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ChemistryProjectonEstimationofContentof
BoneAsh
BoneAsh
ESTIMATIONOFCONTENTOFBONEASH
PROJECTSUBMITTEDBY
Prashanth.G
12D
ROLLNO:0000000000000000
DepartmentofChemistry
BonafideCertificate
ThisistocertifythattheChemistryproject__________________________
__________________________________________inChemistryhadbeen
Submittedbythecandidate_________________________________
Withrollnumber__________________fortheclassXIIpracticalexaminationof
theCentralBoardofSecondaryEducationintheyear2009.
Itisfurthercertifiedthatthisprojectistheindividualworkofthe
Candidate.
Signature:Date:
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:

IthankthestaffoftheChemistrydepartmentforthehelp
Andguidanceprovidedtomeincompletingtheprojectin
Chemistry.Ialsothanktheprincipalforpermittingtheuseofthe
Resourcesoftheschoolforcompletingtheproject.
NameoftheCandidate:
RollNumber:
Date:
INDEX
CONTENTS
BoneIntrodution
Functions
Characteristics
CellularStructure
MolecularStructure
TypesofBones
Formation
ReModelling
ParacrineCellSignalling
ExperimentAnalysis
Reportoftheproject
Results
Disorders
Osteology
Terminology
Bibliography

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Abstract
Thisprojectintroducessomeknowledgeaboutthebasicsinvolvedinfindingtheconstituentsofbone.This
Projectdealswiththeprincipleofqualitativeanalysisofcationandanion.
Skeletalsystemplaysanintegralpartofmostoftheanimalswhatisthatitmakesitformanintegral
part?Thesolutionofthiscanbeunderstoodmoreclearlyfromthisproject.
Significanceofproject:
Dealswithanalysisofboneash
Providesallbasicideasaboutconcentrationofvarioussaltspresent
Providesinformationaboutionexchangereaction
Thisprojectindeedwouldbearevolutionintheworldwherethereisincreasingworryaboutproblemsof
bonelikeosteoporosisandinthisindustrialageamountofcalciumcontentinboneisalsoreducingthis
projectwouldindeedbeaverygoodsolution.
Bone
.
Bonesarerigidorgansthatformpartoftheendoskeletonofvertebrates.Theyfunctiontomove,support,and
protectthevariousorgansofthebody,produceredandwhitebloodcellsandstoreminerals.Bonetissueisa

typeofdenseconnectivetissue.Becausebonescomeinavarietyofshapesandhaveacomplexinternaland
externalstructuretheyarelightweight,yetstrongandhard,inadditiontofulfillingtheirmany
otherfunctions.Oneofthetypesoftissuethatmakesupboneisthemineralizedosseoustissue,alsocalled
bonetissue,thatgivesitrigidityandahoneycomblikethreedimensionalinternalstructure.Othertypesof
tissuefoundinbonesincludemarrow,endosteumandperiosteum,nerves,bloodvesselsandcartilage.There
are206bonesintheadulthumanbodyand270inaninfant
Functions
Boneshaveelevenmainfunctions:
Mechanical
ProtectionBonescanservetoprotectinternalorgans,suchastheskullprotectingthebrainor
theribsheartandlungs.protectingthe
ShapeBonesprovideaframetokeepthebodysupported.
MovementBones,skeletalmuscles,tendons,ligamentsandjointsfunctiontogethertogenerateand
transferforcessothatindividualbodypartsorthewholebodycanbemanipulatedinthree
dimensionalspace.Theinteractionbetweenboneandmuscleisstudiedinbiomechanics.
SoundtransductionBonesareimportantinthemechanicalaspectofovershadowedhearing.
BloodproductionThemarrow,locatedwithinthemedullarycavityoflongbonesandintersticesof
cancellousbone,producesbloodcellsinaprocesscalledhaematopoiesis.
Synthetic
Metabolic
MineralstorageBonesactasreservesofmineralsimportantforthebody,most
notablycalciumphosphorus.and
GrowthfactorstorageMineralizedbonematrixstoresimportantgrowthfactorssuchasinsulinlike
growthfactors,transforminggrowthfactor,bonemorphogeneticproteinsandothers.
FatStorageTheyellowbonemarrowactsasastoragereserveoffattyacids.
AcidbasebalanceBonebuffersthebloodagainstexcessivepHchangesbyabsorbingor
releasingalkalinesalts.
DetoxificationBonetissuescanalsostoreheavymetalsandotherforeignelements,removingthem
fromthebloodandreducingtheireffectsonothertissues.Thesecanlaterbegraduallyreleased
forexcretion.
EndocrineorganBonecontrolsphosphatemetabolismbyreleasingfibroblastgrowthfactor23
(FGF23),whichactsonkidneystoreducephosphatereabsorption.
Characteristics
Theprimarytissueofbone,osseoustissue,isarelativelyhardandlightweightcompositematerial,formed
mostlyofcalciumphosphateinthechemicalarrangementtermedcalciumhydroxylapatite(thisis
theosseoustissuethatgivesbonestheirrigidity).Ithasrelativelyhighcompressivestrengthbutpoortensile
strengthof104121MPa,meaningitresistspushingforceswell,butnotpullingforces.Whileboneis
essentiallybrittle,itdoeshaveasignificantdegreeofelasticity,contributedchieflybycollagen.Allbones
consistoflivinganddeadcellsembeddedinthemineralizedorganicmatrixthatmakesuptheosseoustissue.
Individualbonestructure
Boneisnotauniformlysolidmaterial,butratherhassomespacesbetweenitshardelements.
Compactboneor(Corticalbone)
Thehardouterlayerofbonesiscomposedofcompactbonetissue,socalledduetoitsminimalgapsand
spaces.Thistissuegivesbonestheirsmooth,white,andsolidappearance,andaccountsfor80%ofthetotal
bonemassofanadultskeleton.Compactbonemayalsobereferredtoasdensebone.

Trabecularbone
Fillingtheinterioroftheboneisthetrabecularbonetissue(anopencellporousnetworkalsocalled
cancellousorspongybone),whichiscomposedofanetworkofrodandplatelikeelementsthatmakethe
overallorganlighterandallowingroomforbloodvesselsandmarrow.Trabecularboneaccountsforthe
remaining20%oftotalbonemassbuthasnearlytentimesthesurfaceareaofcompactbone.Ifforany
reasonthereisanalterationinthestraintowhichthecancelloussubjectedthereisarearrangementofthe
trabeculae.Althoughadultboneexistsinbothcancellousandcompactforms,thereisnomicroscopic
differencebetweenthetwo.
Cellularstructure
Thereareseveraltypesofcellsconstitutingthebone
Osteoblastsaremononucleateboneformingcellsthatdescendfromosteoprogenitorcells.Theyare
locatedonthesurfaceofosteoidseamsandmakeaproteinmixtureknownasosteoid,which
mineralizestobecomebone.Theosteiodseamisanarrowregionofnewlyformedorganicmatrix,not
yetmineralized,locatedonthesurfaceofabone.OsteoidisprimarilycomposedofTypeIcollagen.
Osteoblastsalsomanufacturehormones,suchasprostaglandins,toactontheboneitself.They
robustlyproducealkalinephosphatase,anenzymethathasaroleinthemineralisationofbone,aswell
asmanymatrixproteins.Osteoblastsaretheimmaturebonecells.
Boneliningcellsareessentiallyinactiveosteoblasts.Theycoveralloftheavailablebonesurfaceand
functionasabarrierforcertainions.
Osteocytesoriginatefromosteoblaststhathavemigratedintoandbecometrappedandsurroundedby
bonematrixthattheythemselvesproduce.Thespacestheyoccupyareknownaslacunae.Osteocytes
havemanyprocessesthatreachouttomeetosteoblastsandotherosteocytesprobablyforthepurposes
ofcommunication.Theirfunctionsincludetovaryingdegrees:formationofbone,matrixmaintenance
andcalciumhomeostasis.Theyhavealsobeenshowntoactasmechanosensoryreceptors
regulatingthebonesresponsetostressandmechanicalload.Theyarematurebonecells.
Osteoclastsarethecellsresponsibleforboneresorption(remodelingofbonetoreduceitsvolume).
Osteoclastsarelarge,multinucleatedcellslocatedonbonesurfacesinwhatarecalledHowships
lacunaeorresorptionpits.Theselacunae,orresorptionpits,areleftbehindafterthebreakdownofthe
bonesurface.Becausetheosteoclastsarederivedfromamonocytestemcelllineage,theyare
equippedwithphagocyticlikemechanismssimilartocirculatingmacrophages.Osteoclastsmature
and/ormigratetodiscretebonesurfaces.Uponarrival,activeenzymes,suchastartrateresistantacid
phosphatase,aresecretedagainstthemineralsubstrate.
Molecularstructure
Matrix
Themajorityofboneismadeofthebonematrix.Ithasinorganicandorganicparts.Boneisformedbythe
hardeningofthismatrixentrappingthecells.Whenthesecellsbecomeentrappedfromosteoblaststhey
becomeosteocytes.
Inorganic
Theinorganicismainlycrystallinemineralsaltsandcalcium,whichispresentintheformofhydroxyapatite.
Thematrixisinitiallylaiddownasunmineralisedosteoid(manufacturedbyosteoblasts).Mineralisation
involvesosteoblastssecretingvesiclescontainingalkalinephosphatase.Thiscleavesthephosphategroups
andactsasthefociforcalciumandphosphatedeposition.Thevesiclesthenruptureandactasacentrefor
crystalstogrowon.
Organic
TheorganicpartofmatrixismainlycomposedofTypeIcollagen.Thisissynthesisedintracellularlyas
tropocollagenandthenexported,formingfibrils.Theorganicpartisalsocomposedofvariousgrowth
factors,thefunctionsofwhicharenotfullyknown.Factorspresent
includeglycosaminoglycans,osteocalcin,osteonectin,bonesialoprotein,osteopontinandCellAttachment

Factor.Oneofthemainthingsthatdistinguishesthematrixofabonefromthatofanothercellisthatthe
matrixinboneishard.
Wovenorlamellar
Twotypesofbonecanbeidentifiedmicroscopicallyaccordingtothepatternofcollagenformingtheosteoid
(collagenoussupporttissueoftypeIcollagenembeddedinglycosaminoglycangel
1)wovenbonecharacterisedbyhaphazardorganisationofcollagenfibersandismechanicallyweak,and
2)lamellarbonewhichhasaregularparallelalignmentofcollagenintosheets(lamellae)andis
mechanicallystrong.
Wovenboneisproducedwhenosteoblastsproduceosteoidrapidlywhichoccursinitiallyinallfetalbones
(butislaterreplacedbymoreresilientlamellarbone).Inadultswovenboneiscreatedafterfracturesor
inPagetsdisease.Wovenboneisweaker,withasmallernumberofrandomlyorientedcollagenfibers,but
formsquicklyitisforthisappearanceofthefibrousmatrixthattheboneistermedwoven.Itissoonreplaced
bylamellarbone,whichishighlyorganizedinconcentricsheetswithamuchlowerproportionofosteocytes
tosurroundingtissue.Lamellarbone,whichmakesitsfirstappearanceinthefetusduringthethirdtrimester,
[3]isstrongerandfilledwithmanycollagenfibersparalleltootherfibersinthesamelayer(theseparallel
columnsarecalledosteons).Incrosssection,thefibersruninoppositedirectionsinalternatinglayers,much
likeinplywood,assistinginthebonesabilitytoresisttorsionforces.Afterafracture,wovenboneforms
initiallyandisgraduallyreplacedbylamellarboneduringaprocessknownasbonysubstitution.
Thesetermsarehistologic,inthatamicroscopeisnecessarytodifferentiatebetweenthetwo.
Types
Therearefivetypesofbonesinthehumanbody:long,short,flat,irregularandsesamoid.
Longbonesarecharacterizedbyashaft,thediaphysis,thatismuchgreaterinlengththanwidth.They
arecomprisedmostlyofcompactboneandlesseramountsofmarrow,whichislocatedwithin
themedullarycavity,andspongybone.Mostbonesofthelimbs,includingthoseofthefingers
andtoes,arelongbones.Theexceptionsarethoseofthewrist,ankleandkneecap.
Shortbonesareroughlycubeshaped,andhaveonlyathinlayerofcompactbonesurroundinga
spongyinterior.Thebonesofthewristandankleareshortbones,asarethesesamoidbones.
Flatbonesarethinandgenerallycurved,withtwoparallellayersofcompactbonessandwichinga
layerofspongybone.Mostofthebonesoftheskullareflatbones,asisthesternum.
Irregularbonesdonotfitintotheabovecategories.Theyconsistofthinlayersofcompactbone
surroundingaspongyinterior.Asimpliedbythename,theirshapesareirregularandcomplicated.The
bonesofthespinehipsareirregularbones.and
Sesamoidbonesarebonesembeddedintendons.Sincetheyacttoholdthetendonfurtherawayfrom
thejoint,theangleofthetendonisincreasedandthustheleverageofthemuscleisincreased.
Examplesofsesamoidbonesarethepatellaandthepisiform.Comparedtowovenbone,lamellarbone
formationtakesplacemoreslowly.Theorderlydepositionofcollagenfibersrestrictstheformationof
osteoidtoabout1to2mperday.
Lamellarbonerequiresarelativelyflatsurfacetolaythecollagenfibersinparallelorconcentriclayers.
Formation
Theformationofboneduringthefetalstageofdevelopmentoccursbytwoprocesses:Intramembranous
ossificationandendochondralossification.
Intramembranousossification
Intramembranousossificationmainlyoccursduringformationoftheflatbonesoftheskulltheboneis
formedfrommesenchymetissue.Thestepsinintramembranousossificationare:

1.Developmentofossificationcenter
2.Calcification
3.Formationoftrabeculae
4.Developmentofperiosteum
Endochondralossification
Endochondralossification,ontheotherhand,occursinlongbones,suchaslimbstheboneisformedfrom
cartilage.Thestepsinendochondralossificationare:
1.Developmentofcartilagemodel
2.Growthofcartilagemodel
3.Developmentoftheprimaryossificationcenter
4.Developmentofthesecondaryossificationcenter
5.Formationofarticularcartilageandepiphysealplate
Endochondralossificationbeginswithpointsinthecartilagecalledprimaryossificationcenters.They
mostlyappearduringfetaldevelopment,thoughafewshortbonesbegintheirprimaryossificationafterbirth.
Theyareresponsiblefortheformationofthediaphysesoflongbones,shortbonesandcertainpartsof
irregularbones.Secondaryossificationoccursafterbirth,andformstheepiphysesoflongbonesandthe
extremitiesofirregularandflatbones.Thediaphysisandbothepiphysesofalongboneareseparatedbya
growingzoneofcartilage(theepiphysealplate).Whenthechildreachesskeletalmaturity(18to25yearsof
age),allofthecartilageisreplacedbybone,fusingthediaphysisandbothepiphysestogether(epiphyseal
closure).
Bonemarrow
Bonemarrowcanbefoundinalmostanybonethatholdscancelloustissue.Innewborns,allsuchbonesare
filledexclusivelywithredmarrow,butasthechildagesitismostlyreplacedbyyellow,orfattymarrow.In
adults,redmarrowismostlyfoundinthemarrowbonesofthefemur,theribs,thevertebraeandpelvic
bones.
Remodeling
Remodelingorboneturnoveristheprocessofresorptionfollowedbyreplacementofbonewithlittlechange
inshapeandoccursthroughoutapersonslife.Osteoblastsandosteoclasts,coupledtogetherviaparacrine
cellsignalling,arereferredtoasboneremodelingunits.
Purpose
Thepurposeofremodelingistoregulatecalciumhomeostasis,repairmicrodamagedbones(fromeveryday
stress)butalsotoshapeandsculpturetheskeletonduringgrowth.
Calciumbalance
Theprocessofboneresorptionbytheosteoclastsreleasesstoredcalciumintothesystemiccirculationandis
animportantprocessinregulatingcalciumbalance.Asboneformationactivelyfixescirculatingcalciumin
itsmineralform,removingitfromthebloodstream,resorptionactivelyunfixesittherebyincreasing
circulatingcalciumlevels.Theseprocessesoccurintandematsitespecificlocations.
Repair
Repeatedstress,suchasweightbearingexerciseorbonehealing,resultsinthebonethickeningatthepoints
ofmaximumstress(Wolffslaw).Ithasbeenhypothesizedthatthisisaresultofbonespiezoelectric
properties,whichcausebonetogeneratesmallelectricalpotentialsunderstress.[4]
Paracrinecellsignalling

Theactionofosteoblastsandosteoclastsarecontrolledbyanumberofchemicalfactorswhicheither
promoteorinhibittheactivityoftheboneremodellingcells,controllingtherateatwhichboneismade,
destroyedorchangedinshape.Thecellsalsouseparacrinesignallingtocontroltheactivityofeachother.
Osteoblaststimulation
Osteoblastscanbestimulatedtoincreasebonemassthroughincreasedsecretionofosteoidandbyinhibiting
theabilityofosteoclaststobreakdownosseoustissue.
Bonebuildingthroughincreasedsecretionofosteoidisstimulatedbythesecretionofgrowthhormoneby
thepituitary,thyroidhormoneandthesexhormones(estrogensandandrogens).Thesehormonesalso
promoteincreasedsecretionofosteoprotegerin.[5]Osteoblastscanalsobeinducedtosecreteanumber
ofcytokinesthatpromotereabsorbtionofbonebystimulatingosteoclastactivityanddifferentiationfrom
progenitorcells.VitaminD,parathyroidhormoneandstimulationfromosteocytesinduceosteoblaststo
increasesecretionofRANKligandandinterleukin6,whichcytokinesthenstimulateincreasedreabsorbtion
ofbonebyosteoclasts.Thesesamecompoundsalsoincreasesecretionofmacrophagecolonystimulating
factorbyosteoblasts,whichpromotesthedifferentiationofprogenitorcellsintoosteoclasts,anddecrease
secretionofosteoprotegerin.
Osteoclastinhibition
Therateatwhichosteoclastsresorbboneisinhibitedbycalcitoninandosteoprotegerin.Calcitoninis
producedbyparafollicularcellsinthethyroidgland,andcanbindtoreceptorsonosteoclaststodirectly
inhibitosteoclastactivity.OsteoprotegerinissecretedbyosteoblastsandisabletobindRANKL,inhibiting
osteoclaststimulation.
ExperimentalAnalysis
MaterialsRequired
PARTICULARS
RibBone
Beaker
TestTube
EvaporatingDish
RingStand
BunsenBurner
TestTubeHolder
FilterPaper
PHPaper
Dil.NitricAcid
1%AmmoniumHydroxide
1%SilverNitrate
1%AmmoniumChloride
AceticAcid
1%PotassiumThiocyanate
DistilledWater

QUANTITY
2Pieces
150ml
7nos
1no
1no
1no
2nos

200ml
100ml
25ml
50ml
100ml
25ml
AsReqd

ReportofProject
EXPERIMENT
Astripofbonewasburntin
evaporatingdish
2gmsofboneaswasweighed

OBSERVATION

Yellowishwhiteprecipitatewasobtained

Toitdilutenitricacidwasadded

OnaddingNitricacidtheashsparingly
dissolved

Itwasdilutedwithwaterandtheash
wascompletelydissolved
Theabovesolutionwasfilteredandthe
residue(leftonthefilterpaper)was
discarded
Ammoniumhydroxidewasaddedtothe ThepHwasmadeto8.6
WhitishbrownprecipitateofMagnesium
filtrate(leftonthebeaker)
ammoniumphosphatewasobtained
Thesolutionwasmadebasic.The
basicitywascheckedwiththehelpof
pHpaper
Thesolutionwasfilteredandthe
residuewasisolated
Thefiltratewasseparatedintotwotest
WhiteprecipitateofSilverchloridewas
tubes
obtained
Silvernitratewasaddedtooneofthe
testtubes
Totheothertesttubeammonium
chlorideandammoniumcarbonatewas
addedsimultaneouslyandboiled
Tothesolutionleft,diluteHCLwas
addedfollowedbyPotassium
thiocyanate

Whiteresidueofcalcium

Carbonatewasobtained

Redcoloursolutionmarkingthepresenceof
Ironwasobtained

Result
Extrapolationfromtheaboveobservations
Constituentsofboneashidentifiedwere:
1.I.Calcium
2.II.Phosphate
3.III.Chloride
4.IV.Magnesium
5.V.Iron
ApartfromthisCalciumandPhosphatewhichisfoundmaximuminbonewasestimatedfromthe
precipitategot.Thiswasdonebyweighingtheprecipitate
WeightofCalciumcarbonate:1.7g

WeightofMg(NH4)PO4:1.1g
WeightofCain2gofsample:0.68g
WeightofPhosphorous:0.24g
%ofCa:34%
%ofPhosphorous:12%
Disorders
Therearemanydisordersoftheskeleton.Oneofthemoreprominentisosteoporosis.
Osteoporosis
Osteoporosisisadiseaseofbone,leadingtoanincreasedriskoffracture.Inosteoporosis,thebonemineral
density(BMD)isreduced,bonemicroarchitectureisdisrupted,andtheamountandvarietyofnon
collagenousproteinsinboneisaltered.OsteoporosisisdefinedbytheWorldHealthOrganization(WHO)in
womenasabonemineraldensity2.5standarddeviationsbelowpeakbonemass(20yearoldsexmatched
healthypersonaverage)asmeasuredbyDXAthetermestablishedosteoporosisincludesthepresenceof
afragilityfracture.[6]Osteoporosisismostcommoninwomenafterthemenopause,whenitis
calledpostmenopausalosteoporosis,butmaydevelopinmenandpremenopausalwomeninthepresenceof
particularhormonaldisordersandotherchronicdiseasesorasaresultofsmokingandmedications,
specificallyglucocorticoids,whenthediseaseiscalledsteroidorglucocorticoidinducedosteoporosis
(SIOPorGIOP).
Osteoporosiscanbepreventedwithlifestyleadviceandmedication,andpreventingfallsinpeoplewith
knownorsuspectedosteoporosisisanestablishedwaytopreventfractures.Osteoporosiscanbetreated
withbisphosphonatesandvariousothermedicaltreatments.
Other
Otherdisordersofboneinclude:
Bonefracture
Osteomyelitis
Osteosarcoma
Osteogenesisimperfecta
OsteochondritisDissecans
BoneMetastases
NeurofibromatosistypeI
Osteology
Thestudyofbonesandteethisreferredtoasosteology.Itisfrequentlyusedinanthropology,archeology
andforensicscienceforavarietyoftasks.Thiscanincludedeterminingthenutritional,health,ageorinjury
statusoftheindividualthebonesweretakenfrom.Preparingfleshedbonesforthesetypesofstudiescan
involvemacerationboilingfleshedbonestoremovelargeparticles,thenhandcleaning.
TypicallyanthropologistsandarcheologistsstudybonetoolsmadebyHomosapiensandHomo
neanderthalensis.Bonescanserveanumberofusessuchasprojectilepointsorartisticpigments,andcanbe
madefromendoskeletalorexternalbonessuchasantlerortusk.
Alternativestobonyendoskeletons
Thereareseveralevolutionaryalternativestomammillarybonethoughtheyhavesomesimilarfunctions,
theyarenotcompletelyfunctionallyanalogoustobone.
Exoskeletonsoffersupport,protectionandleversformovementsimilartoendoskeletalbone.Different
typesofexoskeletonsincludeshells,carapaces(consistingofcalciumcompoundsorsilica)

andchitinousexoskeletons.
Atrueendoskeleton(thatis,protectivetissuederivedfrommesoderm)isalsopresent
inEchinoderms.Poriferaspiculesandasponginfibernetwork.(sponges)possesssimpleendoskeletons
thatconsistofcalcareousorsiliceous
Exposedbone
Bonepenetratingtheskinandbeingexposedtotheoutsidecanbebothanaturalprocessinsomeanimals,
andduetoinjury:
Adeersantlersarecomposedofbone.
Insteadofteeth,theextinctpredatoryfishDunkleosteushadsharpedgesofhardexposedbonealong
itsjaws.
Acompoundfractureoccurswhentheedgesofabrokenbonepuncturetheskin.
Thoughnotstrictlyspeakingexposed,abirdsbeakisprimarilybonecoveredinalayerofkeratinover
avascularlayercontainingbloodvesselsandnerveendings.
Terminology
Severaltermsareusedtorefertofeaturesandcomponentsofbonesthroughoutthebody:
Bonefeature
Definition
articularprocess Aprojectionthatcontactsanadjacentbone.
articulation
Theregionwhereadjacentbonescontacteachotherajoint.
canal
Along,tunnellikeforamen,usuallyapassagefornotablenervesorbloodvessels.
condyle
Alarge,roundedarticularprocess.
crest
Aprominentridge.
eminence
Arelativelysmallprojectionorbump.
epicondyle
Aprojectionneartoacondylebutnotpartofthejoint.
facet
Asmall,flattenedarticularsurface.
foramen
Anopeningthroughabone.
fossa
Abroad,shallowdepressedarea.
fovea
Asmallpitontheheadofabone.
Labyrinth
Acavitywithinabone.
line
Along,thinprojection,oftenwitharoughsurface.Alsoknownasaridge.
malleolus
Oneoftwospecificprotuberancesofbonesintheankle.
meatus
Ashortcanal.
process
Arelativelylargeprojectionorprominentbump.(gen.)
ramus
Anarmlikebranchoffthebodyofabone.
sinus
Acavitywithinacranialbone.
spine
Arelativelylong,thinprojectionorbump.
suture
Articulationbetweencranialbones.
trochanter
Oneoftwospecifictuberositieslocatedonthefemur.
tubercle
Aprojectionorbumpwitharoughenedsurface,generallysmallerthanatuberosity.
tuberosity
Aprojectionorbumpwitharoughenedsurface.
Bibliography
BiologyInvestigations
Otto,Towle,Crider
ConciseInorganicChemistry
J.D.Lee

Wikipedia
NCERTBiologyandchemistryTextbook
TheJournalofBiologicalChemistry
Anon
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