PERCEIVED RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LANGUAGE CHOICE AND

ADVERTISMENT EFFECTIVENESS AMONG ADVERTISING AGENCIES IN KENYA

BY
IRENE MARY WANGUI

A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE

ACADEMIC REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A DEGREE OF MASTER OF
BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION, SCHOOL OF BUSINESS, UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

2013

DECLARATION
Candidates Declaration
This research project is my original work and not a duplicate from anywhere else and has not
been presented for a degree or diploma award to any university.
Signature Date

Supervisors Declaration
This project has been submitted for examination with my approval as the University candidates
supervisor.

Signature . Date.
Name: Professor Francis Kibera

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my sincere thanks to the almighty God for his sufficient grace and
knowledge that has enabled me to accomplish this project. This project would not have been
possible without the kind support and help of family, especially my mother, Florence Nyawira,
and the many respondents who took their time to assist in the study. I wish to extend my sincere
thanks to all of them.

In addition I acknowledge the valuable guidance from my supervisor Professor Francis Kibera
who made it possible for me to complete this research. His constant guidance and willingness to
share his vast knowledge helped me to complete this task.

Although there may be many who remain unacknowledged in this humble note of gratitude there
are none who remain unappreciated.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION............................................................................................................... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT...iii
LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................... viiii
LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................... viii
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ........................................................................ ix
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 1
1.1 Background of the Study............................................................................................... 1
1.1.1 The Concept of Perception............................................................................... 2
1.1.2 Advertising Language ...................................................................................... 2
1.1.3 Advertising Effectiveness ................................................................................ 4
1.1.4 Advertising Agencies in Kenya ....................................................................... 5
1.2 Research Problem ......................................................................................................... 5
1.3 Objectives of the Study ................................................................................................. 7
1.4 Value of the Study......................................................................................................... 7
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................ 9
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 9
2.2 Theoretical Foundation of the Study............................................................................. 9
2.3 Language ..................................................................................................................... 10
2.3.1 Language Choice in Advertising ................................................................... 12
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2.4 Factors Influencing Language Choice in Advertising ................................................ 13

2.4.1 Cultural Factors .............................................................................................. 13
2.4.2 Target Audience ............................................................................................. 13
2.4.3 Gender Factors ............................................................................................... 14
2.5 Relationship Between Language Choice and Advertising .......................................... 15
2.6 Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................... 17
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................................. 19
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 19
3.2 Research Design.......................................................................................................... 19
3.3 Target Population ........................................................................................................ 19
3.4 Data Collection Methods ............................................................................................ 19
3.5 Data Analysis Techniques........................................................................................... 20
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS, RESULTS, AND DISCUSSION ............... 21
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 21
4.2 Demographic Information ........................................................................................... 21
4.2.1 Gender of the Respondents ......................................................................... 21
4.2.2 Designation of the Respondents.................................................................. 22
4.2.3 Respondents Years Spent in the Company ................................................. 23
4.2.4 Number of Employees in the Agency ......................................................... 24
4.2.5 Ownership of the Firms .............................................................................. 24
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4.2.6 The Perceived Relationship between Language Choice and Advertisement

Effectiveness among Advertising Agencies in Kenya ............. ...25
4.3 Discussion on Findings ............................................................................................... 28
4.3.1 Discussion on Perceived Relationship between Language Choice and
Advertisement Effectiveness among Advertising Agencies in Kenya. ............... 28
CHAPTER FIVE:SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS30
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 30
5.2 Summary of Findings .................................................................................................. 30
5.3 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 31
5.5 Recommendations for Improvement........................................................................... 31
5.6 Recommendations for Further Studies........................................................................ 32
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................ 33
APPENDIX 1: LIST OF ADVERTISING COMPANIES IN KENYA ........................ I
APPEDNIX 2: QUESTIONNAIRE................................................................................ II

vi

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure2.1: Conceptual Framework ................................................................................... 18

vii

LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1: Gender.............................................................................................................. 21
Table 4.2: Respondents Age. ............................................................................................ 22
Table 4.3: Respondents Years Spent in the Company. ..................................................... 23
Table 4.4: Number of Employees in the Agency. ............................................................. 24
Table 4.5: Ownership of the Agency. ............................................................................... 25
Table 4.6: Perceived Relationship between Language Choice and Advertisement
Effectiveness among Advertising Agencies in Kenya ........................................ 26

viii

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

AMA:

American Marketing Association

APA:

Advertising Practitioners Association

IMC:

Integrated Marketing Communications

SPSS:

Statistical Package for Social Sciences

ix

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study
The growth of international business, combined with an increase in the amount of advertising
activity around the world, underscores the importance of understanding advertising effectiveness
in international markets. In recent years, the economy has grown on a remarkable scale and
attracted investors from around the world. This growth rate has produced a significant modern
consumer who is sophisticated, careful, and fickle (Li, 1998). Advertising and marketing
communication messages are usually targeted at a consumer with a view to generating interest in
a product or service and ultimately causing action of purchase or elicit behavioral change. The
process of developing advertising messages therefore involves a close understanding of different
forms of linguistic typologies with a view to deploy the right language for the specified purpose
(Harris and Heldon, 2002).
As in many other African countries, Kenyas population consists of people of different ethnic
backgrounds, who speak different languages as their mother tongue. Kiswahili and English are
languages widely spoken in the Country. Both are considered Kenyas official languages and are
widely used in schools, government, and private institutions (Whiteley, et. al, 1974). Kenya is
also a host to thousands of expatriate workers from around the African Continent and the World,
who are permanently or semi-permanently based in the Country, and speak different languages.
By virtue of this fact, Kenya is a multilingual society. Advertising to such a population is a
complex decision making marketing issue. Language is an important component in advertising
as it acts as a carrier of the advertisement message. Advertisers must therefore continually adjust
their language to conform to changes in the competitive world of business.
1

1.1.1 The Concept of Perception

Perception is defined as the process by which an individual selects, organizes, and interprets
stimuli into a meaningful and coherent picture of the world (Botha, et.al, 2005). Two individuals
may be exposed to the same stimuli under the same apparent conditions, but how each person
recognizes, selects, organizes, and interprets these stimuli is highly an individual process based
on each persons own needs, values, and expectations (Schifman, Kanuk, 2005). Perception in
marketing is crucial because what consumers feel and believe about a product can be just as
important as what that product actually delivers in terms of performance (Schifman, Kanuk,
2005). It is therefore important for advertisers to ensure the perception of their products creates a
positive image in the minds of consumers.
Advertisers must also ensure consistency in their messaging in order for the concept of
perception to work in their favour. Consistency in messaging enhances consumers trust in the
advertisers message (Ebert, 2010). If consumers believe from an advertisement that they can
rely on the products being sold, they are likely to purchase the product. Advertisers must
therefore make an informed decision on the language in which to deliver the message in order to
engender those feelings of trust (Ebert, 2010).
1.1.2 Advertising Language
Although advertising is defined in many different ways, the essential points concerning its
meaning may be summarized as follows: Advertising is a kind of extensive communication of
information usually highly paid for and strongly persuasive by nature (Abert 1992). (Harris and
Heldon, 2002) states that advertising refers to a public notice designed to spread information
with a view to promoting the sales of marketable goods and services. The American Marketing
2

Association (AMA) (1992) defines advertising as the non-personal communication of

information usually paid for and usually persuasive in nature about products, services or ideas by
identified sponsors through the various media.
Language is one of the most important and characteristic forms of human behavior. Indeed,
sociolinguists believe that 'speaking' is almost always a social act. This is because much of the
variation in speech habits can be seen as related to some social phenomena. Language has
therefore always had a place either in the academic or business world. Of a fact, language has
even intruded upon scientific and technological problems so much so that the engineers and
scientists of today cannot afford to ignore its benefits including in the field of advertising (Dada,
2004).
According to Barthel (2003), language choice matters a lot in advertising in creating a
relationship between the product and the meaning or the value it brings to its buyer. An increased
focus on the consequences of globalization for consumers imposes the need to improve the
current understanding of how the globalization of advertising language influences consumer
response to advertising messages (Puntoni, Langhe, and Osselaer 2009). In many countries, a
consumer environment has become increasingly prevalent. Well developed and wealthy
countries such as Canada, France, and the United States have a large population that is fluent in
one foreign language, typically English or French, as well as at least one local or native language
(Luna and Peracchio 2001; Krishna and Ahluwalia 2008). In a bilingual environment, language
is a crucial tool for marketers to communicate their advertising messages to consumers (Luna,
Ringberg, and Peracchio 2008).

1.1.3 Advertising Effectiveness

There are at least three distinct dimensions of measuring advertising effectiveness. The first
aspect of advertising effectiveness is the question of cognitive distortion which entails in any
communication process (Sheth, 1973). The spontaneous messages generated during a consumers
thought process can alter the interpretation of the factual information and affect the attitude and
behaviour of a consumer towards products featured in the advertisement communication. The
second aspect of advertising effectiveness is related to measuring its influence on the choice
processes of consumers (Sheth, 1973). Advertising makes an impact on consumption behaviour
by acting as a triggering cue for habitual behaviour learned from prior repetitive exposure to
information (Sheth, 1973). Advertising also advertising influences the consumer's choice process
by systematically biasing him toward an alternative. This is usually done through attitude change
and related cognitive process (Sheth, 1973). Advertising effectiveness can also be measured by
how much adverts increase the consumption behaviour of consumers. The focus here is not on
the choice process given numerous alternatives such as brands and types of products, but rather
on the process by which people become consumers or increase their level of consumption of a
specific product or service (Sheth, 1973).
The core of advertising effectiveness is the question of how it influences the consumer in making
a biased choice in favour of one alternative over other alternatives (Sheth, 1973). There are two
distinct mechanisms by which advertising contributes toward a consumer's biased choice. The
first is the persuasion mechanism in which advertising induces the consumer to incorporate both
cognitive and non-cognitive elements in his choice process so as to produce the desired effect of

making a biased choice(Sheth, 1973).. The second mechanism is the reinforcement mechanism
in which advertising legitimizes, facilitates and rationalizes the choice behaviour (Sheth, 1973).
1.1.4 Advertising Agencies in Kenya
Kenya has a vibrant and active advertising sector regulated by the Advertising Practitioners
Association (APA). The association is tasked with accrediting advertising agencies and ensuring
ethics and professionalism in the advertising sector. To attain APA recognition, advertising
agencies are required to meet rigorous criterion focusing on financial operations, professional
management, and ethical operating standards. APA has 15 agencies in its membership register
(see appendix 1). Media in Kenya is broadly classified as private media, the public state
broadcaster, community radio, religious stations, and international media and new media (Oriare,
Mshindi, 2008).Media content is primarily news and information, educational and entertainment
programmes, religious programmes, music, and advertising done in different languages to suit
the target audience. Advertising is a key revenue source for the media and it is therefore not
surprising that content from media stations is saturated with messages from advertisers. The
advertising expenditures on radio, TV, newspapers and cinema has been growing since 2003
when sponsors spent Sh6.6 billion, Sh8.4 billion in 2004, 9.3 billion in 2005, Sh13.6 billion in
2006 and 17.4 billion in 2007 (Steadman Group, 2007)
1.2 Research Problem
Regarding language in advertising, international and cross-cultural advertisers continue to
struggle to find the best language medium through which to reach their target audiences (Bishop,
2006). The concept of classic positioning implies employing a single language in advertising,
and suggests that companies should ignore superficial regional and national differences, and treat
5

the world as one homogenous marketplace. It is also very expensive to target every ethnic group
within a region with an individualized advertisement campaign in their ethnic language (Bishop,
2006). Advertisers are often therefore required to make standardization versus localization
decisions after conducting a cost-benefit analysis of each situation (Bishop, 2006)
A majority of Kenyas population is fluent in in at least one ethnic language, Kiswahili, as well
as English. The choice of language for advertising is important, specifically to multinational
corporations setting up in Kenya, which need to make decisions on whether to communicate
their message in the local language or mixed languages (Mooij, 2005). Local companies are also
faced with the complexity of whether to incorporate local languages in their advertisements
given the high levels of negative ethnicity and tribalism in Kenya, as evidenced by past ethnic
clashes and tensions between different tribal communities.
There exists little research in Kenya on the relationship between language choice and advertising
effectiveness. Perryb and Nevetta (2008) conducted an exploratory investigation in Kenya into
the effect of an advertising presenter's tribal identity on the way he/she is perceived by audience
members. It was hypothesized that the presenter's tribe could affect the likelihood of an audience
member's purchasing the product being advertised, and that this effect could be positive or
negative, depending on the tribes of the presenter and the audience member. Thati (2011) seeks
to identify the competitive strategies used by advertising agencies in Kenya. Nanjom (2002)
examines the Factors and challenges in advertising agencies broadcast media planning: the case
of convenience consumer goods in Kenya to determine whether the factors that are currently
considered by advertising agencies in broadcast media planning are different from preliberalization, and to determine the challenges faced by advertising agencies in broadcast media
6

planning. The proposed study will answer the following question: what is the perceived
relationship between language choice and advertising effectiveness among advertising agencies
in Kenya?
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The objective of the study will be to determine the perceived relationship between language
choice and advertisement effectiveness among advertising agencies in Kenya
1.4 Value of the Study
Advertising is a vitally important force in the modern market (Tellis, 2004). Advertising has
become a pervasive phenomenon accosting consumers with messages at every moment, through
TV programs, billboards, internet sites, classrooms, and office space (Tellis, 2004).
Advertisements therefore have the power to greatly affect the thoughts, attitudes, decisions, and
feelings of consumers. Advertising is also a major means of competition among firms, and the
primary means by which forms inform the consumer of new or improved products (Tellis, 2004).
Companies ranging from large multinational corporations to small retailers, increasingly rely on
advertising to communicate with the consumers and to sell their porducts (Trehan, 2006).
Customers have also began to give

importance to advertising while making purchasing

decisions. Evidence of the increasing importance of advertising is reflected in the increasing

expenditure on advertising by most business units (Trehan, 2006).
In this case, the study will be significant to advertising practitioners in Kenya who wish to
develop well researched advertising pitches to their clients. Managers in the said companies may
use the results obtained in understanding what language choice characteristics they may adopt

and how language choice bears on the effectiveness of their advertisements and their ability to
persuade consumers.
The study would also be important to policy makers in the advertising industry as it can be used
to guide regulations on the use of language in advertisements. The study would also be of benefit
to other researchers and academicians exploring in the same area. In this case the findings of this
study would form the basis of their arguments in the area of language use in advertising.

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the literature reviewed on the effect of language choice in advertising. The
sections presented therefore provide the views and arguments from other researchers and
academicians who undertook their studies in the same area.
2.2 Theoretical Foundation of the Study
Advertising is a marketing communications method designed to spread information with a view
to promoting the sales of marketable goods and services (Harris and Heldon, 2002). As such,
advertising is a component of the promotion category (also referred to as communications mix)
of the marketing mix, and is considered as a means of informing, persuading, and instructing
consumers on various products and services (Riku, 2003). In the marketing promotion mix
communications components like advertising, sales promotion, public relations and personal
selling are required in order to reach the selected target audiences with the desired message
(Riku, 2003). The process of message creation, planning and implementing different
communications tools needs to be integrated in order to achieve these objectives (Riku, 2003).
The marketing communications concept that has been created for this purpose is commonly
referred to as Integrated Marketing Communications (IMC) theory, which works under the
concept of communication (Riku, 2003). The purpose of IMC is for a company to communicate
with its target audience by all means available to it in a controlled and unified fashion. A
communications process takes place when a person or an entity, sends a message to a person or a
selected target audience by encoding it into a desired symbolic form such as an advertisement,
and by using the appropriate media to carry the message to its destination (Riku, 2003). The
9

target audience of the message act as receivers who decode the message thus forming a thought
in the receiver's mind. The encoding, decoding, and understanding of a message in the desired
way is always threatened by channel noise. This noise can be inform of any distracting element
that makes the mental processes of coding and decoding more difficult (Riku, 2003) .
Accommodation theory examines language behaviour and interactions in various settings and
media, including speech, broadcasting, and human-computer interaction. The theory predicts that
the more effort a bilingual speaker is perceived to put into accommodating listeners who speak a
different language, the more positively the message would be perceived by those from a different
ethnic group. In consumer research, accommodation theory provides useful insights on how
consumers perceive and respond to language use in advertising communication (Koslow, et.al,
1994). Accommodation theory predicts that consumers would react positively to the use of ethnic
languages in advertisement. This is because consumers attribute the use of ethnic language to
respect and awareness of local culture by the advertiser (Koslow, et.al, 1994). Use of local and
ethnic languages also evokes positive, affective, cognitive, and behavioural responses towards
the advertisement. Accommodation theory can therefore provide useful indications of how
consumers of different ethnic languages perceive an advertiser and respond to the message
(Koslow, et.al, 1994).
2.3 Language
Language is one of the most important and characteristic forms of human behaviour.
Sociolinguists believe that 'speaking' is almost always a social act. Language is defined as a
rule-governed system of symbols that allows the users to generate meaning and in the process, to
define reality (Dada, 2004). This implies that language is made up of sound, grammar, semantics
10

and social context. Language is the major means by which human being communicates. In
communication, language is used to reveal the self, to express feelings and values, and to convey
meaningful message (Dada, 2004). Language, when used effectively, can hold peoples interest. It
can also persuade people to act (Arokoyo, 2011). Successful advertisements must therefore make
a useful and lasting impression through language. The language of advertisement, is generally
laudatory, positive, unreserved and emphasizing the uniqueness of a product (Arokoyo, 2011).
According to Cappellini (2005), language has at least five functions in the society. These
functions are expressive, phatic, informational, aesthetic and directive. The expressive function
of language expresses the speakers or writers feelings and attitudes. The phatic function is used
to keep communication lines open and also to maintain social relationships by fostering cohesion
within social groups. Language performs informational function to convey information. The
directive function of language aims at directing or influencing the behaviour or attitudes of
others (Arokoyo, 2011). Language performing aesthetic function is designed to please the senses
through actual or imagined sounds and through metaphor (Arokoyo, 2011).
Where media studies are concerned, the term language is often used to refer to more than just
verbal language (Kodak, et. al 2013). Language therefore involves all ways in which human
beings communicate including flags, smoke signals, religious ceremonies and images (Kodak, et.
al 2013). In studying the manipulation of Kenyan television viewers through the modes of
signification in television advertisements, Kodak, Matu, and Oketch (2013) used the Multimodal
discourse analysis theory which extends the study of language to include other resources, such as
images, scientific symbolism, gesture, action, soundtracks and music. When one watches, reads,
or listens to advertisements on different media platforms, verbal, visual, and audio entities come
11

into the viewers eyes and ears as images. In measuring the effect of language on advertising,
one must therefore take into consideration all aspects of language including visual images.
2.3.1 Language Choice in Advertising
Language is an important means of presenting information in the society in general and in
advertisements in particular. It is the principal means used by humans to communicate with one
another (Arokoyo, 2011). The functions of language are related to various advertisement
objectives. Broadly speaking, an advertisement has at least one of two functions: informing or
persuading, though overlapping may often take place in one single piece. Informative
advertisements inform customers about goods, services, or ideas and then tell people how to get
them by means of an identified sponsor (Bolen, 2000). An advertisement of this type supplies
basic, factual information and sometimes shows a photo or an illustration of the product/service
to give the target audience a better view of the advertised product. Persuasive advertisements are
the instruments used by advertisers to achieve an effect with the target audience through
influencing their perspective on a product or service.
In advertisements, language performs informative function as it informs the audience about new
products and services. The language of advertisement also performs expressive function because
the choice of words of the advertiser is meant to affect the attitudes of the audience towards the
advertised products or services (Arokoyo, 2011). The language used in advertisement also plays
a phatic role (Arokoyo, 2011). Some of the advertisements come in such a way that people can
identify with particular social groups or keep social relationships. It also implicitly has directive
function as it aims at getting the addressee to do something; which is to respond to the message
of the advert (Arokoyo, 2011).
12

2.4 Factors 1nfluencing Language Choice in Advertising

Kenya is made up of diverse societies, consisting of a wide range of individuals from different
ethnic and cultural backgrounds. The social construct of Kenyas multilingual consumers is
therefore different from that of monolingual consumers. The language of offering therefore
vastly impacts the consumers' thinking process. According to Noreiga & Blair (2008), an
advertisement in a consumers native language is more likely to elicit self-referent thoughts
about family, friends, home or homeland, which in turn may lead to more positive attitude
measures and behavioural intentions. Furthermore, these effects are moderated by the
consumption context present in the advertisement.
2.4.1 Cultural Factors
Van Bakel (2001) agrees that advertising mirrors a culture, and thus, it should reflect the
dominant tone of a culture. For example, nudity in advertising is normal in France, may be
questionable in America, while it is forbidden in the Arab Muslim world (apud Sheehan, 2004).
Therefore, nudity in French advertisements is possible, but it is completely ruled out in the
Muslim context.
2.4.2 Target audience
For successful communication to take place, the audiences must be taken into consideration in
the advertising process because what is appropriate for one audience may be unsuitable for
another (Sheehan, 2004: 85). Audiences belonging to different backgrounds, societies, customs
and religions, interpret the advertising messages differently and use culture differently as well.
Moreover, it is obvious that language may change when the audiences differ in the social or
educational status (Leech, 2003). In other words, when addressing different audiences, social
13

factors such as, age, education, gender as well as other external components, should be taken into
consideration. For example, in the Moroccan context, TV and Magazines advertisements are
addressed to different audiences and are using a different language and discourse. The reason is
that the audience of magazines is expected to be more educated and seems to belong to a
different social class than TVs audiences.
There are those who follow the dictates of media culture by following the dominant fashion,
values and behaviour, and there is another group who resists dominant forms of culture and
identity, creating their own style and identities (Kellner, 1995: 2-6). The second group in my
opinion is more resistant and cannot be easily influenced by the advertising manipulations. Stuart
Ewen (apud Jhally, 1995) suggests that there are two worlds corresponding to the previous two
audiences; there is a world of substance where real power rests and where people live their real
lives, and there is a world of style and surface where audiences easily submit to consumerism
because of their social and cultural education.
2.4.3 Gender Factors
Society has an effective and strong role in socializing human beings. It is society which gives
rise to the various beliefs and attitudes adopted by both males and females. In this case also holds
the role of the language of gender as very important to clarify the language used in advertising
and the impact it has on women and men. Everyones knowledge about the world includes all of
the old gender stereotypes as tacit or implicit beliefs. The stereotypes include personality traits,
role behaviour, physical appearance and occupations (Beall & Sternberg, 1993).
Language is laden with socio-cultural senses and interpretations. It is far from having a passive
function in society; such as just reflecting the social life as it is. Conversely, language is a
14

powerful means that may determine the repressive, regressive or progressive behaviour of any
given society. It works according to the values and customs of a specific culture, and it also
depends on its religious, political and economic variables. As such, it is a very active and
dynamic tool that functions differently across cultures.
Therefore, it is believed that gender is socially constructed and is reinforced by cultural forces;
however, gender contents may differ across cultures. Beall (1993) argues that across cultures,
ones biological sex does not necessarily imply that one will engage in certain activities or that
people will believe that one possesses certain attributes. She goes on to say that some cultures
perceive more than one gender, and cultures vary in their beliefs about the nature of males and
females (1993). This means that cultures are rich and curiously different from each other.
The theory of linguistic determinism suggests that the language of a culture shapes the way its
speakers see the world which means that if language is sexist, speakers will see and conceive the
world in a sexist way (Mills, 1995).Consequently, language rather than simply reflecting society,
actually brings about and shapes changes in the way we see and think (Mills, 1995).
2.5 Relationship Between Language Choice and Advertising
Multi-linguals choice of language in different environments is charged with social meaning, and
an indication of how they perceive themselves at that time, or how they wish to be perceived by
others (Luna & Perachio, 2005). Studies have found that language choice makes a difference in
levels of acceptance, feelings of accommodation, and a general relatedness that is facilitated by
the familiarity with the language (Noriega, et.al, 2008).

15

Globalization has prompted the growth of multilingual advertising, which is essentially used to
tap into a larger consumer base by reaching different linguistic communities (Mooij 2005). With
over 47 languages in use in Kenya, (Whitely, 1974) advertisers are faced with a dilemma of
which language to pick for their ad campaigns, to reach a maximum target audience. While it is
easier for multinational companies and global brands to use English as the main language, local
companies and smaller brands often advertise in local languages. Multilingual cultures that use
English as a second language have generalizable language related associations (Mooij, 2005).
The use of English in advertisements suggests modernity, sophistication, and a cosmopolitan
identity (Bhatia, 2000) However, primary languages such as Luhya and Kipsigis are likely to
have high levels of belongingness associations, which connote a strong sense of in-group
associations (Senanu, Williams, 1995). The use of Swahili is seen as transcending tribalism, and
therefore a symbol of national unity and patriotism.
Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf (1921) hypothesized that the way people think is
strongly affected by their native languages. This implies that the worldview of people depends
on the structure and characteristic of the language they speak. Users of different grammar are led
by their grammars towards different types of observations and evaluations of similar acts.
Advertisers in multilingual societies often face a difficulty in translating copy which includes
cultural values; as such values cannot be translated. Language choice is therefore crucial in
advertising to multilingual societies.
One marketing strategy thought to influence bilingual consumers is the use of code-switching in
advertising. Code-switching is defined as the alternating use of two or more languages, or the
insertion of a foreign word or expression into a sentence, resulting in a mixed language message
16

(Auer, 2013). Bilinguals and multilingual use and encounter code-switching daily, which
activates language specific associations and attitudes towards a certain language (Noriega, et.al,
2008). Message recall, the perception of advertisers cultural sensitivity, empathy, and
responsiveness can be enhanced through the use of code-switching in communication among
bilingual individuals (Noriega, et.al, 2008). .
An adequate consideration of the interpretation of advertisements cannot be done based purely
on semantic interpretation without making recourse to semiotics, which is the study of meaning,
derived from linguistic and non-linguistic forms of communication (Danesi, 2007). It examines
symbols, signs and images, pictures, diagrams, as communicative artifacts. Advertisements
generally adopt semiotic elements as a base to effect non-verbal communication. In billboards
and print adverts, images are used to provide a background for the entire advertisement,
accompanied by a slogan of the advertiser's choice (Dada, 2010). Visual content and design in
advertising have a very great impact on the consumer, but it is language that helps people to
identify a product and remember it (Dada, 2010).
2.6 Conceptual Framework
A conceptual framework was used in research to outline possible courses of action or to present a
preferred approach to an idea or thought.Conceptual frameworks can act like maps that give
coherence to empirical inquiry. Because conceptual frameworks are potentially so close to
empirical inquiry, they take different forms depending upon the research question or problem
(Botha, 1989). The conceptual framework derived from a review of the literature (Figure 2.1):

17

Figure2.1: Conceptual Framework ( Source: Author)

Types of languages

Language
Affect

Choice

Advertising

Factors influencing choice

Culture & Social
Factors
Gender
Target audience
Product
Characteristic
Independent Variables

Dependent variable

18

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the research methodology that was used in the study. It provides a general
framework for the research. The section presents details of the research design, target population,
sample and sampling procedures, description of research instruments, description of reliability of
instruments, data collection procedures and data analysis techniques.
3.2 Research Design
The research study was carried out using a cross sectional survey. It involved data collection
from client service personnel using questionnaires. The questionnaires had items meant to pick
personnel language preference in the creation of advertisements, and their perception on the
effectiveness of languages chosen in communicating advertising messages, The method is
appropriate because it enabled capturing the current situation in the advertising industry in
Kenya by speaking to those directly involved in the crafting of advertising messages.
3.3 Target Population
The study targeted 15 advertising agencies in Nairobi, who are members of the Advertising
Practitioners Association (APA). Responses were sought from 15 client service executives who
were expected to be a representative sample of teams involved in the development of advertising
messages within the agencies
3.4 Data Collection Methods
The study employed both primary and secondary data. Primary data was gathered by structured
questionnaires. Information on various variables affecting advertising effectiveness as viewed by
advertisers when selecting language to use in the advertising message were collected.
19

Secondary data was obtained from records in the companies websites, the Communications
Commission of Kenya, APA, written sources such as text books, journals, magazines, and
reports from various marketing and advertising regulatory organizations. The internet also
provided some useful data.
3.5 Data Analysis Techniques
To achieve the objective of the study, the data collected was edited, arranged, summarized and
coded for analysis. Quantitative analysis techniques such as descriptive statistics cross
tabulations and bar graphs were used to analyze the data to determine the perception on the
relationship between factors influencing advertising effectiveness and the choice of language.

20

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS, RESULTS, AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the results of the analysis. From the 15 questionnaires distributed, all were
collected and used in the study. This shows that the response rate was 100%. The findings are
based on these responses as presented in this chapter. First, the sample characteristics are shown
followed by a presentation of the results based on the study objectives.
4.2 Demographic Information
This section presents the findings on the general information and characteristics of the
respondents.
4.2.1 Gender of the Respondents
The study found that 53.3% of the respondents were female while the remaining 46.7% were
males. This shows that majority of the respondents in the study were female. The results are
summarized and presented in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Gender.
Cumulative
Gender

Frequency

Percent

Percent

Male

46.7

46.7

Female

53.3

100.0

Total

15

100.0

Source: Research data

21

This is an indication that the advertising agencies are dominated by women. However it is
important to note that the gender ratio as per government regulations has been surpassed. This
should be evident in the quality of decisions made in designing advertisements.
4.2.2 Designation of the Respondents
The study revealed that 60% of the respondents were managers, 6.7% were heads of departments
and 33.33% were other staff. This is an indication that they can give reliable responses for the
study. These results are summarized and presented in Table 4.2.
The results imply that majority of the respondents were mangers responsible for designing and
managing advertisements.
Table 4.2: Respondents Designation.
Cumulative
Designation

Frequency

Percent

Percent

Manager

60

60.0

Head of Department

6.7

66.7

Other Staff

33.33 100.0

Total

43

100.0

Source: Research data

The inclusion of managers, heads of departments and other staff in the study brings in a diversity
of opinions in the perceived relationship between language choice and advertisement
effectiveness among advertising agencies in Kenya.

22

4.2.3 Respondents Years Spent in the Company

In terms of the years that the respondents have been at the agencies, the study found that 46.7%
had spent between 2-4 years at the respective agencies. Another 33.3% had spent between 5-10
years, 6.7% had spent over 10 years while 13.3% had spent below 2 years. These results are
summarized and presented in Table 4.3. The results imply that majority of the respondents had
spent between 2-10 years at their agencies.
Table 4.3: Respondents Years Spent in the Company.
Years Spent in the Company

Frequency

Percent

Cumulative Percent

Below 2 Years

13.3

13.3

2-4 Years

46.7

60.0

5-10 Years

33.3

93.3

Above 10 Years

6.7

100.0

Total

15

100.0

Source: Research data

The duration of years spent at the agencies points to the fact that most of the respondents have
an in-depth knowledge of the study subject. They have great experience and thus easily
understood the issues that arose in the questionnaire concerning the area of study. Given the
duration of years spent, the respondents also clearly understood the ethics of research and thus
were expected to give honest and informative responses which would add to the credibility of the
final research findings and report.

23

4.2.4 Number of Employees in the Agency

The study further revealed that 66.7% of the agencies have over 100 employees while the rest
have between 50-100 employees. This clearly shows they are well established firms with a large
client base. The number of empoyees in an agency has a great impact on the responses they
provide as they have a better understanding of what has been the challenges affecting language
and effectiveness of advertisement campaigns. The high number of employees implies the
agencies cover a wide area of the country thus intercating with diverse languages. This way they
can design campaigns that target specific language offerings in different parts of the country and
thus increase effectivenes of the advertisements. These results are summarized and presented in
Table 4.4.
Table 4.4: Number of Employees in the Agency.
Number of Employees

Frequency

Percent

50-100

33.3

Over 100

10

66.7

Total

15

100.0

Cumulative Percent
33.3
100.0

Source: Research data

4.2.5 Ownership of the Firms
The study has revealed that 46.7% of the agencies have both local and foreign investors in their
ownership structure. Another 40% are locally owned while the remaining 13.3% are
multinationals operating in the country. This clearly shows that the controllers of decisions in the
industry are indigenous and thus understand the market dynamics especially with regard
language and its effect on advertisement. These results are further summarized and presented in
24

table 4.5 for more clarity.

Table 4.5: Ownership of the Agency.
Ownership

Frequency

Percent

Cumulative Percent

Local

40.0

40.0

Multinational

13.3

53.3

Local

46.7

100.0

15

100.0

&

Foreign

Investors
Total
Source: Research data
4.2.6 The Perceived Relationship between Language Choice and Advertisement
Effectiveness among Advertising Agencies in Kenya
In order to investigate the perceived relationship between language choice and advertisement
effectiveness among advertising agencies in Kenya, the study used a likert scale in which 5,4,3,2,
and 1 represented continuum scores for Strongly Agree, Agree, Undecided, Disagree and
Strongly Disagree respectively. These enabled the tabulation and interpretation of the responses
from the research instrument.
The main statistics derived are mean, standard deviation and the variance. The mean illustrated
the extent to which the respondents agreed or disagreed with the statements put forth on the
perceived relationship between language choice and advertisement effectiveness among
advertising agencies in Kenya. This is well elaborated in the table and narratives below which
show the respondents and the statistics.

25

Table 4.6: Perceived Relationship between Language Choice and Advertisement

Effectiveness among Advertising Agencies in Kenya
Perceptions
No product can survive competition without intensive
advertisement
Advertisers must consider choice of language before
embarking on an advertisement
Advertising in different languages will increase a
companys target audience
Advertising language affects an adverts ability to
boosts sales
Advertising language affects a consumers recall of the
message
Information contained in an advert is better understood
if presented in the audiences local language
The advertising language has an impact on the ability of
an advert to persuade.
The advertising language can influence a consumers
behavior towards a product
Language choice can enhance consumer trust in the
advertising message.
Advertising language can influence a consumers
choice process by biasing him towards or against a
specific product
Language choice affects a consumers interpretation of
the advertising message
Advertisement Language choice affects a consumers
attitude towards a product
Regional and national differences are superficial, and it
is better to use a single language in advertisements
Incorporating ethnic languages in advertisement
reduces advert efficacy due to negative ethnicity in
Kenya.
Source: Research data

Mean

Std.
Deviation

Variance

15

5.00

.000

.000

15

5.00

.000

.000

15

4.53

.516

.267

15

3.60

1.404

1.971

15

4.67

.488

.238

15

4.67

.488

.238

15

4.00

.926

.857

15

3.73

1.033

1.067

15

3.00

1.254

1.571

15

3.33

1.047

1.095

15

4.80

.414

.171

15

3.87

.834

.695

15

1.27

.458

.210

15

2.27

1.223

1.495

We find from Table 4.6 that majority of the respondents felt that product need intensive
advertising to survive competition. This perception had a mean of 5.0 together with the assertion
that before embarking on an advertisement, advertisers must choose language properly. This was
26

followed by those who felt that a consumer recalling of a product is affected by language and
that information contained in an advert is better understood if presented in the audiences local
language. These two perceptions had a mean of 4.67. The fact that advertising in different
languages will increase a companys target audience had a mean of 4.53 while those of the
opinion that advertising language affects an adverts ability to boosts sales had mean of 3.60.
This implies that the respondents associate sales performance to advertising language in Kenya.
The table further indicates the standard deviation (SD) and variance of the findings. It is clear
that respondents gave varying responses as to the perceived relationship between language
choice and advertisement effectiveness among advertising agencies in Kenya with the opinion
that an advertising language affects an adverts ability to boosts sales and that language choice
can enhance consumer trust in the advertising message recording the highest SD of 1.04 and
1.254 respectively. Their corresponding variances were 1.971 and 1.571 respectively. Reduction
of advert efficacy by incorporating ethnic languages in advertisement due to negative ethnicity,
and the fact that advertising language can influence a consumers choice process by biasing him
towards or against a specific product had SD and variance of 1.223/1.495 and 1.047/1.095
respectively. Further the respondents had slightly varying responses as to language choice
affecting a consumers interpretation of the advertising message which had the lowest SD of
0.414 and variance of 0.171.
This is a clear indication that there is great relationship between language choice and
advertisement effectiveness in Kenya. This is very important considering the high number of
vernacular radio stations now in Kenya. They can play a great role in the growth of businesses

27

through effective marketing programs in a language well understood by the target markets
thereby increasing audience reach, and maximizing their profits.
The same can be said for multinational and foreign organizations seeking to establish their
businesses to Kenya. Advertising in local languages can help such organizations to connect with
the Kenyan market and spread their messages more effectively. Advertising in local languages
will boost communication and thereby improve on the attainment of stated objectives by various
agencies including governmental organizations, as well as organizations running social programs
such as poverty alleviation campaigns, HIV/AIDS control and prevention strategies, youth and
women empowerment and other social interventions. There is need for honesty, accountability
and upholding of high ethical standards to ensure that advertisements are well designed to benefit
not only the advertisers needs but also the intended sections of the community, while not being
culturally offensive or divisive on tribal and ethnic lines.
4.3 Discussion on Findings
This section presents a discussion of the findings and compares and contrasts the findings with
other scholarly studies done on the same topic.
4.3.1 Discussion on Perceived Relationship between Language Choice and Advertisement
Effectiveness among Advertising Agencies in Kenya.
The study findings showed that the perceived relationship between language choice and
advertisement effectiveness among advertising agencies in Kenya was positively correlated.
There is a great correlation between choice of language and the impact an advertisement has on
the audience. Top on the list are the discoveries that products cannot survive competition without
intensive advertisement and that advertisers must consider choice of language before embarking
28

on an advertisement. This is because majority of the respondents are insiders in the industry and
thus understand the nature of the advertisements and their intended outcomes. These components
scored highly on the likert scale, a clear indication of their importance in studying the perceived
relationship between language and advertisement effectiveness among advertising agencies in
Kenya. It became clear from the findings that language needs to be well understood before
coming up with an advertisement in Kenya due to the multicultural nature of the population.
Effective communication even in other spheres of life requires that one can recall messages in
order to apply their meaning. These confirm the perception that advertising language affects a
consumers recall of the message. Due to our socialization, it is easier to understand and
memorize messages in our vernacular languages, and thus be able to see the value proposition in
the advertisement. This is further confirmed by the observation from the study that information
contained in an advert is better understood if presented in the audiences local language. This had
a mean of 4.67 meaning that understanding is a factor of language as much that its a factor of
clarity of the message being conveyed.
We have also found from the study that language choice affects a consumers interpretation of
the advertising message. Messages in any discipline do not necessarily mean the same to all
recipients. However ,its been established from the study that language is a major factor in proper
understanding of the intended purpose or value proposition of a product or service. This is a
major asset for the businesses as they need the target audience to fully understand the message in
the advertisements for them to make the decision to purchase.

29

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the summary of research findings, discussion of key findings, conclusions
made from the study and the recommendations for policy and practice. The chapter also presents
suggestions for further research.
5.2 Summary of Findings
The main objective of this study was to investigate perceived relationship between language
choice and advertisement effectiveness among advertising agencies in Kenya. This study was
guided by the fact that there are many advertisements in Kenya being aired on vernacular
stations.
All the fifteen (15) questionnaires distributed were collected representing 100% response rate.
The findings showed that majority of the personnel engaged in the advertising agencies are
female at 53.3% while male were 46.7%. This deviates from many researches where male
population dominates the jobs opportunities and positions of responsibilities. The majority of the
respondents are managers at 60%, followed by other staff at 33.3% while head of departments
were 6.7%. Majority of the respondents have spent between 2-4 years in their respective
agencies, another 33.3% have spent between 5-10 years. Those who have been with the agencies
for below 2 years were 13.3% while 6.7% have been with their agencies for over 10 years.
Over 66.7% of the respondent firms had over 100 employees while 33.33% had between 50-100
employees. No respondent firm had below 50 employees. The study also purposed to establish
the ownership of the agencies where it was established that over 46.7% are jointly owned by

30

local and foreign entities and individuals. Another 40% are owned by locals while the remaining
13.3% are controlled by multinationals.
5.3 Conclusion
As the study results show, it is now clear why many business firms have opted for local
languages for their advertisement mix. They have realized the value that language brings on
board on the effectiveness of their campaigns. The study has achieved the researchers objective
by establishing the high link between language choice and the effectiveness of the advertising
campaigns in Kenya. The advertising agencies need to develop more language oriented
advertisements as they are more effective at communicating value addition to the consumers.
Media agencies also need to borrow a leaf and ensure that they communicate to potential clients
using their local language. This way they will increase their audience numbers and thus the
advertisers reach in terms of potential customers.
5.4 Recommendations for Improvement
The recommendations arising out of this study include looking at the language factor in
establishing the effectiveness of advertising campaigns compared with use of common languages
taught in the countrys education system. This way one would be able to observe the differences
arising out of the study groups one with the local language and the other with national languages.
The test would even be done among different age groups to find any differences and/or
correlation.
More research should go into finding ways and means of mitigating language barrier in
advertisements especially having in mind that the Kenyan society is cosmopolitan and
advertisements on any media on local language may offend other parts of the society.
31

5.5 Recommendations for Further Studies

The study on the perceived relationship between language choice and advertisement
effectiveness among advertising agencies in Kenya has brought to light the major causes of
success and/or failure of many advertising campaigns in Kenya. Due to the conclusion that the
use of language has a great impact on the effectiveness of advertisements, it would be important
to carry out a similar survey among the business players. This will establish whether in deed the
language factor contributes to the success of an advertising campaign in Kenya. The study could
be carried out indifferent language sectors and a comparison drawn on the success or otherwise
of the advertising noting particularly the effectiveness as per this study.

32

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36

APPENDIX 1: LIST OF ADVERTISING COMPANIES IN KENYA

Access Leo Burnett Ltd
Ayton Young & Rubicam Ltd (Y&R)
Blueprint Marketing Ltd
Brainwave Communications Ltd
Brand Savvy Ltd
Exp Momentum Ltd
Ogilvy East Africa Ltd
RedSky Ltd
ScanGroup Ltd
Square Gold PR & Marketing
Media edge interactive
TAC
Nuturn
MCL Saatchi& Saatchi
Express Advertising
Source: Advertising Practitioners Association (APA) 2013.

APPEDNIX 2: QUESTIONNAIRE
Instruction: Please tick or mark where applicable.
SECTION A
Name (Optional):

Name of Firm:

Sex:
(a) Male ( )
(b) Female ( )
Designation:
(a) Manager ( )
(b) Head of Department ( )
(c) Staff ( )
Year(s) Spent in the company:
(a) Below 2 years ( )
(b) 2-4 Years

( )

(c) 5 10 years ( )
(d) Above 10 years ( )
Number of Employees in the firm:
(a) 5-20

( )

(b) 25-50

( )

(c) 50-100

( )

(d) Over 100 ( )

Ownership of the firm:
(a) Local

( )
II

(b) Multinational ( )
(c) Foreign

( )

(d) Local and Foreign investor partnership ( )

SECTION B
Strongly
Agree
Perceptions
1

No product can survive

competition without intensive
advertisement

Advertisers must consider

choice of language before
embarking on an
advertisement

Advertising in different
languages will increase a
companys target audience

Advertising language affects

an adverts ability to boosts
sales
Advertising language affects
a consumers recall of the
message
Information contained in an
advert is better understood if
presented in the audiences
local language

The advertising language has

an impact on the ability of an
advert to persuade.

The advertising language can

influence a consumers
behavior towards a product
9 Language choice can enhance
consumer trust in the
advertising message.
10 Advertising language can
influence a consumers choice
III

Agree

Undecided

Disagree

Strongly
Disagree

process by biasing him

towards or against a specific
product
11 Language choice affects a
consumers interpretation of
the advertising message
12 Advertisement Language
choice affects a consumers
attitude towards a product
13 Regional and national
differences are superficial,
and it is better to use a single
language in advertisements
14 Incorporating ethnic
languages in advertisement
reduces advert efficacy due to
negative ethnicity in Kenya.

IV