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ISLAMIC JURISPRUDENCE

Imran Ahsan Khan Nyazee

Advanced Legal Studies Institute


P.O.Box 3013, Islamabad

Contents
1

Introduction
1.1 The Problem With the Meaning of Jurisprudence
1.2 A Format of the General Theory of Law . . . . .
1.3 A Model for the Study of the General Theory of
Islamic Law or Us.u l al-Fiqh . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 The Subject-matter of Us.u l al-Fiqh . . . . . . . .
1.5 The Scope of This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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The Meaning of Us.u l al-Fiqh and Basic Terms
2.1 The Literal Meaning of Fiqh . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2 Earlier General Meaning of Fiqh . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3 Later Shafiite Definition of Fiqh . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4 Analysis of the Definition of Fiqh . . . . . . . . 27
2.5 Distinctions Based on the Definition . . . . . . . 30
2.5.1
Distinction between sharah and fiqh . . 31
2.5.2 Distinction between mujtahid and faqh . 31
2.5.3 Distinction between ijtihad and taqld . . 32
2.5.4 Distinction between a muqallid and a
faqh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.6 A Wider Definition of Fiqh: Criticising the Narrow Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.6.1 What in reality is the dall tafs.l? . . . . 33
2.6.2 The legal structure of the evidences (adillah) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.6.3 Identifying the defects of the narrow
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
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2.6.4 Redefining fiqh . . . . . . . . . . . . .


Rejection of the Narrow Definition of Fiqh and
its Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8 The Meaning of As.l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.9 The Nature of the Qawaid Us.u liyyah: the Basis
of the Schools of Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.9.1 The Meaning of a School of Law . . . .
2.10 Us.u l al-Fiqh Defined: Combining the Meaning
of Fiqh and Us.u l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.11 The Nature of the Qawaid Fiqhiyyah: Are These
Evidences too? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.12 A Wider Definition of Us.u l al-Fiqh . . . . . . .
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The H
. ukm Shar

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The H
. ukm: What is Islamic Law?
3.1 The Three Elements of the H
. ukm Shar . . . . .
3.2 The Meaning of the H
. ukm Shar or the Meaning of Islamic Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 The H
. ukm TaklfObligations and Duties . . .
3.3.1
The h.ukm taklf from the perspective of
the us.u l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.2 The h.ukm taklf from the perspective of
the faqh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.3
The h.ukm taklf according to the H
. anafs
3.4 The H
ukm
Wad

Declaratory
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3.5 The Distinction Between the H
. ukm Taklf and
the H
. ukm Wad. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Classification of Rules in Islamic Law


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4.1 The Meaning of Wajib (Obligatory Act) and its
Dierent Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.1.1
The h.ukm or rule for the wajib . . . . . . 79
4.2 The Classifications of the Wajib (Obligatory Act) 80
4.2.1 Classification based on the time available for performance: mut.laq and muqayyad 81
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4.2.2

4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7

4.8
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Classification based on the extent of the


required act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.3 Classification based on the subjects who
are required to perform . . . . . . . .
4.2.4 Classification based on the identification of the object of the required act . .
The Meaning of Mandub (Recommended Act)
and its Dierent Types . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.1
Types of Mandub . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Meaning of H
. aram (Prohibited Act) and its
Dierent Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.1 The types of h.aram . . . . . . . . . . .
The Meaning of Makruh (Disapproved Act) and
its Dierent Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Meaning of Mubah. (Permitted Act) and its
Dierent Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The H
. ukm Wad. or the Declaratory Rule . . .
4.7.1
Sabab, shart. and mani . . . . . . . . .
4.7.2 S.ih.h.ah, fasad and but.lan (validity, vititation and nullity) . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7.3
Azmah and rukhs.ah (initial rules and
exemptions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Purpose of the Classification . . . . . . . .

The Lawgiver (H
. a kim)
5.1 Allah is the True Source of all Laws . . . . . . .
5.2 The Fundamental Norm of the Legal System .
5.3 The Law and the Interest of Man . . . . . . . .
5.3.1
Is Man the sole purpose of creation? . .
5.3.2 Can we employ mas.lah.ah (interest) for
new laws? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4 Are the Sharah and Natural Law Compatible?

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The Act (Mah.kum Fh)


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6.1 Defining the Mah.kum Fh . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

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6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7

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The Conditions for the Creation of Obligation


(Taklf ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.2.1 The act to be performed or avoided
must be known . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.2.2 The subject should be able to perform
the act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
The Nature of the Act (Mah.kum Fh) . . . . . . 121
Classification of the H
. ukm Taklf on the Basis
of Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Classification of Duties: Original and Substitutory 127
The Importance of the Classification of Rights
for Islamic Criminal Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Human Rights and Other Classifications . . . . . 133
6.7.1
Developing the Islamic Theory of Rights
and Duties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.7.2 The analysis of rights . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.7.3
The nature of duties in Islamic law . . . 137
6.7.4 Natural rights and rights given by the law 138

The Subject (Mah.kum Alayh)


7.1 Ahliyyah or Legal Capacity . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1.1
The two parts of legal capacity . . . . .
7.1.2
Dhimmah and legal capacity . . . . . .
7.2 The Underlying Bases of Legal Capacity . . . .
7.2.1
Insaniyyah and Aql . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.2
Mental maturity . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.3
Legal capacity and liability . . . . . . .
7.3 Complete Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.1
Legal eects of complete capacity . . .
7.3.2
The stages leading to complete legal capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4 Deficient and Imperfect Capacity . . . . . . .
7.4.1
Cases of deficient legal capacity . . . .
7.4.2 Cases of Imperfect Capacity . . . . . .

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Islamic Jurisprudence

Causes of Defective Legal Capacity


8.1 Natural Causes of Defective Capacity . . . . . .
8.1.1
Minority (s.ighar) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.2 Insanity (junun) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.3
Idiocy (atah) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.4 Sleep and fits of fainting (nawm, ighma)
8.1.5
Forgetfulness (nisyan) . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.6 Death-illness (marad. al-mawt) . . . . .
8.2 Acquired Causes of Defective Capacity . . . . . .
8.2.1 Intoxication (sukr) . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.2 Jest (hazl) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.3 Indiscretion (safah) . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.4 Coercion and duress (ikrah) . . . . . . .
8.2.5 Mistake and ignorance (khat.a, shubhah, and jahl) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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The Primary Sources of Islamic Law


The Meaning of Primary and Secondary Sources
9.1 The Meaning of Source in Islamic Law . .
9.2 The Classification of the Sources . . . . . .
9.2.1 Agreed upon and disputed sources
9.2.2 Transmitted and rational sources .
9.2.3 Definitive and probable sources . .
9.2.4 Primary and secondary sources . .
9.3 Grades of the Sources . . . . . . . . . . . .

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10 The Quran
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10.1 The Quran as the Primary Source of Law . . . . 200
10.1.1 Justification of the Quran as a source . . 202
10.1.2 The recording and revelation of the Quran 203
10.2 Legal strength and indication of ah.kam in the
Quran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
10.3 The kinds of ah.kam in the Quran . . . . . . . . 206
10.4 Can one text of the Quran abrogate another? . . 207

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11 The Sunnah
11.1 The Sunnah as a Primary Source . . . . . . . . .
11.1.1 Definition of the Sunnah . . . . . . . . .
11.1.2 Kinds of Sunnah . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1.3 Justification of the Sunnah as a source
of law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1.4 Justification of the dierent types of
Sunnah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2 Status of the Sunnah With Respect to the Quran
11.2.1 The manner in which the Sunnah lays
down the ah.kam . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2.2 Modern views about the relationship
between the Quran and the Sunnah . . .

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12 Consensus of Legal Opinion (Ijma)


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12.1 The Meaning of Ijma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
12.1.1 Technical or legal meaning . . . . . . . . 237
12.1.2 Conditions for the validity of ijma . . . 237
12.1.3 Types of ijma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
12.1.4 The legal force of ijma as a source . . . . 241
12.1.5 The sanad of ijma . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
12.1.6 Likelihood of the occurrence of ijma . . 246
12.1.7 Cases of ijma transmitted in books of fiqh 248
12.1.8 Role of ijma in the modern world . . . . 248

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The Secondary Sources of Islamic Law

13 Mas.lah.ah and the Maqas.id al-Sharah


13.1 The Meaning of Mas.lah.ah (Interest) and the
Doctrine of Utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.1.1 The Meaning of Utility and Bentham .
13.1.2 Mas.lah.ah in Islamic Law . . . . . . . .
13.2 The Classification of Mas.lah.ah . . . . . . . . .
13.2.1 First classification: mas.lah.ah acknowledged or rejected by the sharah . . . .

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13.2.2

Second classification: mas.lah.ah according to its inner strength . . . . . . . .


13.2.3 Third classification: definitive and probable interests . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2.4 Fourth classification: public and private
interests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3 The Doctrine of Mas.lah.ah and Maslah.ah Mursalah: Distinction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.4 Maqa.sid al-Sharah or the Purposes of Islamic
Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.4.1 What is beyond the purposes? . . . . .
13.4.2 Maqa.sid al-sharah and the texts . . .
13.5 The Nature and Structure of the Purposes of the
Sharah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.5.1 Primary purposes in the service of the
Hereafter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.5.2 The two faces of the maqa.sid . . . . . .
13.5.3 Primary and secondary purposes . . .
13.5.4 Priorities within the maqa.sid . . . . .
13.5.5 Mas.lah.ah, Public Interest and Human
Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14 Qiyas (Analogy)
14.1 Definition of Qiyas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.2 Elements of Qiyas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.3 Examples of Qiyas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.4 Conditions Pertaining to the Elements . . . . .
14.4.1 Conditions of the as.l or the case in the
texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.4.2 Conditions pertaining to the h.ukm of
the as.l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.4.3 Conditions pertaining to the far or new
case needing a h.ukm . . . . . . . . . .
14.4.4 Conditions pertaining to the illah and
meaning of illah . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.5 Types of Analogy (Qiyas) . . . . . . . . . . . .
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14.5.1

The first type: probable and definitive


or qat. and z.ann . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.5.2 The second type: classification according to the strength of the h.ukm established in the far . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.5.3 Qiyas jal and qiyas khaf or manifest
and concealed analogy . . . . . . . . .
14.6 Justification of qiyas as a source of Islamic law .
14.6.1 Arguments of those who uphold qiyas .
14.6.2 Arguments of those who reject qiyas . .
15 Istih.san (Juristic Preference)
15.1 The Meaning of Istih.san . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.1.1 Istih.san is a method for looking at the
consequences of a decision . . . . . . .
15.2 Examples of istih.san . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.3 Types of Istih.san . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.3.1 Distinction between the various types .
15.4 Justification of Istih.san . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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16 Istis.h.a b (Presumption of Continuity)


16.1 The Meaning of Istis.h.a b . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.2 The Principles That Form the Basis of Istis.h.a b . .
16.2.1 Types of Istis.h.a b and Their Legal Validity
16.3 Istis.h.a b al-H
. a l Cannot Establish a New Rule . . .
16.4 Istis.h.a b al-H
. a l and the Islamisation of Laws . . .

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17 Mas.lah.ah Mursalah (Extended Analogy)


17.1 The Meaning of Mas.lah.ah Mursalah . . . . . .
17.2 The Conditions for the Validity of Mas.lah.ah
Mursalah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.3 Illustrations of Mas.lah.ah Mursalah . . . . . .
17.4 The Process of Using Mas.lah.ah Mursalah . . .
17.5 Identifying Mas.lah.ah That is Gharb . . . . . .
17.6 Identifying Mas.lah.ah That is Rejected (Mulgha)
17.7 Justification of Mas.lah.ah Mursalah . . . . . . .

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18 Sadd al-Dharah (Blocking the Lawful Means to an Unlawful End)


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18.1 Types of Lawful Acts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
18.2 Disagreement of Jurists About the Legality of
the Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
19 Other Secondary Sources
19.1 Companions Opinion (Qawl al-S.ah.a b) . . . .
19.1.1 Views of those who accept it as a source
19.1.2 Views of those who do not consider it
binding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.1.3 Opinions of the Followers of the Companions (Tabiun) . . . . . . . . . . .
19.2 Shar Man Qablana (Earlier Scriptures) . . . .
19.2.1 Types of earlier laws . . . . . . . . . .
19.2.2 Reason why the earlier laws are not
binding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.3 Custom (Urf ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.3.1 Types of urf . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.3.2 Can the Western laws obtaining in Pakistan be treated as custom? . . . . . . .

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Ijtihad (Interpretation)

20 The Meaning of Ijtihad and its Modes


20.1 The Meaning of Ijtihad . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.2 Ijtihad is not Independent of the Quran and the
Sunnah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.3 The Task of the Mujtahid . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.4 Basic Assumptions Made by the Mujtahid . . .
20.5 Texts That are not Subject to Ijtihad . . . . . .
20.6 The Three Modes of Ijtihad . . . . . . . . . . .
20.6.1 The first mode . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.6.2 The second mode . . . . . . . . . . .
20.6.3 The third mode . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.7 The Complete Process of Ijtihad . . . . . . . .
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20.8 The H
. ukm of Ijtihad and its Types . . . . . . .
20.9 The Qualifications of the Mujtahid . . . . . . .
20.9.1 Who is a mujtahid today? . . . . . . .
20.10 Ijtihad a Legislative Function: The Need for an
Islamic Theory of Legislation . . . . . . . . . .

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21 The First Mode of Ijtihad: Interpreting the Texts


21.1 The Concept of Bayan (Elaboration) . . . . . . .
21.1.1 Bayan taqrr (complementary expression or elaboration) . . . . . . . . . . .
21.1.2 Bayan tafsr (enabling expression) . . . .
21.1.3 Bayan taghyr (elaboration by exception)
21.1.4 Bayan tabdl (conditional expression) . .
21.1.5 Bayan d.arurah (elaboration by necessity)
21.2 Literal Interpretation of the Texts . . . . . . . .
21.2.1 The structure of interpretation . . . . .
21.2.2 The four general literal methods of establishing the ah.kam (dalalat) . . . . . .
21.2.3 The literal methods of establishing the
ah.kam practised by the Shafis . . . . .
21.2.4 Amr (command) and nahy (proscription): the nature and type of h.ukm established . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.2.5 The number or categories aected by
the h.ukm: amm; kha.s.s; mushtarak; and
muawwal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.2.6 The clarity or ambiguity with which the
h.ukm is established . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.2.7 The eect of the use of words in the actual or metaphorical meanings . . . . .

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22 The Second Mode of Ijtihad: Reasoning by Analogy


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22.1 Moving From the First Mode of Ijtihad to the
Second . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
22.2 The Methods of Discovering the Underlying
Cause (Masalik al-Illah) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410

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22.2.1

Discovering the cause in the new case:


tah.qq al-mana.t . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
22.3 Analogy and the Modern Jurist . . . . . . . . . . 413
23 The Third Mode of Ijtihad: Employing the Maqas.id alSharah
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23.1 Moving From the Second Mode of Ijtihad to the
Third: the Illah and the H
. ikmah . . . . . . . . . 416
23.2 The Interplay Between General Principles and
the Maqa.sid al-Sharah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
23.3 A Value Oriented Jurisprudence . . . . . . . . . 420
23.3.1 Distinction between the value system in
Islamic law and Western jurisprudence . 422
23.4 Mas.lah.ah and the Modern Jurist . . . . . . . . . 423
24 Abrogation (Naskh) and Preference (Tarjh.)
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24.1 The Doctrine of Abrogation (Naskh) . . . . . . . 426
24.1.1 Examples of repealing and overriding laws 427
24.1.2 The wisdom behind the doctrine of abrogation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
24.1.3 Distinction between naskh (abrogation)
and takhs..s (restriction) . . . . . . . . . 428
24.1.4 Types of abrogation . . . . . . . . . . . 429
24.1.5 The attributes of the abrogating and abrogated evidences . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
24.2 Justification for the Doctrine of Abrogation . . . 430
24.2.1 Comparing the Impact of Abrogation
and Restriction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
24.3 The Rules of Preference (Tarjh.) . . . . . . . . . 432
24.3.1 Reconciliation (jam) . . . . . . . . . . . 433

V The Faqh and His Methodology

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25 Taqld as a Methodology
439
25.1 Taqld as a Basis for the Islamic Theory of Adjudication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
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Imran Ahsan Khan Nyazee

xii

Islamic Jurisprudence

Contents

25.2
25.3
25.4
25.5

The Literal Meaning of Taqld . . . . . . . . . . 442


The Technical Meanings of Taqld . . . . . . . . 442
The H
. ukm of Taqld and Ijtihad . . . . . . . . . 443
Taqld in Law is an Exemption from the General
Rule of Prohibition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
25.6 Taqld in the Pakistani Legal System . . . . . . . 446
25.7 Taqld and the Islamic Legal System . . . . . . . 446
25.7.1 The grades of the jurists . . . . . . . . . 448
25.7.2 The mujtahid and the faqh . . . . . . . 450
25.8 The Layman Moving From One School to Another 452
26 The Sources of Islamic Law for the Faqh
26.1 The Task of the Faqh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.2 The Output/Result of Ijtihad is a Source for the
Faqh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.3 The Established Principles of Islamic Law are a
Source for the Faqh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.3.1 Principles stated explicitly or impliedly
in the texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.3.2 Principles derived by the jurist from a
number of existing cases in the law . . .
26.3.3 Examples of principles from al-Dabbus .
26.4 Al-Dabbus on the Methodology of the Faqh . .
26.5 The Faqh May Formulate a New Principle if it
Meets the Prescribed Conditions . . . . . . . . .
26.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

455
457
458
461
461
464
466
470
472
472

21 Select Bibliography

473

21 Detailed Bibliography

477

22 Glossary

515

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Advanced Legal Studies Institute

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