Dr.

Maryam Al-Mulla

Principles of General Geology

Lab BO4(2016 - 2017)
Dr. Maryam Al-Mulla
What we are going to study in the lab ?
1- Types of maps, their scale and uses.
2- Fundamental tools of the maps.
3- The topographic and contour maps and their importance in identify and study
of the topographic features.
4- The meaning & important characteristics of contour line and how can we use
it in study and identify the relief features on the maps.
5- Identify the horizontal beds, stratigraphic sequence, thickness and depth of
wells on the geological map.
6- Geological maps and vertical beds.
7- Drawing Profile & geological sections.
8- Study main types of crystals & minerals.
9- Study main types of rocks (igneous, metamorphic & sedimentary rocks).
10- Study examples of famous fossils of different geological ages.
11- Study thin sections of minerals & rocks, using microscope.
12- Study examples of aerial photographs and satellite images, using
stereoscope.
13- Field work (Field trip). ?
- It expected that after the completion of laboratory lessons the
student is able to:
Mention the fundamental tools of the map and explains their importance on
the map.

Dr. Maryam Al-Mulla

Gives definition of geological, geomorphological and contour maps and

explain the difference between these maps.
Identify the fields of using of contour and geological maps.
Gives definition of contour lines and mentions their important characteristics.
Know how draw contour maps.
Explain the difference between the profile sections and the geological
sections and how to draw them.
Know how read the contour maps and geological maps and identify the
topographic feature on these maps.
Know how measure the thickness and dip angle of layers, and depth of wells
on the maps.
Gives definition of crystal, mineral, rock and fossil.
Explain how the crystals, minerals, rocks and fossils are formed in the nature.
Explain why the crystals are found in different shapes.
Explain the rocks cycle in the nature.
Mention several types of famous minerals, rocks and fossils.
Explain the internal structure of some of famous minerals.
Mention the important properties of minerals and Explain why the minerals
found in different colors.
Mention some of physical properties of minerals.
Know how to identify the mineral from the study of their physical properties.
Explain how diamond, gold and graphite are formed in the nature.
Discussion how Fossils are formed and the importance of the fossils.
- Time of Lab Lectures (BO4) 9:30am 11:20am. W.
- Location & Hall College of Arts & Sciences BCR Lab: C226.
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Dr. Maryam Al-Mulla

- Office Hours
-Time: Sunday & Monday 12:00 1:00, and Wednesday 1:00 2.
- Location: College of Arts & Sciences, corridor No.1, office No. A111.

Exams Time
1- First lab exam: 26 / 10 / 2016
2- Midterm Lab. Exam: 30 / 11 / 2016
5- Final lab exam: 28 / 12 / 2016

Dr. Maryam Al-Mulla

Principles of General Geology

Lab BO4(2016 - 2017)
Part I - Maps
Dr. Maryam Al-Mulla

1- Maps
There are different types of maps; and this is dependent to the field of
uses of these maps such as:
1- Engineering maps: and used in dug the roads, digging canals, construction
projects and others of engineering projects.

2- Agriculture maps: such as the spread and area of agricultural land in different
parts of the Earth.

3- Climate maps: showing the climate (winds, rains, storms, temperature).

4- Mining maps: for identify the types of minerals and their distribution in the
geological formations and thickness and the amount of minerals in these
geological formations.

Dr. Maryam Al-Mulla

5- Petroleum maps: and deals with petroleum ore; prospecting for oil and
identify the geological formations which included oil in addition to the depth and
amount of oil in the wells, the position and direction for dug wells for the
exploitation the oil.

6- Structural maps: and specializes in geological structures such as geological

faults, folds, cracks.

7- Soil maps: showing the different types of soils and their distribution and their
thickness.
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8- Groundwater maps: showing the location of groundwater in the land, aquifer

formations, the drainage direction of water in addition to depth, area and type
of water.

9- Military maps: For example, it used for determine war plans, for places of
defense and attack.

10- Maps of archaeological areas: and specializes in identifying places of

archaeological.

Dr. Maryam Al-Mulla

The Main Types of the Maps

1- Contour Maps.
2- Topographic Maps.
3- Geologic Maps.
4- Photo-image maps.

Introduction
- Maps are indispensable tools in the study of the surface features. The maps
are drawn on a small scale or on large scale.
- The maps of very large scale are used to study the natural features of the
earth (mountains, plateaus, plains, lakes, valleysetc).
These relief features are best represented by models which are three
dimensional; but this
is difficult.Why?
It is difficult to represent relief features, using models of three dimensional
because:1- They are very costly;
2- Large and heavy;
3- Need large area as store.
4- Need long time for preparation.
But these difficulties are solved by representing the relief features through
maps and diagrams.
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Fundamental tools of the maps

1- Scale of map: is defines the relationship between the size of features as
shown on the map compared with their size on the Earth surface.
Scale is generally stated on the map as:1- wards : one centimeter to one thousand meters ;
2- ratio: 1 :10,00 ; or
3- fraction: 1/1000 ; or
4- and as accurate divided line included scale value.

Units of measurement
1- French measurement units:- One kilometer = 1000 meters.
- One meter = 100 centimeters.
- One centimeter = 10 millimeters.
2- English measurement units:- On mile = 1760 yards = 1.61 kilometer.
- One yard = 3 feet.
- One foot = 12 inch.

Dr. Maryam Al-Mulla

2- Symbols: represent features in the maps such as: streets, buildings, streams,
vegetation etc.
Color also used for seam reason; such as vegetation (green), water (blue), sand
yellow etc.

3- Legend (key of map):- Legend:- showing rocks and bed succession in the area.
In the succession, recent bed present at the top while the oldest bed appear at the
base. The legend could be drown using map scale. Bed thickness and rocks name or
signs are shown on the legend.

4- Date of map publication and the issuer.

5- Latitude and longitude:

Dr. Maryam Al-Mulla

- Latitude (shown as a horizontal line) is the angular distance, in degrees,

minutes, and seconds of a point north or south of the Equator. Lines of latitude
are often parallel.
- Longitude (shown as a vertical line) is the angular distance, in degrees,
minutes, and seconds, of a point east or west of the (Greenwich) Meridian.
- Equator encircles the broadest part of the Earth, and represents 0 latitude. It
divides the Earth into two halves, called the northern and the southern
hemispheres.

1- Topographic map
What is a topographic map?
A map represents the relief features of the area in three dimensions as vertical
projection. In the map, the shape of the surface features are shown by contour
lines. The map is based on the actual survey of the area and the scale of the
map is large enough to show the features in detail. Symbols and colors are used
in topographic maps to identify cultural and natural features.

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Dr. Maryam Al-Mulla

Utilizing of topographic maps

For study the relief features and topography of the land.
Traveler and tourists are used topographic maps to find out locations and
plans their tour accordingly.
Using in the planning for economic development.
These maps are used in the military for develop attack and defense plans.

2- Contour Maps:- Contour map is a map illustrated with contour lines. It

showing the topographic (valleys, hills, mountains....etc.), reliefs and steepness
of slopes of the land.

What is the difference between the topographic maps and contour

maps ???.
The answer is:
The main characteristic of topographic maps is the representation reliefs of the
surface of the earth in the three-dimensional by the use of contour lines; so,
topographic maps are a form of contour maps.

Contour line
- Contour line: is an imaginary lines that join points of equal elevation on the
surface of the land above or below the surface of sea level.

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Dr. Maryam Al-Mulla

Contour line characteristics

1- Contour line is an imaginary lines, join the points of equal elevation on the
surface of the land above or below the surface of sea level.
2- Contour lines are the best way for showing the high and the surface features
of the area.
3- On the map, each contour line has one number showing its high above or
below sea level.
4- On the map, the value of the distance of contour line is constant = the
difference value between two consecutive contour lines.
5- The contour lines are not joining together . Why?
How can we identify the relief features on a map using contour lines??
A- Slopes
1 Gentle slope: is represented by wider spaced contours.
2 Steep slopes: is represented by closely spaced contours.

3 Uniform slope (regular slope): is a constant slope (the value of slope from
top to bottom is uniform). On the map, It is represented by evenly spaced
contour (the distant between contours is similar).
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Dr. Maryam Al-Mulla

4- Undulating slope: is irregular slope (the value of slope from top to bottom
is irregular not constant). On the map, it is represented by irregular spaced.
(the distant between contours is different).

5- Convex slope: the contour at the bottom are closely spaced, while at the
top they are widely spaced; the slope is simple at top and became steep at
lower part, and the value of contour lines are increase at the top direction.

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6- Concave slopes: It is opposite of convex slope, in which the degree of slope

is lesser at the bottom than at the top. The contours at the top closer to one
another, but it became wider in

lower parts; and the value of contour lines are decrease at the top direction.

B- Relief features
1- Main valley: is formed by a river in its youthful stage. It takes v - shape and
on a map it is represented by v-shaped contours with the lowest values in the
inner direction.
2- Streams: is small drainages , connected with the main valley and also the
contours takes v- shape.
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Dr. Maryam Al-Mulla

3- A conical hill: is represented by number of concentric contours at regular

intervals. The value of the contours increases towards the center.
3- Elongated hill: the contours take elongated shape and also the value of
contours increases towards the center.

5- Plateau: is a flat or nearly flat area of high ground with steep sides. On the
contour map, there is no contour lines on the surface of the plateau, or the
distant between the contours are very wide. The value of the contours gradually
decreases toward the outside.
6- Saddle: is low area in between tow hells sharing it with one stage.

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7- Cliff: is a high and very steep rock face, nearly vertical or with a sudden fall
towards the sea. On a map, it represented by contours running along the sea
coast and generally merging with one another to form the face of the cliff.

Profile line
What is the profile line??
is a line, represent the ground surface of area on vertical section. It shows the
relief features along its direction.

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Dr. Maryam Al-Mulla

Profile section
How can we draw Profile section?
1- Cut a thin strip of paper and place it along the section direction.
2- Select on the strip paper the value of all contour lines that intersect with the
tape, in addition to the north direction.
3- Draw on graph paper a vertical and horizontal axis then divides the vertical
axis according to the scale of the map.
4- Put the strip paper on the horizontal axis and move all the values of the
contour lines in addition to the North direction.
5- Identify the intersection points of the horizontal axis and vertical axis, then
connect between these points.
- This profile line showing the surface of the area in the same direction of the
profile.
- Note that, in the draw of profile section we have to use the same
scale of the map on the vertical axis. Why???

Important Refrences
http://www.scoutingresources.org.uk/downloads/mapping_contours_001.pdf
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/policy/army/fm/3-25-26/ch10.htm

http://training.nwcg.gov/precourses/S390/S390PreCourseStu
dyMaterial.pdf
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Dr. Maryam Al-Mulla

http://eps.mq.edu.au/courses/GEOS264/maps/mapch3/lscape.htm

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