CyTA - Journal of Food

ISSN: 1947-6337 (Print) 1947-6345 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tcyt20

Effect of extrusion conditions on physicochemical

characteristics and anthocyanin content of blue
corn third-generation snacks
I.L. Camacho-Hernndez, J.J. Zazueta-Morales, J.A. Gallegos-Infante, E.
Aguilar-Palazuelos, N.E. Rocha-Guzmn, R.O. Navarro-Cortez, N. JacoboValenzuela & C.A. Gmez-Aldapa
To cite this article: I.L. Camacho-Hernndez, J.J. Zazueta-Morales, J.A. Gallegos-Infante, E.
Aguilar-Palazuelos, N.E. Rocha-Guzmn, R.O. Navarro-Cortez, N. Jacobo-Valenzuela & C.A.
Gmez-Aldapa (2014) Effect of extrusion conditions on physicochemical characteristics
and anthocyanin content of blue corn third-generation snacks, CyTA - Journal of Food, 12:4,
320-330, DOI: 10.1080/19476337.2013.861517
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19476337.2013.861517

2014 Taylor & Francis

Published online: 15 Apr 2014.

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Date: 20 November 2016, At: 07:10

CyTA Journal of Food, 2014

Vol. 12, No. 4, 320330, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19476337.2013.861517

Effect of extrusion conditions on physicochemical characteristics and anthocyanin content of

blue corn third-generation snacks
Efecto de las condiciones de extrusin sobre caractersticas sicoqumicas y contenido de
antocianinas de alimentos botana de tercera generacin de maz azul
I.L. Camacho-Hernndeza,b, J.J. Zazueta-Moralesb*, J.A. Gallegos-Infantea, E. Aguilar-Palazuelosb, N.E. Rocha-Guzmna,
R.O. Navarro-Cortezb, N. Jacobo-Valenzuelab and C.A. Gmez-Aldapac
a

Doctorado en Ciencias en Ingeniera Bioqumica, Instituto Tecnolgico de Durango, Durango, Mxico; bMaestra en Ciencia y
Tecnologa de Alimentos, Universidad Autnoma de Sinaloa, Sinaloa, Mxico; cCentro de Investigaciones Qumicas, Universidad
Autnoma del Estado de Hidalgo, Hidalgo, Mxico
(Received 21 August 2013; nal version received 29 October 2013)
The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of barrel temperature (BT, 98.8141.2C) and feed moisture (FM, 19.9334.07%) as
independent factors on physicochemical characteristics of microwave-expanded extruded third-generation (3G) snacks obtained from blue
corn and corn starch. Single-screw laboratory extruder and a central, composite, rotatable experimental design were used. Both independent
factors showed signicance (p 0.01) on most of the analyzed responses. The mathematical models showed values of R2Adj 0.76 and p of
F(model) 0.001. The optimum area of the extrusion process ranged from 120C to 126C for BT and from 23.8% to 25.2% for FM. In
optimal conditions, the product showed an expansion index of 4.8, a penetration force of 12.42 N, a specic mechanical energy
of 169.08 kJ/kg, and 71.09 mg of total anthocyanin content/kg. The developed 3G snack presented high-quality physicochemical
characteristics, with the potential health benets derived from nutraceutical characteristics (dietary ber and anthocyanins) of the whole
blue corn used.
Keywords: extrusion; blue corn; third-generation snack; anthocyanin

El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar el efecto de la temperatura de barril BT (98,8141,2 C) y la humedad de alimentacin FM
(19,9334,07%) como factores independientes, sobre caractersticas sicoqumicas de botanas extrudidas, de tercera generacin (3G),
expandidas por microondas, obtenidas a partir de maz azul y almidn de maz. Se utiliz un extrusor de laboratorio de tornillo simple
y un diseo experimental central compuesto, rotable. Ambos factores independientes mostraron signicancia (p 0,01) en la mayora
de las respuestas analizadas. Los modelos matemticos mostraron valores de R2aj 0,76 y p de F(modelo) 0,001. La zona ptima
para el proceso de extrusin vari de 120126 C de BT y de 23,825,2% de FM. En condiciones ptimas el producto
mostr un ndice de expansin de 4,8, una fuerza de penetracin de 12,42 N, una energa mecnica especca de 169,08 kJ/kg y
71,09 mg de contenido total de antocianina/kg. La botana 3G desarrollada present caractersticas fsico-qumicas de alta calidad, con
los benecios potenciales para la salud, derivados de las caractersticas nutracuticas (bra dietaria y antocianinas) del maz azul
integral utilizado.
Palabras clave: extrusin; maz azul; botana de tercera generacin; antocianina

Introduction
A snack is dened as a small, lightweight food that is easy to
manipulate, ready to eat, accessible, and, most importantly, able
to satisfy the appetite sensation for a moment (Hurtado, Escobar,
& Estvez, 2001). Snack foods are widely consumed, regardless
of social status, age, or gender. The industrial sector of snacks in
Mexico is booming with an annual market value of 3419 million
dollars, offering various kinds of snacks, mainly, the potato and
corn (dough and tortilla) derivatives (http://inegi.gob.mx).
Among the main types of snacks are the third-generation (3G)
snacks, also known as intermediate snacks or pellets, which are
cheap and easy to prepare at home (Hollingsworth, 2001). In the
processing of 3G snacks, the dry ingredients are mixed with
water (2235%) to form a dough. The 3G snacks are prepared
by extrusion, formed at low pressure to avoid expansion, and
dried to a nal moisture content of 1014% to form a glassy
pellet. The extrusion process consists of a 3-step temperature

*Corresponding author. Email: zazuetaj@uas.edu.mx

2014 Taylor & Francis

prole, starting with a low-temperature step at the feed zone (70

80C), continuing with a high-temperature step at the mixing and
cooking zone (90145C), and ending with a low-temperature
step at the output die (7595C) (Bastos-Cardoso, ZazuetaMorales, Martnez-Bustos, & Yoon, 2007; Delgado-Nieblas
et al., 2012). The 3G snacks have a long shelf life, being capable
of retaining a good quality for at least one year, provided that a
proper storage is given. As pellets, they require less storage
space due to their less volume in relation to their size after
expanding when compared with directly expanded snacks
(Arias-Garca et al., 2007). However, they require a further
expansion process, which may be done by hot oil, hot air, or
microwave exposure. During this latter intensive heating step,
the moisture in the pellet will start to boil and vapor bubbles are
formed, which will expand the pellet. The expansion gives the
snack a porous structure (Boischot, Moraru, & Kokini, 2003).
Taking advantage of the greater consumer acceptance for 3G
snacks, they can be used as nutrient carriers in order to offer

CyTA Journal of Food

an added value product with high nutritional/nutraceutical properties. Balasubramanian, Borah, Singh, and Patil (2012),
Delgado-Nieblas et al. (2012), Limn-Valenzuela, MartnezBustos, Aguilar-Palazuelos, Caro-Corrales, and ZazuetaMorales (2010) have reported studies aiming this purpose,
where milk proteins, legume seeds, and vegetable our have
been used.
Blue corn composition is similar to white corn, with the
advantage of containing anthocyanin and phenolic compounds
(Pedreschi & Cisneros-Zevallos, 2007; Yan & Zhai, 2010).
These are phytochemicals that are synthesized in plants by
secondary metabolism, and there is great interest in them
because of their antioxidant and bioactive properties. Their consumption has been correlated with health benets, chronic, and
degenerative illness prevention, such as cancer, cardiovascular
diseases, and cataracts (He & Giusti, 2010).
The extrusion process has become very important in food
processing because of its extensive technical advantages of cost,
in addition to being a high-temperature short-time process,
which allows for less destruction of heat-sensitive components
(White, Howard, & Prior, 2010). Furthermore, extrusion technology has been successfully used in the production of both directly
(second generation) or indirectly expanded snack (3G). Studies
have been conducted about the addition of anthocyanin to
directly expanded extruded foods. Khanal, Brownmiller,
Howard, and Prior (2009) studied an extrusion process (temperature 160180C and screw speed 150200 rpm) using mixtures
of grape seed, cranberries, and white sorghum our. In this
report, the extrusion process reduced the anthocyanin content
up to 42% at the high-temperature range. Camire, Chaovanalikit,
and Dougherty (2002) reported a total anthocyanin loss, in the
range of 6490% caused by the extrusion process, when concentrated cranberry was incorporated into extruded breakfast
cereals. Zazueta, Martnez, Jacobo, Ordorica, and Paredes
(2001) studied the effect of the addition of calcium hydroxide
on some characteristics of extruded directly expanded blue corn.
They found that it is possible to obtain an extruded directly
expanded blue corn product, fortied with calcium. However,
the scientic literature on the development of blue corn-based
3G snacks, and the effect of extrusion processing on their physicochemical, structural, and nutritional properties, is scarce. The
aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of extrusion variables
on physicochemical characteristics and anthocyanin content of
3G snacks elaborated from blue corn our and corn starch.

321

Company, Culiacn, Mxico). The addition of emulsiers, such

as saturated monoglycerides, contributes to the lubricant effect,
which decreases the mechanical degradation produced by the
extruder and improves the texture of the cooked product
(Bastos-Cardoso et al., 2007). This monoglyceride concentration
was chosen because, in a preliminary study, it showed desirable
effect for 3G snacks. The prepared mixtures were homogenized
at medium speed (~8 min) in a laboratory mixer (Kitchen Aid,
model K5SS, Michigan, USA); they were stored in sealed polyethylene bags and kept under refrigeration (810C) for 12 h
before processing.

Extrusion process
The extrusion process was performed using a single-screw
laboratory extruder (Brabender 20DN, model 8-235-00,
Duisburg, Germany). A rectangular aperture output die with
internal measures of 20 mm wide 1.0 mm high 100 mm
long, a screw with 2:1 compression ratio, a screw speed of
80 rpm, and feed rate of 2.83.0 kg/h, were used.
Temperatures in both the feed zone and in the output die were
75C, while temperatures of the intermediate zone (mixing/
cooking zone) and feed moistures varied according to the experimental design (Table 1). The extruded materials (pellets) were
manually cut into approximately 2.5 cm long strips, dried at
room temperature (2426C, 5070% relative humidity) for
48 h, up to a moisture content of about 913%, stored in sealed
plastic bags, and kept in darkness under refrigeration (68C)
until analysis.

Expansion pellets
The cut and extruded pellets were expanded using a commercial
microwave oven (LG, R-501CW, Monterrey Mxico, 900 W
and 2450 Hz) for 26 s, according to preliminary tests.

Proximate analysis
Ofcial methods of AOAC (1999) were used to analyze moisture
(925.09), protein (979.09), ash (923.03), lipids (923.05),
Table 1. Experimental design used for blue corn extrusion.
Tabla 1. Diseo experimental utilizado para la extrusin de maz azul.
Independent variables

Materials and methods

Materials
Blue corn (Zea mays L.), Chalqueo race, from the local
market of Pachuca, Hidalgo, and corn starch produced by
IMSA (Industrializadora de maz S.A de C.V. Puebla, Mxico)
were used.

Preparation of samples
Integral our (250 m) from blue corn was obtained using a
hammer mill (Mini 100 Pulvex S.A de C.V. Mxico) and was
mixed with corn starch in a 65:35 proportion. The criteria used
for the selection of the mixture was to obtain a product with high
expansion, maximum blue corn content, and minimum addition
of corn starch, which was established in preliminary studies. The
mixture was added to 0.1% of monoglycerides (Bioproceso

Coded
Treatment
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

Actual

X1

X2

BT (C)

FM (%)

1
1
1
1
1.414
1.414
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

1
1
1
1
0
0
1.414
1.414
0
0
0
0
0

105
135
105
135
98.79
141.21
120
120
120
120
120
120
120

22
22
32
32
27
27
19.93
34.07
27
27
27
27
27

Note: BT = Barrel temperature (C); FM = Feed moisture (%).

Nota: BT = Temperatura de barril (C); FM = Humedad de alimentacin (%).

322

I.L. Camacho-Hernndez et al.

and ber (962.09). The carbohydrate content was calculated

by difference.

Expansion index (EI) and bulk density (BD)

Expansion index (EI) and bulk density (BD) were determined
using the specic volume of non-expanded (Vnep) and expanded
(Vep) pellets as EI = (VepVnep)/Vnep. The specic volume
was determined using the seed displacement test, according to
Peneld and Campbell (1990) and Boischot, Moraru and Kokini
(2003). Results were the mean of 30 determinations by
treatment.

Penetration force (PF)

Penetration force (PF) was measured in microwave-expanded
products with a penetrometer (Chatillon, model TCD 200,
Surrey, UK). A 2 mm diameter at-tip probe with a penetration
speed of 0.8 mm/s was used. The required force (N) to penetrate
a depth of 3 mm was registered, with 30 replicates for treatment.

Specic mechanical energy (SME)

The energy required for extruder screw rotation (kJ/kg) was
calculated from values of torque (t, Nm), screw extruder speed
(ss, rpm/min), and feed ow (F, kg/h), according to BattermanAzcona, Lawton, and Hamaker (1999).
SME 2t  ss=F

Water absorption index (WAI) and water solubility index

(WSI)
They were performed in the microwave-expanded products using
2.5 g of sample according to Anderson, Conway, Pfeifer, and
Grifn (1969), where the quantity of dissolved material and the
proportion of absorbed water are gravimetrically calculated after
stirring a suspension at room temperature.

Total anthocyanin content (TAC)

Total anthocyanin content (TAC) was measured in raw materials
and microwave-expanded snacks, using the method described by
Abdel-Aal and Hucl (1999). TAC was expressed in mg of
cyanidin-3-glucoside/kg (db).

Experimental design
A central, composite, rotatable experimental design for response
surface methodology, with 13 treatments and value = 1.414
(Table 1), was used.
The response surface superposition methodology was utilized
to nd the optimal processing conditions, in order to obtain a highquality and high expanded product, using the Design-Expert software (7.0). Pearson correlations were performed using Statistica
7.0 software (Stat-Ease, Inc., Minneapolis, MN).

Results
Proximate composition
Table 2 shows the proximate composition of blue corn, corn
starch, and the mixture of blue corn our and corn starch. The

Table 2. Proximate analysis of raw materials.

Tabla 2. Anlisis proximal de materias primas.
Component
(g/100g dry base)
Protein
Fat
Ash
Fiber
Carbohydrates*

BCF
8.91
5.79
1.65
2.32
81.30

0.27
0.03
0.05
0.04
0.31

CS
0.09 0.06
0.18 0.01
0.02 0.01

99.70 0.01

Mixture1
(BCF + CS)
5.8
3.82
1.08
1.51
87.79

0.15
0.03
0.03
0.02
1.16

Note: 165% BCF + 35% SC (db); BCF = Blue corn our; CS = Corn starch.
*Calculated by difference.
Nota: 165% BCF+ 35%SC(bs); BCF = Harina de maz azul; CS = Almidn de
maz.
*Calculado por diferencia.

proximate composition of blue corn is consistent with values

reported by Zazueta-Morales et al. (2001) and Escalante-Aburto
et al. (2013), who used blue corn for developing a directly
expanded second-generation snack. The results are also consistent with those reported by Nava, Jimenez, and Hernndez
(2008) and Hoover and Manuel (1996) for blue corn and corn
starch.

Regression coefcients and ANOVA

The Regression coefcients for the responses analyzed are
shown in Table 3. Both factors, barrel temperature (BT) and
feed moisture (FM), showed a highly signicant effect
(p 0.01) in their linear (b1) and quadratic (b11) terms on the
majority of the responses studied, except b2 and b22 to WSI and
b22 for BD. Furthermore, for TAC in the microwave-expanded
extruded snacks, only the terms b22 and b22b1 of the mathematical model had a signicant effect. The interactions terms of the
models, in general, were signicant on various responses.
Additionally, Table 4 shows the analysis of variance (ANOVA)
for the analyzed response variables. The models were accurate
enough for all responses, with values of R2Adj > 0.76, p of
F(model) < 0.001, and variability coefcient (VC) < 14.78 (except
for PF, 20.41). However, it can be seen that BD, SME, and WAI
showed lack of t (p 0.082).

Expansion index (EI)

The effect of BT and FM on expansion index (EI) is shown in
Figure 1. It can be seen that in almost the entire experimental
interval of FM, EI increased with increasing BT from 98C to
125C. BT higher than 125C favored a decrease in values of EI.
Furthermore, at low BT (<115C), EI values increased as FM
increased, and the highest EI values were obtained at low FM
(~20%) and intermediate BT (120125C). These results are in
agreement with Moraru and Kokini (2003), who mention that the
expansion usually occurs at high BT and low FM as a result of
several events such as structural transformations of biopolymers,
phase transitions and nucleation, swelling, growth, and collapse
of air bubbles, all of them contributing to the expansion phenomenon. Furthermore, Lee, Lim, Lim, and Lim (2000)
observed that starch gelatinization degree and the moisture content of the pellets are two important factors in determining the
shape, bulk density, and expansion of microwave-expanded products. These authors found higher expansion values when BT

CyTA Journal of Food

323

Table 3. Regression coefcients of the models and signicance levels for analyzed responses.
Tabla 3. Coecientes de regresin de los modelos y niveles de signicancia para las respuestas analizadas.
Coefcients
Intercept
Response
EI
BD
PF
SME
WAI
WSI
TAC

b0

Linear
b1

Quadratic
b2

b11

Interaction
b22

b12

314.39
+5.18 (0.01)*
+9.54 (<0.01)
0.02 (<0.01) 2.73E-3 (0.03)
0.15
+237,07.33 355.82 (<0.01) 774.03 (<0.01) +10.64 (<0.01)
+1.33 (0.074) +10.64
+3551.98 56.99 (<0.01) 117.75 (<0.01)
+0.23 (<0.01)
+0.06 (<0.01) +1.87
+3524.49 +17.44 (<0.01) 269.41 (<0.01)
0.39 (<0.01)
+8.22 (<0.01) +0.13
166.87
+2.33 (<0.01)
+6.97 (0.145) 7.29E-3 (<0.01)
0.08 (0.19)
0.08
1015.84 +18.16 (<0.01) +30.69 (<0.01)
0.07 (<0.01)
+0.09 (<0.01) 0.59
+4449.51 44.17 (0.87) 310.23 (0.57)
+0.039 (0.11)
+5.29 (<0.01) +3.028

b11b2

b22b1

(<0.01) 6.17E-4 (<0.01)

(<0.01)
0.035 (<0.01) 0.033 (<0.01)
(<0.01) 7.62E-3 (<0.01)
(<0.01)
0.02 (<0.01)
0.07 (<0.01)
(0.07)
1.70E-4 (0.08) 6.91E-4 (0.03)
(<0.05)
0.09 (<0.01) 2.42E-3 (<0.01)
(0.47) 1.82E-3 (0.41)
0.048 (<0.01)

Note: IE= Expansion index; BD = Bulk density; PF = Penetration force; SME = Specic mechanical energy; WAI = Water absorption index; WSI = Water solubility index;
TAC = Total anthocyanin content; b0, b1, bn = Regression coefcients.
*Number in parentheses are p values
Nota: IE = ndice de expansin; BD = Densidad aparente; PF = Fuerza de penetracin; SME = Energa mecnica especca; WAI = ndice de absorcin de agua; WSI = ndice
de solubilidad en agua; TAC = Contenido de antocianinas totales; b0, b1, bn = Coecientes de regresin.
*Nmero entre parntesis corresponde a los valores p.

Table 4. Variance analysis for analyzed responses.

Tabla 4. Anlisis de varianza para las respuestas analizadas.

Response
EI
BD
PF
SME
WAI
WSI
TAC

CV (%)

F value

F(model)

Lack
of t

0.84
0.90
0.76
0.99
0.96
0.87
0.86

11.49
8.24
20.41
2.24
3.01
14.78
7.80

201.98
269.35
207.11
387.68
41.48
43.77
27.84

<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001

<0.001
0.082
<0.001
0.089
0.990
<0.001
0.029

p of

Note: CV = Coefcient of variation; IE = Expansion index; BD = Bulk density;

PF = Penetration force; SME = Specic mechanical energy; WAI = Water absorption index; WSI = Water solubility index; TAC = Total anthocyanin content.
Nota: CV = Cociente de variabilidad; IE = ndice de expansin; BD = Densidad
aparente; PF = Fuerza de penetracin; SME = Energa mecnica especca;
WAI = ndice de absorcin de agua; WSI = ndice de solubilidad en agua;
TAC = Contenido de antocianinas totales.

Expansion index

5.0
R2
adjusted

4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
142.0

34.0
30.0
Fe

ed

131.0

26.0
mo

22.0

ist

ure

18.0
(%

(C
120.0
ure
t
a
109.0
er
mp
98.0
l te
e
r
r
Ba

Figure 1. Effect of barrel temperature (C) and feed moisture (%) on

expansion index (EI) of blue corn microwave-expanded snack.

ranged from 90C to 110C, in comparison with expansion

values obtained at low BT (70C), in microwave-expanded pellets made from corn starch. They attributed the high EI to the
starch gelatinization degree of the high BT obtained samples, and
they found the highest expansion at a gelatinization percentage
of ~50%. These conditions allowed for the easier formation of
air cells and later expansion by increasing the steam pressure
without rupture of its cellular structure. Aguilar, Zazueta, and
Martnez (2006) found a similar pattern to that reported in this
study for microwave-expanded pellets, elaborated from potato
starch, quality protein maize and soybean our mixtures. Our
results also were in agreement with Delgado-Nieblas et al.
(2012), who reported that EI increased concomitantly with BT
increment. From our results also, it may be theorized that an
increase in BT above 120C might induce a higher level of starch
granules breakdown, leading to a reduction of viscosity and of
extruder residence time. It is also possible to consider that high
BT would lead to a decreased viscosity due to the heating effect
and thus the severity of the process could be reduced, as suggested by Chang, Martnez-Bustos, Park, and Kokini (1999).

Figura 1. Efecto de la temperatura de barril (C) y la humedad de

alimentacin (%), sobre el ndice de expansin (EI) de botanas de maz
azul expandidas por microondas.

The expansion of the extruded products is enhanced by an

increase in temperature up to a peak and decreases thereafter.
This is due to the physicochemical changes in starch-protein
systems induced by temperature increment (Amaya-Llano,
Morales-Hernndez, Castao-Tostado, & Martnez-Bustos,
2007; Moraru & Kokini, 2003). The temperature of maximal
expansion is dependent on the ingredients being used. The
decrease in EI may also be related to dietary ber content of
the mixture.
In our study, EI ranged from 1.91 to 4.80 (a commercial
sample showed an EI of 4.75). These values are close to those
reported by several authors for 3G microwave-expanded snacks
(Bastos-Cardoso et al., 2007; Delgado-Nieblas et al., 2012), and
the differences that were found in BT for maximum expansion of

324

I.L. Camacho-Hernndez et al.

the pellets might be attributed to raw material formulations as

well as to different types of extruders used.

our and corn starch added with red cabbage and by-products
from brewing beer process.

Bulk density (BD)

Penetration force (PF)

Increasing BT from 98C to ~125C resulted in a decreased BD

throughout the whole FM experimental interval. Above 125C, the
BD of the expanded products tends to increase. Furthermore, it can
be seen that at lower BT (<110C), BD decreased when FM
increased. The values of BD in this study ranged from 178.2 to
428.6 kg/m3 (a commercial sample showed a BD of 130 kg/m3).
The lowest values of BD of expanded pellets were shown at BT
~125C, in about the whole FM range studied (Figure 2). In this
work, an inverse behavior can be observed between BD and EI. The
BD showed a high negative Pearson-correlation with EI (r = 0.95,
p < 0.05). According to Ramrez-Ascheri, Ciacco, Raz, and Lusas
(1995), BD of 3G extruded products is inversely related to expansion degree and starch gelatinization degree, thereby lower BD
values corresponded with higher EI values. These authors correlated extrusion variables with starch gelatinization degree, nding
that the best product, with the lowest density, showed approximately 50% gelatinization. Aguilar-Palazuelos et al. (2006) elaborated a 3G snack, and they found that BD decreased by an
interaction effect between BT and FM. Several authors have
reported that when the extrusion temperature is increased, BD
values tend to decrease, which is attributed to starch degradation
as an effect of thermal process (Altan, McCarthy, & Maskan, 2008).
zer, Ibanoglu, Ainsworth, and Yagmur (2004) reported that
by decreasing the moisture content the BD decreased, while in
the present study the effect of FM was signicant only at BT
lower than 110C. Ding, Ainsworth, Plunkett, Tucker, and
Marson (2006) found that as FM in the samples increased, BD
values of the expanded snack products elaborated from wheat
also increased. These authors attributed this behavior to a smaller
starch gelatinization, leading to a lower EI and a high BD. In
addition, Stojceska, Ainsworth, Plunkett, and banolu (2009)
reported a similar behavior in extruded snacks made from wheat

Figure 3 shows the effect of BT and FM on PF. It can be seen

that in the range from 1826% of FM, PF decreased by increasing BT from 98C to ~120C. Above that temperature, PF
tended to increase. On the other hand, at low BT (<110C) and
high BT (>130C), as FM increased, PF decreased. The lowest
experimental value of PF showed in this study was 8 N; this
value was higher than the PF of a commercial sample (3.52 N). It
has been documented that the incorporation of dietary ber in the
extruded products signicantly reduces expansion volumes and
increases density of extruded products, leading to harder textures
(Robin, Schuchmann, & Palzer, 2012). The high PF values
reported in the present study, could be due to a relatively high
dietary ber contained in whole blue-corn our used. In this
work, PF showed moderate negative Pearson correlation with
EI (r = 0.63, p < 0.05) and an important negative correlation
with BD (r = 0.71, p < 0.05), thereby the low PF values
corresponded with higher EI values and lower BD values. It is
also observed that PF is a dependent variable of BT and FM, as
reported by Martinez-Bustos et al. (1998). These behaviors can
be related to starch gelatinization degree and the dietary ber
content present in the corn pericarp and interactions between
lipids and proteins that make up the corn grain. These ndings
are consistent with those reported by Arias-Garcia et al. (2007),
who reported on products made from mixtures of wheat our
and corn starch. Those with higher EI and lower BD were the
softer products. PF is a strength that reects the resistance of
bubble walls to be broken, which depends on the number of
bubbles formed per volume unit and on the resistance of the
formed cell-wall-type structures which are thinner as EI is
increased (Prez-Navarrete, Cruz-Estrada, Chel-Guerrero, &
Betancur-Ancona, 2006). Several authors have reported a relationship between PF and EI of extruded products, since softer

76.0
)
Penetration force (N

3
Bulk density (kg/m )

670.0
570.0
470.0
370.0
270.0
170.0
34.0

142.0
30.0

Fe

ed

26.0
mo

22.0

istu

re

(%

18.0
)

131.0
)
(C
120.0
re
u
t
a
109.0
per
98.0
tem
l
e
rr
Ba

58.0
40.0
22.0
4.0
142.0

34.0
30.0
Fe

ed

127.3

26.0
mo

112.7

22.0

ist

ure

18.0
(%

e
arr

mp

l te

98.0

C)

e(

ur
rat

Figure 2. Effect of barrel temperature (C) and feed moisture (%) on

bulk density (BD) of blue corn microwave-expanded snack.

Figure 3. Effect of barrel temperature (C) and feed moisture (%) on

penetration force (PF) of blue corn microwave-expanded snack.

Figura 2. Efecto de la temperatura de barril (C) y la humedad de

alimentacin (%), sobre la densidad aparente (BD) de botanas de maz
azul expandidas por microondas.

Figura 3. Efecto de la temperatura de barril (C) y la humedad de

alimentacin (%), sobre la fuerza de penetracin (PF) de botanas de
maz azul expandidas por microondas.

CyTA Journal of Food

products have a higher EI (Delgado-Nieblas et al., 2012; Hsieh,
Mulvaney, Huff, Lue, & Brent, 1989).
The extruded pellets, after expansion, can acquire a volume
29 times the original size (Mercier & Feillet, 1975). This
expansion is related to the fragility of the piece being chewed.
When the elaboration of the pellets is not within technological
patterns, its expansion is very low and the product is very hard
(Ramrez-Ascheri & Carvalho-Wanderley, 1997).

Specic mechanical energy (SME)

Figure 4 shows the effect of BT and FM on the SME. It is observed
that with increasing FM at low temperatures (~<110C), SME
decreased. This is due to a reduced shear force and mechanical
energy input. On the other hand, at low FM (<25%), BT increased
and SME decreased. These results agree with those reported by
Chang et al. (1999), who reported that an increase in BT causes a
decrease in the SME. This was attributed to the increased temperature in the extrudate by increasing BT, which resulted in a
decrease of the material viscosity and the required equipment
energy. In addition, various authors have reported that an increase
in FM during extrusion resulted in a decrease in material viscosity
and in the required SME for the process (Rosentrater,
Muthukumarappan, & Kannadhason, 2009; Singh, Smith, &
Frame, 1998). In this study, SME showed a moderate positive
correlation with PF (r = 0.58, p < 0.05). SME value is indicative of
the extrusion process severity, and it has been reported that this
parameter is correlated with properties of extruded products such
as EI, BD, and PF (Altan et al., 2008; Onwulata, Konstance,
Smith, & Holsinger, 2001). Furthermore, it has been reported
that SME is dependent on the process parameters such as FM,
BT, screw speed, and feed rate, FM being the most signicant
factor (Ding, Ainsworth, Tucker, & Marson, 2005).
The starch gelatinization degree varies with the SME applied
by the extruder. High SME facilitates intermolecular rupture of
hydrogen bonds, and the hydrophilic groups of starch are

exposed to water, thereby the gelatinization is favored

(Gropper, Moraru, & Kokini, 2002). The SME decrement by
moisture effect is mainly due to the lubricating effect of water.
FM plays an important role in controlling the extrusion process
because of its impact on mixing, on viscosity, and on the retention time of the dough in the extruder barrel. Additionally, it has
been reported that a reduction in the FM at low BT increases the
SME required for the extrusion process, which is explained by
the high viscosity of the dough processed under these conditions
(Ryu, 2001). This behavior is consistent with the data obtained in
this study. The experimental values of SME for the different
treatments of the present study were within the range of 80.4
316.7 kJ/kg. SME values for different materials processed by
extrusion ranged from 160 to 2108 kJ/kg (Bastos-Cardoso et al.,
2007; Delgado-Nieblas et al., 2012; Gropper et al., 2002). It has
been documented that, in efciency terms, the SME values for
extrusion process must be lower than 1000 kJ/kg.

Water absorption index (WAI)

The effect of BT and FM on WAI is shown in Figure 5. It can be
seen that throughout the studied FM range WAI increased, reaching its highest level at approximately 130C and decreasing
thereafter. The highest WAI increment rate was shown between
the range of 2027% of FM. This effect could be explained by
the rearrangement in the starch structure, which facilitates water
absorption. Some researchers have suggested that when the
temperature is increased in the presence of moisture, the chains
of amylose and amylopectin are separated and form an extended
matrix, which results in a higher water absorption capacity
(Balandrn-Quintana,
Barbosa-Cnovas,
Zazueta-Morales,
Anzalda-Morales, & Quintero-Ramos, 1998; Colonna, Tayeb,
& Mercier, 1989; Kokini, Lai, & Chedid, 1992).
Water absorption index determines the quantity of water (in
grams) that is bound to one gram of dry sample and indicates the
integrity of the starch in an aqueous dispersion (Anderson et al.,

5.5

500.0
375.0

4.0
WAI (g/g)

SME (kj/kg)

325

250.0
125.0

1.0

0.0
34.0
30.0
Fe
ed 26.0
mo
22.0
ist
ure
18.0
(%
)

2.5

142.0
131.0
C)
120.0
e(
tur
a
109.0
r
pe
em
98.0
el t
r
r
Ba

142.0

34.0
30.0
Fe
ed 26.0
mo
ist 22.0
ure
18.0
(%
)

131.0
120.0
109.0
98.0

(C

em

el t

rr
Ba

re

tu
era

Figure 4. Effect of barrel temperature (C) and feed moisture (%) on

specic mechanical energy (SME) for the production of blue corn thirdgeneration snack.

Figure 5. Effect of barrel temperature (C) and feed moisture (%) on

water absorption index (WAI) of blue corn microwave-expanded
extruded products.

Figura 4. Efecto de la temperatura de barril (C) y humedad de

alimentacin (%), sobre la energa mecnica especca (SME) para la
produccin de botanas de tercera generacin, elaboradas de maz azul.

Figura 5. Efecto de la temperatura de barril (C) y humedad de

alimentacin (%), en el ndice de absorcin de agua (WAI) de productos
extrudidos de maz azul, expandidos por microondas.

I.L. Camacho-Hernndez et al.

1969; Mason & Hoseney, 1986). Water absorption depends on

the availability of hydrophilic groups, which bind water molecules, and on the gel-forming capacity of macromolecules
(Gomez & Aguilera, 1983).
When damaged, starch granules are capable of absorbing a
great deal of water at room temperature and swell resulting in
increased viscosity (Colonna et al., 1989). One of the most
important phenomena on the extruded food starch is gelatinization, the conversion of raw starch into a cooked and digestible
material by the application of heat and water. The water is
absorbed and bound to the starch molecule, causing a change
in the starch granule structure. The temperature and moisture are
the factors that exert an important effect on gelatinization.
According to Lawton (1972), maximum degree of gelatinization
can occur in both conditions, high moisture and low temperature
or low moisture and high temperature.
Furthermore, the soluble starch increased with increasing
extrusion temperature and decreasing FM (Mercier & Feillet,
1975). Agustiniano-Osornio et al. (2005) indicated that the extrusion process produces a complete starch gelatinization at low
FM, when BT is between 110C and 135C. In the present study,
at BT higher than 130C, WAI decreases. This effect may be
attributed to the fact that an increase in BT favors the material
uidity, decreasing the residence time within the extruder, and
enables the retention of the starch granular structure, as suggested by values of SME found in this study. Also, in this
study, WAI presented a moderate positive correlation with BT
(r = 0.58, p < 0.05). An increase in BT produces an increase in
viscosity of the dough that is fed into the extruder and the time
required to pass through the extruder barrel is increased, causing
a greater mechanical damage in the starch granule. In the same
way, this response (WAI) showed an important correlation with
EI (r = 0.71, p < 0.05), with BD (r = 0.82, p < 0.05), with PF
(r = 0.76, p < 0.05), and with SME (r = 0.69, p < 0.05). Lee,
Ryu, and Lim (1999) reported that WAI was affected by BT, FM,
and screw speed (in rpm). These authors found that WAI rapidly
increased with increasing BT up to 90C, decreasing thereafter.
Similar results have been reported by different authors (Ding
et al., 2005; Lee et al., 1999). The increase in WAI as BT
increases may be due to high temperatures coupled with shear
force generated by the extruder screw during the process, leading
to starch degradation, which produces fragmented granules that
absorb water at room temperature.
The WAI reaches a maximum value and then decreases as
a result of the high starch dextrinization degree, due to the
thermalmechanical damage suffered during the extrusion process (Linko, Vuorien, & Linnko, 1980). For high-moisture samples combined with high processing temperatures, the level of
starch degradation is low, consequently, WAI decreases
(Carvalho, Ramrez-Ascheri, & Cal-Vidal, 2002). In this study,
the experimental values obtained for WAI showed a maximum of
5.18 g aw/g ds at BT = 135C and FM = 32%, while the
minimum value (2.85 g aw/g ds) was obtained at BT = 98.79
C and FM = 27%.

Water solubility index (WSI)

The effect of extrusion parameters on WSI is shown in Figure 6.
At FM lower than 30%, WSI increased as BT increased, peaking
approximately at 120C. This may be due to the starch degradation, which causes a rise in WSI as a result of a reduction in the
molecular size of starch fragments. WSI showed a moderate

25.0
19.0
WSI (%)

326

13.0
7.0
1.0
34.0

142.0
30.0

Fe

131.0

ed

22.0

istu

re

120.0

26.0
mo

109.0
18.0

(%

98.0

(C

em

el t

rr
Ba

re

tu
era

Figure 6. Effect of barrel temperature (C) and feed moisture (%) on

water solubility index (WSI) of blue corn microwave-expanded extruded
products.
Figura 6. Efecto de la temperatura de barril (C) y humedad de
alimentacin (%), el ndice de solubilidad en agua (WSI) de productos
extrudidos de maz azul, expandidos por microondas.

negative correlation with FM (r = 0.62, p < 0.05). This correlation may be due to the fact that an increase in FM reduces
friction of the dough in the extruder, so the material fragmentation is limited. Furthermore, the lubricating effect supplied by
the water causes the sample to pass faster through the extruder,
and the shearing effect of the BT and the extruder screw is not
high enough to degrade the starch in high levels, obtaining a
lower WSI as a result. WSI also showed a moderate positive
correlation with EI (r = 0.71, p < 0.05), a moderate negative
correlation with BD (r = 0.60, p < 0.05), and a moderate
negative correlation with WAI (r = 0.57, p < 0.05). At low
moisture content, SME increased. WSI is related to the amount
of soluble solids in a dry sample, allowing for the verication
of the severity of the extrusion process, which depends on
the degradation, gelatinization, and dextrinization of starch
(Carvalho et al., 2002; Yang, Peng, Lui, & Lin, 2008). In this
study, the highest WSI value (20.47%) was shown at
BT = 120C and FM = 20%, while the lowest WSI value
(5.46%) was obtained at BT = 99C and FM = 27%. These
results agree with those reported by several authors (Colonna &
Mercier, 1983; Colonna, Doublier, Melcion, De Monredon, &
Mercier, 1984; Gomez & Aguilera, 1983), who found that at low
FM and high BT the water solubility of the materials is
increased, and the viscosity decreases with respect to raw materials or extruded materials at high FM and low BT.
Balandrn, Barbosa, Zazueta, Anzalda, and Quintero
(1998) reported that a reduction in FM, in conjunction with
high BT, causes severe thermalmechanical damage, causing
the breakage of amylose and amylopectin chains into smaller
molecules. When the moisture content is limited, viscosity is
increased and, consequently, the shearing force is increased,
resulting in a decrease in molecular weight of the components
(Guha, Zakiuddin, & Bhattacharya, 1997; Thymi, Krokida,
Pappa, & Marinos-Kouris, 2008). WSI increases with increasing
temperature, regardless of the concentration of starch present.
This increase in soluble solids content suggests a disintegration

CyTA Journal of Food

of the starch granules (Palav & Seetharaman, 2006).
Singh-Gujral, Singh, and Singh (2001) elaborated sweet corn
grits by extrusion and found that WSI increased with increasing
BT and that WSI decreased with increasing FM, showing a
greater FM effect. This behavior was attributed to the fact that
increasing FM decreases SME, and this leads to low starch
solubility. Agustiniano-Osornio et al. (2005) and Yac &
G (2008) reported that the extrusion process produces a
complete starch gelatinization at low FM, when BT is in the
range of 110135C. According to these authors, a combination
of heat treatment and mechanical shear could explain the disappearance of granular structure and crystallinity of starch in
extruded materials. WAI and WSI are important parameters to
dene the possible application of extrudates. A high WSI is
related to thickener characteristics of extruded products
(Hashimoto & Grossmann, 2003).

Total anthocyanin content (TAC)

Blue corn our showed a TAC of 374 9.60 mg/kg db, whereas
the mixture (BCF + CS) showed a TAC of 248.67 4.33. TAC
of blue corn our is consistent with that reported by Del PozoInsfran, Brenes, Serna, and Talcott (2007), but higher than TAC
values reported by Aguayo-Rojas et al. (2012) and Mora-Rochin
et al. (2010) for Mexican blue corn. The effect of BT and FM on
TAC of microwave-expanded pellets is shown in Figure 7.
It can be seen that throughout the FM experimental interval,
TAC decreases with increasing BT. This decrease may be due to
the poor stability of anthocyanin to heat. On the other hand, at
low BT (<110C), in general, FM had no effect on TAC levels.
However, above this temperature, at intermediate conditions of
FM (~27%), highest TAC values were observed. It is probable
that during the increase of FM from 18% to 27%, the severity of
the extrusion process was reduced, due to the lubricant effect of
water. However, an increase of FM higher than 27% provided
moisture sufcient for starch gelatinization that causes paste

327

formation, provoking the slowing of the material ow, and a

longer exposure to the action of high temperatures and mechanical shear, conducive to TAC degradation. The minimum (41.16
mg/kg db) and maximum (82.3 mg/kg db) TAC values corresponded to 105C of BT/22% of FM and 135C of BT/32% of
FM, respectively. These data indicate a TAC decrease in 7085%
in relation to the raw material (248.67 4.33 mg/kg). Losses of
6490% for TAC caused by extrusion have been reported where
blueberry and cranberry concentrates were incorporated to
extruded corn and extruded breakfast cereals (Camire et al.,
2002; Chaovanalikit, Dougherty, Camire, & Briggs, 2003).
Aguayo-Rojas et al. (2012) found a TAC loss of 53.5% in
tortillas elaborated from lime-cooking extruded blue corn. Due
to heat treatments, anthocyanin may suffer important structural
changes such as conversion to colorless chalcones (Wrolstad,
Durst, Giusti, & Rodriguez-Saona, 2002), and due to their thermolability, chalcones may be instantly degraded into phenolic
acids (Sadilova, Carle, & Stintzing, 2007). On the other hand,
polymerization and browning also lead to a decrease in TAC
(Singh, Gamlath, & Wakeling, 2007).

Optimization
The optimization of the extrusion process was carried out by the
response surface superposition methodology. The selected
responses for this procedure were EI, PF, SME, and TAC. The
main criteria for determining the optimal area of surface superposition was the nding of processing conditions corresponding
to the highest values of EI and TAC and the lowest values of
SME and PF.
The area corresponding to the optimal conditions for obtaining expanded snacks, elaborated from blue corn our and corn
starch, ranged from 120C to 126C of BT and from 23.80% to
25.20% of FM, selecting as the central point the following
conditions: 122.3C of BT and 25.20% of FM (Figure 8). To

34.0
PF: 13N

PF: 13N

120.0
Feed moisture (%)

SME: 200J/g

TAC (mg/kg)

90.0
60.0
30.0

30.0
SME: 200J/g
TAC: 70 mg/kg

26.0

PF: 13N
EI: 4.1

0.0
22.0
34.0

142.0
30.0

Fe

ed

131.0

mo

26.0

120.0
109.0

22.0

istu

re

(%

18.0

98.0

(C

em

el t

rr
Ba

re

tu
era

18.0
98.0

109.0
120.0
131.0
Barrel temperature (C)

142.0

Figure 7. Effect of barrel temperature (C) and feed moisture (%) on

total anthocyanin content (TAC) of blue corn microwave-expanded
snack.

Figure 8. Area of superposition of responses (EI, PF, SME, and TAC)

for BT and FM in the optimization process of blue corn snack.

Figura 7. Efecto de la temperatura de barril (C) y humedad de

alimentacin (%), en el contenido total de antocianinas (TAC) de botanas
de maz azul expandidas.

Figura 8. rea de la superposicin de las respuestas (EI, PF, SME y

TAC) de BT y FM, en el proceso de optimizacin de botanas de maz
azul.

328

I.L. Camacho-Hernndez et al.

validate the models, one experimental assay was carried out with
the central point conditions. The predicted values by the mathematical models for each response were EI = 4.10 0.04, PF =
12.42 0.31 N, SME = 169.08 1.85 kJ/kg, and
TAC = 71.09 1.10 mg/kg. The experimental values of the
obtained products (pellets) were EI = 4.47 0.07,
PF = 11.45 0.49 N, SME = 185 5.5 kJ/kg, and
TAC = 61 1.74 mg/kg. There is no signicant difference
(p = 0.05) between the predicted and the experimental values,
except for TAC. Therefore, the tested model showed a good t in
nding the best conditions of BT and FM for the elaboration of
BCF + CS-expanded snacks by the extrusion process.

Conclusions
The mathematical models used in the analysis of responses
showed suitable values (R2 0.76), although some responses
showed lack of t. BT and FM had a signicant effect on all the
studied responses, except for WAI and TAC. The EI values
showed by expanded blue corn products were similar to those
exhibited by a commercial product, while the BD and PF were
higher. The dietary ber and anthocyanin derived from the addition of whole blue corn our confer eventually nutraceutical
characteristics to the expanded snacks. However, studies are
needed to evaluate their nutraceutical potential. To our knowledge, this is the rst report about the utilization of blue corn for
the elaboration of 3G snacks.

Acknowledgments
This research was nanced by Programa de Fomento y Apoyo a
Proyectos de Investigacin (PROFAPI-2009/029) from
Universidad Autnoma de Sinaloa. Camacho-Hernndez thanks
PROMEP due to the scholarship support for PhD studies.
Authors thank Dr Armando Carrillo-Lpez for writing
assistance.

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