mainly
of amalgamated coarse sandstone with trough
and planar crossbeds.

sets and elements in a sandy braided fluvial system (valley scale) at the
mountain front (upstream). This can be complementary for existing
fluvial sequence stratigraphic research in order to predict fluvial
architecture and geometry by analyzing changes in base level and
accommodation. The study interval is the Middle Jurassic nonmarine
succession in the Datong Basin, exposed in the northwest of Shanxi
province, north China. Regional geological studies in the basin have
shown that the successions were largely formed in fluviallacustrine
environments (Chen and Dai 1962; Wang 2001; Yu et al. 2002), and
sedimentary facies analysis has been applied to the interval in the
northwestern part of the basin (Wang 2001; Yu et al. 2002). However,
there is still debate regarding interpretation of the depositional
environments (Wang 2001; Yu et al. 2002), and there were few detailed
studies focused on the quantitative characterization of architectural
elements. The data collected from a series of outcrop sections, which are
located on road cuts near Yungang Rock Cave, northwest Datong Basin
(Fig. 1), include the statistical parameters of sedimentary structures and
architectural elements present as well as identifying and correlating
stratigraphic surfaces. Results from the well-exposed outcrops with
typical architectural elements show that there are predictable, quantifiable changes in the type and size of sedimentary structures and
architectural elements reflecting the response to the base-level change.
Geological Setting and Stratigraphy
The Datong Basin is located in northern China and is bounded by
major faults to the east and south and by erosional edges in the north and

west (Fig 1; Yu et al. 2002). The present configuration of the basin is the
result of the Yanshan Orogeny in the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous
(Du 1964). The basin contains 180 m to 240 m of Lower Jurassic braided
fluvial deposits separated from the underlying Paleozoic marine strata by
a major regional unconformity and overlain by 150 m to 280 m of Middle
to Upper Jurassic lacustrine sediments (Du 1964; Yu et al. 2002). The
thickness of the Middle Jurassic succession increases down paleoflow to
the south (Chen and Dai 1962; Du 1964). Fluvial deposits in the study
area are located between the mountains 30 km to the northwest and the
lacustrine basin tens to one hundred kilometers to the southeast (Chen
and Dai 1962). The distance to the lake system indicates that the patterns
of architectural elements in fluvial systems might not be influenced solely
by lake-level changes (Fig. 2A) but by a combination of base level,
tectonics, and paleoclimate.
The Yungang Formation is divided into three lithostratigraphic units:
the lower Conglomerate Member, the middle Rockcave Member, and the
upper Mudstone Member (Chen and Dai 1962; Wang 2001; Yu et al.
2002). The Conglomerate Member is composed of grayish conglomerate
with interbedded sandstone with a maximum thickness of 40 m. The
Rockcave Member contains reddish, coarse-grained sandstone with
minor occurrences of reddish mudstone. The Mudstone Member is
dominated by varicolored mudstone with few fine- to very fine-grained
sandstone layers (Fig 1). Overall, the structures and color of the
formation suggest an arid, oxidized paleo-environment in the Middle
Jurassic (Chen and Dai 1962; Du 1964).
The road-cut sections used in this study mainly expose the Rockcave
Member of the Yungang Formation. Grain size of the sandstone in the

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FIG. 2.Diagrammatic explanation of fluvial base level and grain-size distribution of sandstone in the Yungang Formation. Note that A) the space between base level
and present topography indicates accommodation of fluvial systems; B) cumulative curve pattern, which consists mainly of saltation and suspension indicates a sandy
braided fluvial environment (Visher 1969).

Rockcave Member ranges mainly from medium to coarse. The

cumulative probability grain-size curve shows that the sandstone consists
mainly of saltation and suspension particles (Visher 1969) (Fig. 2B).
Minor gravels and mud clasts occur as lag deposits at the bases of
sandstone bodies. The thick, amalgamated sandstones with rare
mudstone are composed principally of trough and planar crossbeds.
The widespread occurrence of large-scale trough crossbeds without
obvious internal lamination indicates channel switching and a relatively
high depositional rate. Planar crossbeds, which represent lateral and
downstream accretion, were fundamental units of bars in the channel
belt.
METHODOLOGY

The data analyzed in this study were obtained from measuring and
sampling six outcrop sections of the Rockcave Member in the Yungang
Formation (Fig. 1). The classification of lithofacies and architectural
features, including their letter codes, are adapted, with minor additions,
from those of Miall (1996). The sections were described at decimeter-scale
resolution where possible and sampled for petrographic and petrophysical analyses. The mapping of architectural features used photo mosaics
of large outcrop sections as base maps. In order to characterize each type
of architectural element, density of sampling is about 0.5 m (vertical) 3 5
m (horizontal). Petrophysical measurements of sandstone were conducted
on 165 core plugs drilled from hand samples taken for grain-size analysis.
Lithology was determined from the thin sections cut from 20 hand
samples. The architectural elements were interpreted and correlated by
using the bounding surfaces identified at the outcrop. Mann-Whitney

(Mann et al. 1947), Kolmogorov-Smirnov (Kolmogorov 1933), and

Kruskal-Wallis (Kruskal and Wallis 1952) tests were used for comparing
the measured parameters of architectural elements at various settings.
RESULTS

Architectural elements in fluvial systems are packets of genetically

related strata (Allen 1983) and the depositional products of sedimentary
processes (Brierley 1996; Miall and Jones 2003). This study interprets
the architectural-element features by the configuration of external
bounding surfaces with the stratification. Architectural elements of the
braided fluvial deposits were mainly identified and classified by the
outcrop observations and partly on the previous architecture classifications (Allen 1983; Crowley 1983; Miall 1985, 1988, 1996; Hjellbakk
1997; Hornung and Aigner 1999; Jo and Chough 2001; Yu et al. 2002;
Miall and Jones 2003; Finzel and McCarthy 2005) (Table 1). In this
study, architectural elements are defined on the basis of geometry, type
and proportion of sedimentary structures, and constituent lithofacies of
the genetic units. In the Rockcave Member, nine architectural elements
were identified and arranged into three groups: bar units, channel units,
and overbank assemblages. The bar units include downstream-accretion
element (DA), lateral-accretion element (LA), unit-bar element (UB),
and compound-bar element (CB). The channel units consist of migrating
channel element (CHm), switching channel element (CHs), filling
channel element (CHf), and hollow element (HO). The nonchannel
portion is composed mainly of overbank assemblage (OF) including
interfluve mud and sandy splays. Each element represents a particular
process in the channel belts (Table 2).

TABLE 1. Comparison of architectural classifications in braided fluvial systems.

Cant and Walker 1978
channels
slip-bounded bars
sand flats
flood plains

Allen 1983

Miall 1985

Hjellbakk 1997

Bridge and Lunt 2006

Simple or compound bars

tabular sandstone
down-climbing bar
small-scale channel
large-scale channel
laterally accreted bar
sandstone ridges
tabular mudstone

channel
lateral accretion
sediment gravity flow
gravel bar
sand bedform
downstream accretion
laminated sand
overbank fines

simple bars
transitional dunebar
dune complexes
downstream accretion
channel (sandstone)
channel (mudstone)

large channel fills

small channel fills
unit bar
compound bar
flood plain

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ARCHITECTURE ELEMENTS AND THEIR RESPONSE TO BASE-LEVEL CHANGE

Group 1: Bar Units

Downstream Accretion (DA)
Downstream-accretion elements consist of cosets of downstreamoriented planar-tabular (Sp) and trough cross-bedded sandstone (St)
bounded by third-order surfaces. The St occur in the lower part of the
DA, whereas the large-scale Sp occur near the top (Fig. 3A, B). The
uppermost strata commonly contain a number of smaller-scale structures,
such as ripples (Sr) or planar bedded (Sh) strata. The top and bottom
surfaces of DA both dip (downstream appearing) as intra-cross-strata.
The DAs show a weakly fining-upward trend in vertical thickness ranging
from 0.4 m to 1.5 m. The planar-tabular foresets with an angular basal
contact were formed by relatively low-energy flows where grains were
deposited by straight-crested bedforms. The stacked tabular cosets of
DAs also suggest sustained aggradation and progradation along the
paleoflows. At outcrop, the DA pinches out in the transverse direction
(perpendicular to paleoflows) (Fig. 3A), indicating a lobe-like plan view
within the channel (Fig. 3C). The DA elements probably corresponds to
the transverse bars of Smith (1990), the downstream-accretion deposits of
Miall (1988 1992), and the down-climbing bars of Allen (1983). This
element represents deposition by an active, nonperiodic bedform that
developed during periods of major runoff in mid-channel.
Lateral Accretion (LA)
Lateral accretion (LA) formed tabular sand bodies bounded by thirdorder surfaces. Lithofacies in this element include mainly Sp, with minor
components of Sm and Sh. The crossbeds have tangential toesets at the
base (Fig. 3A, B) and dips ranging from 5u to 15u. In vertical section, the
DA shows a fining-upward trend in grain size. This element ranges in
thickness from a few decimeters to several meters and extends laterally
from meters to tens of meters. Tangential toesets indicate a higher degree

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of transport of sediment over the brink of the bedform in suspension that

is deposited at the toe of the bedform and mixes with the avalanche
deposits. The stacked Sp with tangential toesets may indicate a lateral
vector component of the flows. Element LA reflects changes to existing
bar topography during diminishing flow (Ramos and Sopen 1983) when
the bar topography increased enough to prevent grains from moving over
it. The longitudinal or oblique bedforms of lateral accretion formed
where the main flow of the channel was directed away from the bank.
Because of the reduced shear stress associated with slight helical flows,
significant sedimentation took place, and the bedforms accreted laterally
at a high angle to the principal flow direction (Miall 1985).
Unit Bar (UB)
The unit-bar (UB) element, which is equivalent to the simple bar of
Hjellbakk (1997), is composed mainly of medium- to very coarse-grained
sandstone with planar (Sp) and minor ripple cross-lamination (Sr) present
as large-scale inclined strata. The cross-beds usually dip at a high angle up
to 23u (Fig. 4A). This element was bounded by third-order surfaces or
cross-stratified sets bounded by fourth-order surfaces. The mean grain size
commonly decreases towards the top of a unit bar. Unit bars range in
thickness from 1 m to 5 m and are up to tens of meters in lateral extent. The
basal surface is erosional, and the top contacts are convex-up. Occasionally
erosional surfaces were developed at the upper part of the stacked inclined
strata (Fig. 4A, B). The presence of a single set of planar crossbeds with
this element indicates that it was formed during one relatively continuous
flow event. The inclined solitary strata with high dip angle were developed
initially by coalesced dunes under increasing flow velocity (Culbertson and
Scott 1970). With a following velocity reduction, higher sediment
concentration and a shallowing over the bar top, the dune complex acted
as a nucleus for growth of a solitary low-relief bar (Hjellbakk 1997). With
another rapid, short-term fluctuation in flow velocity or pulse of discharge,

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FIG. 3.Downstream-accretion and lateral-accretion elements in a channel complex. A) The boundaries of DA and LA at outcrop are shown by white arrows (in
section E); B) depiction of DA and LA from outcrop; C) idealized depositional model of DA and LA.

a variety of cross-bedding structures associated with a reactivation surface

were developed at top of the bar (Allen 1983; Hjellbakk 1997). Therefore,
unit-bar deposits were formed at high flow stages in the channel belt and
may have been extensively reworked at lower flow stages, resulting in an
erosional surface in front of the bar. Stacked unit bars that form sets of
planar crossbeds combine with chutes or other architectural elements at
channel bifurcations to form compound bars (Fig. 4E).
Compound Bar (CB)
The compound-bar (CB) element makes up the greatest proportion of
channel-belt deposits and is composed mainly of lithofacies assemblages of
Sp, Sh, and minor St or Sr at the upper segment. It may contain multiple
stacked bedforms or multiple lower-order elements (DA, LA, UB, or chutes)
(Fig. 4D, E). CBs generally rest on fourth-order erosion surfaces (Miall 1988,
1992; Miall and Jones 2003) and may bound a few third-order bounding
surfaces. The lithological columns at outcrop show upward fining in grain
size and upward thinning in crossbed thickness in this element (Fig. 4E). The
width of CBs ranges from tens to hundreds of meters in outcrop, and the
thickness is up to ten meters. The fining- and thinning-upward trends indicate gradual upward decrease in flow energy of CB. Assemblages of inclined
strata or UB or LA or DA bounded by the third-order surfaces in CB suggest
that this element developed by multiple flood-generated sedimentation
units. Hjellbakk (1997) suggested that these deposits formed by the local
coalescence and vertical aggradation of units on a wide and flat channel
floor, and correspond to dune complexes with a typical convex-up external
configuration. Chutes, which occur at the top parts of unit bars or compound
bars, can evolve into channels. Therefore, during episodes of decreasing
flow, large compound bars that formed at high flow stage were eroded into
several oblique bars by chutes or channels.
Tabular crossbeds in the bar units, which show various bedform geometry and stacking pattern, indicate various depositional processes. In
order to characterize the crossbeds in bar units, parameters including width,
thickness, dip angle (a), and lamination thickness (L) were measured at

outcrop sections (Fig. 5A). Widths of single-set planar crossbeds range from
0.4 m to 7.7 m with an average of 3.7 m. Thicknesses of single-set planar
crossbeds range from 0.1 m to 2.9 m with an average of 0.9 m (Fig. 5B). In
a CB at section C, the thickness of crossbeds decreases upward from 0.40 to
0.08 m with an average of 0.21 m (Fig. 5C). From the statistics in UBs and
CBs in this study area, L of the crossbeds ranges from 0.07 m to 0.72 m with
average of 0.22 m. The dip angle (a) of crossbeds ranges from 9u to 24u with
an average of 14u (Fig. 5D). Because the scale of crossbeds is related
approximately to formative flow depth in channel (Leclair et al. 1997;
Bridge and Tye 2000; Best et al. 2003), the significant variation in width and
thickness of crossbeds in bar units indicates frequent changes of flow depth
forming multiple bedforms and bounding surfaces in the braided fluvial
channel. For one CB, the decrease in thickness of planar crossbeds from
base to top indicates reduction in flow energy during the vertical
aggradation of bedforms on the channel floor. The relationship between
crossbed thickness, L, and a (Fig. 5D) shows that both L and a have
positive correlations with the crossbeds thickness, indicating larger-scale of
crossbeds have thicker and steeper lamination. Therefore, thick and large
crossbeds with high dip angle were developed at the base of a compound
bar during high water level, whereas the thin crossbeds with low dip angle
were developed at shallower water depth during water-level fall.
Group 2: Channel Units
Channel elements commonly consist of coarse- to medium-grained
sandstone (St, Sm, Sh, Sl, Sr), with basal concave-up erosional surfaces.
Channels at various scales are bounded by surfaces of various orders.
Single-channel bodies developed by one continuous stream are bounded by
fourth-order surfaces which may represent a growth (accretion) surface
(Miall 1988); channel complexes, which consist of several single-channel
bodies, are bounded by fifth-order surfaces being marked by local cut-andfill relief (Miall 1988); channel belts, which are composed of channel
complexes, bars, and other units, are bounded by sixth-order surfaces
corresponding to the bases of major meander belts or paleovalleys (Miall

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FIG. 4.A, B) Unit-bar element with reworked surface and D, E) compound-bar element comprises unit bars and chutes. C) Idealized depositional morphology shows
that the compound bar was eroded into oblique bars by chutes.

1988). The channel elements in this paper refer to single-channel bodies

bounded by fourth-order surfaces that range in thickness from 0.5 m to 8 m
and extend from 3 m to 200 m in width. Three categories of channel elements
were defined based on differences in grain size, sedimentary structures,
bedform stacking patterns, and external configuration: switching channels
(CHs) (Fig. 6A), migrating channels (CHm) (Fig. 6B), and filling channels
(CHf) (Fig. 6C). The presence of trough crossbeds bounded by secondorder bounding surfaces is essential for characterizing channel units. This
major component in the channel elements changed both laterally and
vertically in response to various hydrodynamic regimes. Width and
thickness of trough crossbeds were measured, and width/thickness ratios
were calculated for each kind of channel element at outcrop.
Switching Channels (CHs)
Switching channels are composed of a high proportion of stacked coarseto gravelly coarse-grained, multidirectionally dipping St with mudstone
intraclasts resting on concave-up, relatively symmetric basal erosional
surfaces. Multilateral bedforms are bounded by internal third-order surfaces
mimicking the fourth-order basal boundary. The laminations of St converge

to different directions within the bedforms. Mudstone intraclasts which are

moderately rounded and poorly sorted with grain size ranging from 2 cm to
15 cm are pervasively developed at the bases of bedforms (Fig. 6A). Each
bedform was cut by the bedforms above. This element shows weakly finingupward cycles in grain size and upward thinning in set thickness. The width of
trough crossbeds in switching channels (channel width 78.8 m, thickness 4.1
m, and W/T ratio 19.2) ranges from 0.5 m to 4.6 m with an average of 2.1 m.
Bedform thickness ranges from 0.08 m to 0.46 m with an average of 0.23 m.
Width/thickness values range from 5.8 to 14.9 with an average of 9.2
(Fig. 7A). The switching-channel elements are generally 1 m to 5 m thick and
extend laterally up to tens of meters.
The switching-channel element, which is the fundamental and most
common channel unit in the study area, is identified by the stacking of
bedforms with multiple lamination dip directions of St at the outcrop
scale (Fig. 6A). The presence of large-scale St and stacked bedforms
represents the switching of high-velocity flows, with abundant mud clasts
formed by strong basal erosion. The low average W/T (9.21) of trough
crossbeds also suggests strong basal incision of each single episode of
shifting. However, the increase of W/T from channel margin to center
may indicate that stream energy in the channel decreased laterally

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FIG. 5.Schematic diagram and statistics of sedimentary parameters for bar units in a sandy braided fluvial system. Note A) parameters of crossbeds measured at
outcrops; B) relationship between width and thickness of crossbeds in bar units; C) thickness of planar crossbed co-sets decreased upward within one CB; D) thickness
and dip angle of planar sets in UB and CB, which represent compound bars developing larger scale and higher dip angle of planar crossbeds.

(Fig. 7A). The high W/T value of 19.2 of this element at section E shows
that the channel switched frequently and widely. The bedforms were
formed by the migration of subaqueous dunes (Tucker 1991) in the
channels that may have had low sinuosity (Yu et al. 2002). The main
controlling factors of channel switching were slope gradients (tectonic)
and multiple flood events (climate) (Takagi et al. 2007). Based on
previous regional tectonic study (Chen and Dai 1962) suggesting gentle
uplift and subsidence of the bedrock, and stacked bedforms with
mudstone clasts indicating erosion by floods, the switching of channels
was probably controlled by slope gradients and floods.
Migrating Channels (CHm)
The migrating channels consist mainly of medium- to coarse-grained
sandstone with large-scale St in the unidirectional inclined bedforms
bounded by third-order surfaces showing asymmetric features. The
laminations in St mostly converged with the same direction. The
bedforms were also eroded by those above, but stacked unidirectionally
on the asymmetric fourth-order bounding surface (Fig. 6B). The bases of
channels were incised into lower strata and contain lags of mudstone
intraclasts at the bases of bedforms. The channel fills fine upward slightly
from coarse to medium grained. The migrating-channel element (channel

width 66.6 m, thickness 3.7 m, and W/T 18.1) contains an average trough
cross-bed width of 1.9 m, thickness of 0.2 m, and W/T of 9.6 (Fig. 7B).
The thickness of migrating channels ranges from 0.5 m to 6.7 m. The
width of these elements ranges from 12 m to 135 m.
The overall geometry of the migrating channels is asymmetrical due to
the lateral migration of superimposed, unidirectional bedforms (Cant and
Walker 1978) (Fig. 6B). The scale of the channel and sedimentary
structures indicates moderate energy and limited basal incision. The
average W/T value of St (9.64) is higher than the switching channels,
which suggests a decrease of bedform incision. The depositional
mechanism of this element may be similar to that of meandering
channels. The laterally migrating bedforms in this element, which can
extend laterally tens of meters, probably were developed next to
compound bars with relatively high sinuosity at the flank of a channel
belt (Miall 1988). However, the migrating channels in the braided fluvial
system are less common than switching channels, due to the frequent
erosion and bifurcation of streams (Bolla Pittaluga et al. 2003).
Filling Channels (CHf)
The filling channels generally contain fine- to medium-grained
sandstone deposits (St, Sl, and Fl) with fewer crossbeds than the two

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FIG. 6.Classifications of channel elements based on outcrop sections of the Yungang Formation (no vertical exaggeration), idealized depositional
morphology shown at right. A) Switching channel, bilateral migration with relatively symmetric cross shape, in section E; B) migrating channel, unitary lateral
migration with asymmetric cross-shape, in section E. C) Filling channel, vertical accretion with symmetric cross shape, in section F. , , , are the orders of
bounding surfaces.

other channel types. Minor well-rounded mudstone intraclasts can be

observed at the base of this element. The internal third-order bounding
surfaces of bedforms mimic symmetric character and mimic the fourthorder bounding surfaces of this element. The filling channels commonly
contain structureless or laminated deposits with a fining-upward trend. In
the filling channels, the width of trough crossbeds ranges from 0.4 m to
5.3 m with an average of 1.8 m. The thickness of crossbeds ranges from
0.02 m to 0.4 m with an average of 0.16 m. W/T ratios of crossbeds range
from 6.8 to 18.5 with an average of 11.4 (Fig. 7C). The thickness of filling
channels ranges from 0.8 m to 2.5 m. The width of these elements is
generally up to tens of meters.
The relatively small-scale character of trough crossbeds indicates low
energy, which is consistent with the presence of fine-grained deposits in this

element. The high average W/T ratio of trough crossbeds points to less
capacity of basal incision of bedforms (Ardies et al. 2002). The low gradient
of the W/T trend (0.0147) indicates homogeneous energy of channel flows
(Fig. 7C). The low W/T of this channel element (channel width 59.4 m,
thickness 3.3 m, and W/T of 17.8) suggests less capacity of lateral
migration. The laminated, relatively fine-grained deposits with much
muddy composition in this element indicate low energy of flows. This
element is interpreted as an abandonment channel deposit which was
formed when compound bars blocked flows at their upstream ends due to
channel diversion and could be developed in the middle of large compound
bars or on the flank of a channel belt (Fig. 6C). This element corresponds
to the mixed mudstone and sandstone fill channel forms of Hjellbakk
(1977), the suspended-load filled channels of Hornung and Aigner (1999),

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FIG. 7.Width, thickness, and W/T ratio of trough crossbeds in channel units in sandy braided fluvial deposits, Yungang Formation. Note that A) is from switching
channel; B) is from migrating channel; C) is from filling channel.

and the abandoned channel of Miall and Jones (2003). Therefore, the
migrating and switching channels were formed by active channels with
adequate sediment supply and high hydrodynamic regimes to fill channels
with bedload, whereas the filling channels were a result of abandoned
channels which mainly had suspended sediments and still water.
In order to distinguish the differences of the crossbeds, three groups of
independent W/T data from the various channel units were analyzed by
using the Kruskal-Wallis test (Kruskal and Wallis 1952):

12 X 2
ni r i {3(Nz1)
N(Nz1) i~1
g

K~

where N is the total number of observations across all groups; g is

the number of groups; ni is the number of observations in group i; rij
is the Prank (among all observations) of observation j from group
ni

i; ri ~

r
j~1 ij
ni

; and r 5 1/2 (N + 1) is the average of all the rij.

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ARCHITECTURE ELEMENTS AND THEIR RESPONSE TO BASE-LEVEL CHANGE

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FIG. 8.Hollow element with 3-D outcrop

exposure showing pinchout at downstream and
lateral directions, in section E.

The null hypothesis is that the W/T ratios of crossbeds are identical
populations. To test the hypothesis, we apply the Kruskal-Wallis test
function to compare the independent W/T ratio data. After testing by the
software SPSS, the results show chi-squared 5 18.234, df 5 2, and
p-value 5 0.0001. The p-value turns out to be nearly zero. Hence we reject
the null hypothesis, which means the W/T ratios of crossbeds in the three
channel elements are significantly different from each other.
Hollow Element (HO)
Hollow elements consist mainly of medium- to coarse-grained St and
Sp. The hollow elements consist mainly of coarse- to medium-grained
sandstone with occasional mudstone intraclasts at the scoop-shaped,
erosional fourth-order bounding surface. This element at outcrop shows
a thickness of 1.8 m and a width of 5.5 m, pinching out in both strike and
dip directions (Fig. 8). The hollow element occurs as sets of stacked
trough cross-beds viewed in a dip direction and planar beds when viewed
in a strike direction. The stacked bedforms generally have a finingupward trend in grain size. This element commonly incises the underlying
channel fills and is overlain by unit bars or dunes.
The stacked St and Sp in 3-D outcrop section of this element indicates
that it was developed by accretion of subaqueous dunes. The hollow
element represents scour from the deepest portion of the channel belt
(Cowan 1991). The hollow-shape element was developed by a large
volume of sediments which filled eroded channel bases with traction load,
indicating that channel belts had high discharge and capacity for sediment
transport (Miall 1985). Hollow elements were interpreted as rapid cutand-fill of scour at channel confluences downstream from bars or
junctions with tributaries (Bristow and Best 1993; Siegenthaler and
Huggenberger 1993; Miall and Jones 2003). This kind of element differs

from the channel elements by having a lower width/thickness ratio as well

as the sand body pinching out in all directions.
Group 3: Overbank Fines
The overbank fines (OF) consist mainly of lithofacies of massive
mudstone (Fm) and laminated mudstone (Fl) with thin beds of very fineto fine-grained sandstone (Sl) that generally show an upward increase in
clay content and which are capped by other sandy architectural elements
(Fig. 9). The mudstones, which are dominantly red or purplish red in
color, show little or no pedogenic development. The thickness of these
muddy intervals ranges from 0.1 m to 1.5 m. No fossils or bioturbation
were found except for a few rootlets in the upper parts of mudstone beds.
The width of these beds varies from few meters to hundreds of meters.
The fine-grained sandstone layers are laminated to massive and from
0.2 m to 0.5 m thick. The beds vary in width from meters to hundreds of
meters in the mudstone.
The laminated mudstone and thin-bedded, fine-grained sandstones
were interpreted as overbank mud and sandy crevasse splays in
a floodplain respectively. The massive mudstones overlying the channel
elements may indicate mud plugs of abandoned channels in the channel
belt. The presence of non-pedogenic beds and a lack of significant
oxidation suggest that the braided fluvial system developed a relatively
wet floodplain with poorly developed soil beds (Kraus and Gwinn 1997).
The red color in laminated mudstone was commonly associated with
well-drained conditions (Schwertmann 1993). The high clay content of
the upper mudstone with less sandstone indicates that the fluvial system
impeded drainage of rainwater and seasonal floodwater (Kraus and
Gwinn 1997). The thin sandstone layers were probably formed by sand
splays during flood events. These fine-grained units are commonly

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FIG. 9.Overbank element with purplish red

massive mudstone and lenticular sandstone in
section C.

developed at the tops or flanks of channels, which may indicate overbank

fills after the water-level rose over the bank-full depth of the channels.
Depositional Interpretations
In the upstream part of the fluvial system, climate and tectonics have
a greater influence on base-level buffers and accommodation, which
controlled the architectural complexities related to high-frequency
incision-aggradation cycles (Holbrook et al. 2006). In this study, we
adopted the concept of base-level buffer to discuss the relationship
between base-level change and architectural elements in the sandy braided
fluvial systems. The changes of fluvial style at the outcrops suggest that
change of the rate of accommodation was responding to the base-level
buffer changes. The Rockcave Member is subdivided into two intervals
based on sedimentological logs and correlation of bounding surfaces. The
lower interval of the Rockcave Member consists of sections A and B. The
upper interval consists of sections C, D, E, and F. In this study, section B
from the lower part and section E from the upper part were selected for
detailed interpretations using lithologic columns, mosaic images, and
sedimentary structures. These two sections are separated by about 100 m
and can be correlated laterally (the top of section B was capped by the
base of section E). Architectural elements and bounding surfaces

discussed above were identified at each section. Sequence cycles were

constructed by architecture types and their stacking patterns.
In section B, the lower Rockcave Member consists mainly of two
successions bounded by fifth-order erosional surfaces (Fig. 10) and a series
of elements including channels (CHs and CHm), compound bars, and
overbank fills under fourth-order bounding surfaces. The base of this
section is characterized by stacked CHs (Fig. 10) with thick sandstone
packages showing upward fining in grain size with pebbles on the erosional
surfaces. The CB elements show a weak coarsening-upward trend overlying
the CH trend. Laterally extensive OF above the CB elements were eroded
by the overlying channels (Fig 10). Above the fifth-order bounding surface,
thick CHm elements with irregular erosional bases interbedded with CBs
showing a fining-upward trend. Minor chutes were developed at the top of
CB. OFs were laterally cut by channel and bar elements. Therefore, overall,
section B mainly shows two fining-upward successions separated by a fifthorder surface. The channel elements have thicknesses ranging from 3.3 m to
5.3 m with an average of 4.2 m, and widths from 47.2 m to 180.1 m with an
average of 90.6 m. The thickness of the bar units ranges from 3.0 m to
4.7 m with an average of 3.8 m, and their width ranges from 54.0 m to
60.8 m with an average of 57.4 m (Table 3).
The abundance of large-scale, multistory channels separated by fifthorder erosional surfaces at the base of the Rockcave Member suggests

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ARCHITECTURE ELEMENTS AND THEIR RESPONSE TO BASE-LEVEL CHANGE

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FIG. 10.Photomosaic, sedimentary logs, depositional cycles, and interpretations for downstream outcrop profile (section B). Note that vertical exaggeration is 1.

repeated erosion and infilling in the channel belts. The architecture of bar
units indicates that the channels were stable long enough for several scour
and fill events during fluvial aggradation. Subsequently, widespread
overbank deposits were developed, which indicates water-level rise in the
channel belts. The presence of large single-story channels (CHm) and
overbank fill deposits (OF) at section B probably indicate a rapid channel
filling and a relatively high rate of accommodation increase, which
suggests rise of base-level buffers. Incised and amalgamated channel fills
capping this succession, which contains relatively coarse-grained sandstone and small-scale trough cross-beds, developed during a decrease in
the rate of accommodation (Fig. 10).
Section E exposes mainly coarse-grained channels (CHs), compound
bars (CB), unit bars (UB), and minor overbank fills (OF) (Fig. 11). This
section also contains two successions separated by the fifth-order
bounding surface. The base of the lower cycle is characterized by largescale switching channels, which commonly show multidirectional trough
cross bedding and mudstone clasts on the concave-up erosional bases.
Thin-bedded UB (thickness 1.4 m) and OF (thickness 0.8 m) elements
were developed above the channel. Below the fifth-order surface,
compound bars, which were frequently eroded by overlying channel
elements, consist of remnant cosets of planar-tabular crossbeds. At the
top of this section, stacked switching channels and compound bars show
a smaller scale of thickness and width than the ones below. The channels
in section E show thickness from 2.0 m to 3.8 m with an average of 2.8 m,
and width from 19.4 m to 75.4 m with an average of 45.0 m. The bars
show thickness from 1.4 m to 2.0 m with an average of 1.7 m, and width
from 40.6 m to 71.4 m with an average of 56.0 m (Table 3).

Thick, multistory, and amalgamated channels with overbank fills in the

lower part of section E probably indicate stable sediment supply and high
accommodation space during early stage of deposition. In the middle of
this succession, the compound bars contain planar cross-bed sets that
decrease in thickness upward, indicating decrease in water depth or rate
of accommodation. The relatively small-scale, single-story channels which
eroded the previous compound bars in the upper part of this section
represent a drop in accommodation. During this late stage, the thinbedded, small scale fluvial deposits were interpreted to be ephemeral
products with less sediment input from the north of Datong Basin (Yu et
al. 2002). As the accommodation decreased, the channel complex was
characterized by small-scale of channel and bar elements with chutes
forming on the previous compound bars. Channels locally were oriented
at a high angle to the average downstream direction, indicating moderate
sinuosity (Fig. 11). Therefore, section E representing upper part of the
Rockcave Member suggests that a drop in accommodation resulted in
channel migration, avulsion, and incision by the fall in base-level buffer.
DISCUSSION

Relationship between Base-Level Change and Architectural Elements

The braided fluvial profiles of the Rockcave Member are interpreted
under different accommodation settings in which the response of the
architectural elements to the rate of accommodation and base-level
change can be assessed by comparing their quantitative parameters.
Quantitative features of architecture elements at different base-level
stages were characterized by using the percentage of their areas covered at

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FIG. 11.Photomosaic, sedimentary logs, depositional cycles, and interpretations for cross-stream outcrop profile (section E). Note that vertical exaggeration is 1.5.

the outcrops. The higher percentage of the areas suggests larger scale of
the architectural elements and vice versa. In section B, which contains
braided fluvial deposits formed during rise in base-level buffer, the
percentage of channel or bar element areas ranges from 3.5% to 19.3%
with an average of 9.3%. Section E, which was deposited during fall in
TABLE 3.Architectural parameters of the Rockcave Member in section B
and section E.

Outcrop
Section B

Section E

Architectural
Element
CH1
CH2
CH3
CH4
CH5
CB1
CB2
Average
CH1
CH2
CH3
CH4
CH5
CH6
CB1
CB2
Average

Thickness (m)

Width (m)

Ratio of w/t

4.0
3.3
5.3
3.4
5.1
4.7
3.0
4.1
3.3
3.1
3.8
2.0
2.6
2.1
1.4
2.0
2.5

82.4
47.2
180.1
74.8
68.3
60.8
54.0
81.1
59.4
75.4
60.8
28.2
27.0
19.4
40.6
71.4
47.8

20.7
14.4
34.0
21.7
13.4
13.0
18.2
19.3
17.8
24.4
16.1
14.2
10.3
9.2
29.2
36.2
19.7

base-level buffer, has channel or bar element areas ranging only from
1.1% to 14.5% with an average of 5.2% (Fig. 12A). The result of a MannWhitney non-parametric test shows that the two groups of data are
dramatically different from one another (Fig. 12B). For the percentage of
each kind of architectural elements, section B has CH of 49%, UB/CB of
44%, and OF of 7% (Fig. 12C). Section E has CH of 65%, UB/CB of 34%,
and OF of 1% (Fig. 12D).
The large area of each single element in section B indicates that largescale channel and bar units formed during increase in base-level buffer
and rate of accommodation. During the decrease in base-level buffer and
rate of accommodation, the channel belt formed relatively small-scale
channel and bar elements. A high proportion of bar units and overbank
fills suggests that channels with high thickness and width extended widely
and formed overbank fills. The fluvial system was aggradation-dominated
with less incision under increase of rate of formation accommodation as
the base-level buffer rose. During the stage of base-level buffer fall, the
densely stacked, amalgamated channels that overlie composite erosion
surfaces are interpreted as fluvial incised-valley fills (Hampson et al.
2012). The channel or valley incision during base-level fall may be caused
by denudation, structural, buttress, and buffer valleys (Holbrook and
Bhattacharya 2012). Channel percentage increased but bar units and
overbank fills decreased, which may indicate frequent channel bifurcations and shallow bank-full depth due to the drop in accommodation.
The upper parts of the compound bars were commonly eroded by the
migrating channels, and overbank fills were rare due to lack of total
accommodation to allow preservation.

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FIG. 12.Quantitative characteristics of architectural elements at various base-level stages. Note A) area percentage of channel and bar elements in section B and
section E; B) Mann-Whitney non-parametric test of data between the two sections; C) percentage of architectural elements in section B; D) percentage of architectural
elements in section E.

Controls on Base Level and Fluvial Model

Base-level change in the upstream parts of fluvial systems is driven
mainly by climate variations (Holbrook et al. 2006) and tectonic uplifts or
subsidence (Adams and Bhattacharya 2005). According to the structural
study of the Datong Basin in the Mesozoic, the northwest margins of this
basin were subjected to repeated tectonic movements during the Middle
Jurassic (Bai 2008). The tectonic movements in this area were one of the
major controlling factors to base level, which would change the position
of the base-level buffer both vertically and horizontally. The stacked cutand-fill cycles of the fluvial system were a result of tectonic movements
(Bai 2008), which were identified by regional composite scour surfaces
(Holbrook and Bhattacharya 2012) and smooth basal surfaces in fluvial
deposits of the Rockcave Member. These different types of surfaces may
reflect base-level fall and rise respectively. The sedimentary facies of
fluvialdeltaiclacustrine systems in the Datong Basin (Chen and Dai
1962) record various climate changes. The color, thickness, and number
of mudstone beds in the Rockcave Member indicate flooding events

under climate changes. The reddish, thick, multi-bedded mudstone in the

lower Rockcave Member (Fig. 10) and purplish red, thin, single-bedded
mudstone in the upper Rockcave Member (Fig. 11) may indicate that the
climate changed from relatively humid to arid. Thus, the base-level
changes in the northwest margins were caused by combinations of
tectonic and climate changes due to the fluvial deposits being far away
from the lake level.
Fluvial architecture is thought to reflect rates of base-level change and
formation of accommodation (Komatsubara 2004). However, the
response of fluvial systems to base-level change depends on a variety of
factors including tectonic slope gradients, paleoclimate, hydrodynamic
regime, and sediment supply in the drainage basin. Overall, the
relationship between architectural elements and base-level change in the
sandy braided fluvial system studied here based on the quantitative
analysis above is summarized in Figure 13. During highstand of the baselevel buffer, the largest-scale switching channels and compound bar units
were developed (Fig. 13A). Overbank fills and minor unit bars were also

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FIG. 13.Base-level changes and architectural features in a braided fluvial system at a mountain front. Note that channel belts are composed of major channels and
bars during a stage of rapid rise. Multistory channels were presented at falling stage. Flood plains were developed during the transgression stage.

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ARCHITECTURE ELEMENTS AND THEIR RESPONSE TO BASE-LEVEL CHANGE

deposited and preserved due to a high rate of deposition and lesser degree
of incision. With less bifurcation, channels with deep bank-full depth
stayed at a relatively stable position and migrated only slightly within the
channel belts. However, during the stage of base-level fall, channels
bifurcated into more branches and eroded the underlying compound bars,
forming thin-bedded, small-scale channels (Fig. 13B). Due to decrease of
rate of formation of accommodation, channels switched and incised
frequently, forming relatively small-scale architectures. Overbank fills
were rare at this stage.
CONCLUSIONS

The Rockcave Member of the Yungang Formation in the Middle

Jurassic represents sandy braided fluvial deposits. In the amalgamatedsandstone interval, three groups of architectural elements, including
channel units, bar units, and overbank fills, were identified. Base-level
cycles were recognized and correlated on the basis of the bounding
surfaces. The relationship between architectural elements and base-level
change was explored as follows:
(1) During rise of base-level buffer, the fluvial system developed thick,
large-scale channel units, bar units, and overbank fills. Channels which
migrated in high bank-full depth consist mainly of moderate W/T of
trough crossbeds. The relatively high proportions of bar units and
overbank fills reflect the aggradation-dominated processes as an increase
in rate of accommodation.
(2) During fall of base-level buffer, the higher proportion of channel
units with small-scale crossbeds points to incision-dominated processes.
Stacked switching channels with low W/T trough crossbeds incised
previous compound bars due to decrease in rate of accommodation. The
bar units with decreased proportion present less remnant thickness and
smaller scale. Overbank fills were rare or eroded in the channel belt at this
stage.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This work was supported by the Fundamental Research Funds for the
Central Universities (No. 2-9-2011-213; No. 2-9-2013-97), National Natural
Science Foundation of China (No. 41072084; No. 41272132), and Innovative
Team Development Plan of the Ministry of Education of China (No.
IRT0864). It also got aid from the key laboratory of marine reservoir
evolvement and petroleum enrichment in China University of Geosciences
under supervision of the Ministry of Education. We sincerely thank
Dr. James MacEachern, Dr. Greg Nadon, Dr. Andrew Miall, and Dr. John
Holbrook for their in-depth and constructive reviews. We also thank Dr. Di
Li for valuable discussions. This paper also benefited from valuable
discussions with Mingjian Dai and Wenfeng Guo. Finally we thank all of
the field assistants, who offered invaluable support in the field.
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Received 30 October 2013; accepted 1 August 2015.