4.0 Springs

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Springs
Definition
An elastic machine element, which deflects under the
action of load and returns to its original shape when
the load is removed.
TOPIC: SPRINGS
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Functions
Absorbs shocks and vibrations, e.g. suspensions
Store energy, e.g. Clocks
Measure forces, Weighing balance
Apply forces and control motion, e.g. Springs used in
clutch
Springs Types
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Helical Springs Terminology
Helical springs
Compression (Open coiled)
Tension/extension (Close coiled)
Torsion
Multi-leaf or Laminated spring
Di
Do =
D
D=
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Wire diameter of spring,

mm
Inside diameter of spring
coil, mm
Outside diameter of
spring coil, mm
Mean coil diameter, mm
Do Di
2
4
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Helical Springs Characteristics
Spring index (C)

Ratio of mean coil diameter to wire diameter
C=
Spring index (C)

Low spring index springs are difficult to manufacture
and require special care during coiling to avoid
cracking
D
d
Indicates relative sharpness of curvature of coil

Low spring index (C < 3)
High sharpness of curvature
Actual stresses in wire will be excessive due to
curvature effect
High spring index (C > 15)
Large variation in coil diameter
Prone to buckling & tangles easily during handling
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Compressed
4 12
best from manufacturing considerations
69
Close tolerance & Cyclic loads
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Spring Length (l)

Indicated as
Free length
Preferred values
Spring Length (l) Solid length

Defined as the axial length, when spring is so
compressed that adjacent coils touch each other
Solid length
Solid length = N t d
Nt = total number of coils
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Spring Length (l) Compressed length

Defined as the axial length, when spring is
compressed by maximum compressive force to its
maximum deflection ()
Some gap / clearance present between adjacent
coils, which is essential to prevent clashing of coils
Spring Length (l) Free length

Defined as the axial length of unloaded helical
compression spring
Free length = compressed length +

Free length = solid length + total axial gap +
Recommended clearance
Total clearance 15% of
Gap between adjacent coils as
1 2 mm
Pitch of the coil (p)

Axial distance between adjacent soils
in uncompressed state of spring
Gap between
Total gap = (N t 1) x
adjacent coils
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p=
Free length
N t -1
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Number of Coils
Active Coils (N)
The coils in the spring which contribute to spring
action, support the external force and deflect under
the action force
Number of Coils Active Coils (N)

For Compression spring
Depend on end styles
End styles
Plain
Inactive Coils (Nin)

A portion of the end coils, which is in contact with
the seat, does not contribute to spring action
Plain & Ground
No of Active Coils (N)

Nt
(Nt )
Square
(Nt - 2)
Square & Ground
(Nt - 2)
Total Number of Coils (Nt)

= Active coils + Inactive coils
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Number of Coils Active Coils (N)

For tension/extension spring
Not depend on end styles
Number active coils (N) = Total number of coils (Nt)
Stress
Helical spring and
equivalent bar
Stress concentration
at bend should be
minimum
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a) Pure torsional stress

b) Direct shear stress
c) Combined torsional, direct
and curvature shear stresses
13
14
Stress
Helical spring is made from a bar of equivalent length
When the equivalent bar is bent in the form of helical
coil, addition stresses generated due to two factors
Direct / transverse shear stress in the spring wire
When bar is bent in the form of coil, the length of
inside fibre is less than length of outside fibre,
which results in stess concentration at the inside
fibre of coil.
Resultant stress consist of superposition of torsional
shear stresses, direct shear stress and additional
stress due to the curvature of the coil
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Stress
Based on Torsion theory
1 =
8PD
d3
P Force acting at end

D Mean coil diameter
d Wire diameter
Above eq do not considers stress due to curvature

Combined
K = KS KC
correction factor
Resultant
Shear stress
Ks defined as
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Ks Factor for direct stress

Kc Factor for curvature stress
8 P D 0.5d
8P D
1+
= Ks
3
3
d
D
d
0.5d 0.5
K s = 1 +
= 1 +
D
C
16
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Stress
A M Wahls equation for resultant stress
Deflection
Load deflection relation
P Force acting at end

D Mean coil diameter
d Wire diameter
8P D
=K
3
d
8 P D3 N
G d4
G Modulus of rigidity
K is stress factor or Wahls factor
4 C - 1 0.615
K=
+
4C-4 C
k=
In normal applications, spring is designed by Wahls factor

When spring is subjected to a fluctuating stresses, two
factors, Ks and Kc has to be used separately
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Strain Energy (N-mm)
E=
spring rate
C Spring index
Springs connected together

Purpose
1
P
2
To save the space

To change the rate of the spring at a certain deflection
To provide fail safe system
Area under the curve gives

the strain energy stored in
the spring
Series combination
Parallel combination
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Helical Springs Material
Springs connected together

Series combination
Material Selection depends on

Parallel combination
Total External force Same and equal
Sum of forces on
individual springs
Total Deflection of
combination
Sum of deflections
Same and equal
of individual springs
Combined
stiffness, k
1 1 1
= + + ....
k k1 k 2
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Load acting on the spring

Range of stress through which spring operates
Limitations of mass and volume of spring
Expected life of spring
Environmental conditions, e.g. temperature, corrosive
atmosphere, in which spring operate
Severity of deformation during manufacturing of the
spring
k = k1 + k 2 + ....
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Steel
Patented and cold drawn steel wires (unalloyed)
Oil-hardened and tempered spring steel wires and
valve spring wires (unalloyed)
Oil-hardened and tempered steel wires (alloyed)
Stainless steel spring wires
Non-ferrous materials
Brass
Phosphor bronze
Silicon bronze
Monel
Beryllium-copper
Steel
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Patented &
Cold-drawn
0.85 0.95% C
Grades
High tensile
1. Static / low load
strength
cycle
High elastic limit
2. Mod. load cycles
Ability to withstand
3. High stressed &
high stresses under
dynamic load
repeated loading
4. Severe stress
Unalloyed
oilhardened &
tempered
0.22 - 0.75% C
Excellent surface
finish
Reliable
Temperature limit
Grades
SW Mod. fluctuating
forces and
<100 0C
VW - high fluctuating
and < 80 0C
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Steel
Steel
Patented and cold drawn
steel wires
Alloy Steel Superior to carbon steel Application

wires
wires
High stress
Chromium-vanadium
Impact/shock
steel (0.48-0.53% C; 0.80load
1.10% Cr; 0.15%V)
Chromium-silicon steel
Modulus of rigidity (G)

= 81370 N/mm2
(0.48-0.53% C; 0.80-1.10%
Cr; 0.15%Si)
Steel
wires
Excellent corrosion
resistance
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Application In steam or other

corrosive media
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Steel
Oil-hardened and
tempered spring steel
wire
Steel
Cost comparison
Spring material
Modulus of rigidity
= 81370 N/mm2
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Cost index
Hard-drawn spring steel wire

Music wire
1.0
3.5
Oil-hardened and tempered spring steel

wire and valve spring wire
Alloy steel wire
1.5
Stainless steel wire
8.5
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4.0
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Helical Springs Design
Requirement
Sufficient strength to withstand the external load
Required load deflection characteristics
No buckle under external load
Basic Design Parameters
Wire diameter
Mean coil diameter
Number of active coils
Factor of Safety
Usually
1.5 or low
Reasons for low FoS
As forces are calculated precisely, no need to consider
high FoS for uncertainty in external forces
For compression springs, maximum deflection is limited
by the gap between two coils, which prevents
excessive deflection and stresses
For extension springs, overload stops are provided
Uniform and controlled manufacturing processes at all
stages
Load stress equation

Load deflection equation
Designer should specify limits on basic parameters

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IS 4454-1981
Procedure - I
1. Estimate maximum spring force (P), corresponding
deflection () and stiffness (k)
2. Select material and calculate permissible stress
Permissible shear stress

is 30% of ultimate tensile
strength
0.3Sut
0.5Sut
0.5Sut
3. Assume suitable spring index (C)
Permissible shear stress is taken from 30% to 50% of

ultimate tensile strength
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Factor of Safety Permissible shear stress
0.3Sut
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Should not be less than 3

For industrial application - 8 to 10
Valves and clutches
-5
(8 is good)
4. Calculate Wahl factor

4 C - 1 0.615
K=
+
4C-4 C
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Procedure - I
5. Determine wire diameter
8P D
=K
3
d
6. Determine mean coil diameter
Procedure - I
9. Determine solid length of spring
Solid length = N t d
10. Determine actual deflection
8 P D3 N
=
G d4
11. For spring under maximum load, assume gap
between adjacent coils as 0.5 2 mm, and calculate
total axial gap
D=Cd
7. Determine number of active coils

8 P D3 N
=
G d4
8. Determine inactive coils and find total coils
Total gap = (N t - 1) x gap bet n adjacent coils

For some cases, total axial gap = 15% of
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Procedure - I
12. Determine free length of spring
Procedure - I
16. Safety against buckle failure
Free length = Solid length + Total gap +
13. Determine pitch of coil

free length
p=
(N t - 1)
14. Determine rate of spring

g d4
k=
8 D4 N
15. List final specifications
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When helical compression spring is too long to its

mean coil diameter, spring acts as an column and
may buckle at low axial load
Must be design as buckle-proof
If not, then enclose in a guide in the from of sleeve or
over an arbor to make spring buckle-proof
free length
2.6
mean coil diameter
[Guide not necessary]
free length
> 2.6
mean coil diameter
[Guide required]
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Helical Springs Design Trial & Error
Helical Springs Design Problem
Procedure - II
1. Assume some wire diameter (d)
2. Find out ultimate tensile strength and calculate
permissible stress
3. Find out induced stress
4. Check whether permissible stress is more than
induced stress.
5. If not, increase wire diameter and repeat above
procedure
6. Repeat above procedure till the value of induced
stress comes less than permissible stress
It is required to design a helical compression spring

subjected to a maximum force of 1250N. The deflection
of spring corresponding to the maximum force should be
approximately 30mm. The spring index can be taken as
6. The spring is made of patented and cold-drawn steel
wire. The ultimate tensile strength and modulus of rigidity
of spring material are 1090 and 81370 N/mm2. The
permissible shear stress for spring wire should be taken
as 50% of ultimate tensile strength. Design the spring
and calculate:
Wire diameter
- Mean coil diameter
Number of active coils
- Total no. of coils
Free length of spring
- Pitch of the coil
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Helical Springs Design Problem
38
Leaf Springs
Solution
Semi-elliptic Leaf Spring

Mainly used for the suspension of cars, trucks and
railway wagons
Extra full
length leaves
are to support
the transverse
shear force
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10
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Leaf Springs
Leaf Springs Notations
Semi-elliptic Leaf Spring / Laminated Leaf Springs
nf = Number of extra-full length leaves

ng = Number of graduated length leaves
n = nf + ng
= Total number of leaves
b
t
= Width of each leaf, mm

= Thickness of each leaf, mm
= Length of cantilever or half length of semi-elliptical

spring, mm
= Force applied at the end of spring, N P = Pf + Pg
Pf = Portion of force P taken by extra-full length leaves, N

Pg = Portion or force P taken by graduated length leaves, N
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Leaf Springs Bending stress & Deflection
Graduated leaves
( b )g =
6PL
=
(n g b) t 2
(3n
12 P L
+ 2n g ) bt 2
Full-length leaves
( b )f =
Deflection
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Leaf Springs Bending stress & Deflection
Permissible stress for

triangular beam
( b )permissible
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6PL
E (n g b ) t 3
(3n
18 P L
2
f + 2n g ) bt
Deflection (Same)
For same deflection
( b )f = 3 ( b )g
12 P L3
(3n f + 2n g ) Ebt 3
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11
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Leaf Springs Thickness & Width
Leaf Springs Length
Based on
Load-stress equations
Load-deflection equations
Nominal values
Let,
2L = Span / length of spring
l
Thickness, mm
= 3.2, 4.5, 5, 6, 6.5, 7, 7.5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12,

14 and 16
Width, mm
= 32, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 90,
100 and 125
If bands are used
Effective length of spring = 2 L l

If U bolts are used
2
Effective length of spring = 2 L l
3
bore diameters, = 19, 20, 22, 23, 25, 27, 28, 30, 32, 35, 38,
mm
50 and 55
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Leaf Springs Length
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Total no. of Leaves (n) =
46
Leaf Springs Length

For,
No of full
= Ineffective length,
For bands width of band
For U bolts - distance between center of U bolts
No of graduated
length leaves (n f ) length leaves (n g )
nf = 1
Leaves to be cut is n
nf = 2
Leaves to be cut is (n 1)
nf = 2
Effective length
Length of smallest leaf = 1
Ineffective length
(z 1)
Effective length
Leangth of next leaf = 2
Ineffective length
(z 1)
Effective length
Length of (z - 1)th leaf = ( z 1)
Ineffective length
(z 1)
nth leaf will be full length and act as master leaf

nf = 3
Length of master leaf = Span length + Allowance for eye
Leaves to be cut is (n 2)
= 2 L + (d + t )2
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12
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Leaf Springs Camber
Leaf Springs Materials
Maximum deflection is camber of the spring (0),

Relation between radius of curvature and camber is
R=
0 (2R - 0 ) =
l12
8 0
l12
4
0 - camber
R - radius of curvature
l1 - Span of spring = 2L
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Leaf Springs Materials
Usual materials
Steel
55Si2Mn60
50Cr1 or 50Cr1V23
Automobiles
50 Cr 1, 50 Cr 1 V 23, and 55 Si 2 Mn 90
all used in hardened and tempered state
Rail road springs
C 55 (water-hardened),
C 75 (oil-hardened),
40 Si 2 Mn 90 (waterhardened)
55 Si 2 Mn 90 (oil-hardened)
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Leaf Springs Factor of Safety
Physical properties
All values are for oil quenched condition and for
single heat only.
For static loads
- 1.5 is sufficient
Rail roads
- 2 to 2.5
Automobile suspension
Rear springs
2.25 to 2.5
Front springs
3.25 to 3.5
If design considers shock loads
1.25 or 1.5 is sufficient
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13
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Leaf Springs Endurance Limit
Leaf Springs Nipping
Importance
Defines limit for working stress for leaf springs and
should not exceed yield stress
Criteria
40 to 50 % of ultimate strength in tension
e.g.
For normal spring steels, working bending stress is
1000 to 1300 MPa, but normal design does not
account for sudden loads, so safe stress used is 600
to 650 MPa
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Leaf Springs Nipping

Initial nip C
2 ng nf P
n (3n f + 2n g )
Stresses been equalized, then bending stress is
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Method
Stresses can be equalized by preloading full length
leaves
Is done by bending leaves to different radii of
curvature
The gap C is called as nip & process is called as
nipping
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1. Initial considerations
a. Load on spring and shocks it has to absorb, 2P
b. Span length (based on space available), 2L
c. Deflection,
d. Type of laminated spring, nipping, variable leaf thickness
2. Decide material and select it Endurance Limit, Factor of
safety and find Permissible Bending Stress
3. If both Permissible (b) and is available then using
equations for both calculate b and t.
4. If only permissible (b) then assume nominal thickness (t) for
calculation of b.
5. Decide clamping option (U-bolt / band) and finalize its length
depending on diameter of axle / place where it is mounted.
Initial Pre-load required to close the gap C
b =
Extra full length leaves

are 50% more stressed
than graduated length
leaves
Leaf Springs Design Procedure
2 P L3
C=
Enbt 3
Pi =
Why
6PL
n b t2
55
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14
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6. Assume graduated leaves (zg) from recommended as:

a)
Usual
5 to 10
b)
Railroad cars
upto 14
7. From (b)permissible ; P ; L; zg - Calculate width as:
( b )permissible =
6PL
(n g b) t 2
10. Radius of curvature is calculated as:

0 (2R - 0 ) =
Width should be in between 42

100 mm, if not change thickness t
and re-calculate b
8. Normally, in automobile two full length leaves are used.

Calculated length of all leaves.
9. At eye end check induce shear stress due to load p as
If induced shear strength is more
P
s =
then increase number of full length
nf b t
leaves (nf)
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11. U-bolt of band will be designed for an initial load (Pi) applied
reduce gap between plates to zero. Both will be under
tension
2 ng nf P
Pi =
n (3n f + 2n g )
Calculate dimension for U bolt or size of the band safe
against initial tensile load Pi
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12. End connections and Size of eye for master leaf

Considering maximum bending moment on pin along its
length calculate induced bending stress, which should be
less than permissible bending stress.
8 (Load on pin) b'
b =
d 3p
b = Width of eye master leaf

b = Length of pin
= b + 2 (Clearance)
Clearance on either side usually
considered as1.5 mm
P
= inclination of plates,
cos usually 45o or can be 0
Pin diameter (dp) based on allowable

bearing pressure (pb)
Calculate induced shear stress which should be less than

permissible value
2 (Load on pin)
s =
d 2p
Considering crushing stress for crushing of pin in the

plate calculate thickness of plate
(Load on pin)
C =
2 d p t'
P
d p b pb =
cos
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12. End connections and Size of eye for master leaf
Pin load =
(2 L) 2
4
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15
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Belleville / Disc Springs
Belleville / Disc S Load-deflection Chart
Components
Consists of a coned disc, resembles like a dinner
plate without a bottom
Also called as
coned disc spring
Applications
Plate clutches & Brakes
Gun recoil mech.
Relief valves
Bolted connections
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Belleville / Disc S Load-deflection Chart

Provide any
characteristics
h/t = 3.5
linear
non-linear
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Belleville / Disc S Advantages
load-deflection
Provides S curve
Useful in application e.g. snap acting mechanism
h/t = 2.1

Simple in construction and easy to manufacture

Compact spring unit
Useful when large force is desired for small deflection
Provides wide range of spring constants & makes it versatile
Provide any linear / non-linear load-deflection characteristics
Can stacked in series or parallel combination to obtain wide
range of spring constants
Central portion is horizontal load is constant for range

of deflections
Useful in disengaging and engaging of clutch
Series
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Parallel
Series-Parallel
64
16
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Belleville / Disc S Design Formulae

Notations
P
d
t
h
E
do
di
M, C1, C2

Load-deflection and Load-stress equations
E
h (h )t + t 3
P=
2
2
2 do

M (1 ) 2
Axial load, N
Deflection of spring, m
Thickness of washer, m
Free height minus thickness, m
Modulus of elasticity, N/m2
Stress at inside circumference, N/m2
Outer diameter of washer, m
Inner diameter of washer, m
Poissons ratio (0.3 for steel)
Constants
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C1 h + C1t
=
2
2
2 do

M (1 ) 2
65
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66
do
d i 1
6
M =
log e d o d o
d i d i
Constants
do
d i 1
6
C1 =
1

log e d o log e d o
d i
d i
do
d i 1
6
C2 =
2
log e d o
d

i
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67
17

4.0 Springs

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3/19/2015

Helical Springs Terminology

Wire diameter of spring,

Helical Springs Characteristics

Helical Springs Characteristics

Spring index (C)

Spring index (C)

Indicates relative sharpness of curvature of coil

Helical Springs Characteristics

best from manufacturing considerations

Close tolerance & Cyclic loads

Helical Springs Characteristics

Spring Length (l)

Spring Length (l) Solid length

Helical Springs Characteristics

Helical Springs Characteristics

Spring Length (l) Compressed length

Spring Length (l) Free length

Free length = compressed length +

Pitch of the coil (p)

Helical Springs Characteristics

Helical Springs Characteristics

Number of Coils Active Coils (N)

Inactive Coils (Nin)

Plain & Ground

No of Active Coils (N)

Square & Ground

Total Number of Coils (Nt)

Helical Springs Characteristics

Helical Springs Characteristics

Number of Coils Active Coils (N)

a) Pure torsional stress

Helical Springs Characteristics

Helical Springs Characteristics

P Force acting at end

Above eq do not considers stress due to curvature

Ks Factor for direct stress

Helical Springs Characteristics

Helical Springs Characteristics

P Force acting at end

K is stress factor or Wahls factor

In normal applications, spring is designed by Wahls factor

Helical Springs Characteristics

Helical Springs Characteristics

Strain Energy (N-mm)

Springs connected together

To save the space

Area under the curve gives

Helical Springs Characteristics

Helical Springs Material

Springs connected together

Material Selection depends on

Total External force Same and equal

Load acting on the spring

Helical Springs Material

Helical Springs Material

Helical Springs Material

Helical Springs Material

Alloy Steel Superior to carbon steel Application

Modulus of rigidity (G)

Application In steam or other

Helical Springs Material

Helical Springs Material

Hard-drawn spring steel wire