Physical Properties VS Bonding

Physical properties of a substance depend between the particles that is composed of.
Stronger bonding = hard substance + higher melting and boiling points (although melting
point is dependent on the extent to which the bonding depends on the existence of a
regular lattice structure. The presence of impurities in a substance disrupts the regular
lattice that its particle adopt in the solid state, weakening the bonding. Hence the
presence of determination is often used to heck the purity of molecular covalent
compounds. Similarily alloys have lower melting points than the weighted mean of their
compont metals. The volatility also depends on the strength of these force. Electrical
conductivity depends on whether the substance contains electrically charged particles that
are free to move through it. Solubility involves the intimate mixing of the particle of two
substances. In order for it to take place the forces between the two types of particles in
the mixture must be stronger or stronger than that between the particles in the two pure
substances, though entropy changes also play an important role in solubility
In metals hardness, volatility melting point and boiling point all depend upon the number
of valence electrons that the individual metal contributes to the delocalized electrons. It is
the mobility of these delocalized electrons that allow metals to conduct electricity in all
states. The malleability and ductility of metals results from the fact that the bonding is
between the metal ions and these electrons that the bonding is between the metal ions and
these electrons and not between the ions themselves. This allows one layer of the lattice
to slide over another without the need to break the bonding. The forces between the
metal atoms are often quite strong and metal atoms cannot form bonds of comparable
strength to substances that are held together by bonding of a different type. As a result
metals do not dissolve in other substances unless they react with them chemically.
Metals can however dissolve in other metals form mixtures of variable compositions
called alloys, for example brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. To a limited extent
nonmetals can also be dissolved into metals to form alloys, the most common example
being steel, which is iron with a small percentage of dissolved carbon. Alloys usually
retain metallic properties, though an alloy is generally less malleable and ductile than the
pure metal because the varying size of atoms in the lattice means that it is les easy for the
layers to slide over each other.
The ions in an ionic compound are held together by strong electrostatic forces in all 3
dimensions, they are non-volatile with high melting and high boiling points. They are all
solids at room temp and pressure. If one layer moves a fraction then ions of the same
charge will come next to each other and so repulsion rather than attraction will result.
This causes the substances to break, ionic solids are brittle and hard
The particles that make up ionic solid are electrically charged ions. In the solid these are
firmly held into place and cannot move to carry electrical current.
Structure type
property
Hardness and

Giant metallic

Giant ionic

Giant covalent

Variable

Hard but brittle

Very hard,

Molecular
covalent
Usually soft

malleability
m/b points

hardness,
malleable
Very variable,
dependent on #
of valence e-

Electrical and
thermal
conductivity

Good in all
states

solubility

Insoluble
except in other
metals in alloys

examples

Iron, copper,
lead

brittle
High m.p.
usually over
500 degree C

Do not conduct
as solids,
conduct when
molten or in
soluition
More soluble in
water than
other solvents
Sodium
chloride,
calcium
carbonate

and malleable
unless H bond
Very high
Low m.p.
m.p. usually
usually under
over 1000 dg. C 200 dg. C.
Liquids and
gases are
molecular
covalent
Do not conduct Do not conduct
in any state
in any state
(graphite is
exception)
Insoluble in all
solvents

Carbon
(diamond),
silicon dioxide
(sand)

More soluble in
non-agueous
solvents, unless
they can H
bond to water
Carbon dioxide,
ethanol, iodine

Bonding
When the substance is molten or in a solution the ions can move freely and carry and
electric current. Ionic compounds therefore conduct when molten and in solution but not
in the solid state.
The strong forces between the ions mean that ionic substances are insoluble in most
solvents. Water however is very polar molecule hence water molecules can be to both
anions and cations because of the attraction between n the particle charge on the atoms of
the water molecule and charge on the ion. The interaction between ions and polar water
molecules is illustrated
As a result of this hydration of ions, substances are more soluble in water than non-polar
solvents. If however the forces between the ions are strong than the ionic substance will
not dissolve in water. There are definite patterns to the solubility of ionic compounds and
the solubility of the most ionic substance can be correctly predicted using a few simple
solubility rules
All nitrates are soluble
All sodium and potassium and ammonium compounds are soluble
All sulphates are soluble except BaSO4, CaSO4 is only sparingly soluble

All chlorides, bromides, iodides are soluble, except those of silver. Leader halides are
sparingly soluble in cold water but quite soluble in boiling water
All other compounds are insoluble though some like Ba(OH)2 and Ca(OH)2 are
sparingly soluble
Hydration energy increases with charge on the ions and decreases with the size of the ion
It is greater for cations than anions because of their smaller size and angular shape of the
water molecule which gives better packaging
As a result hydration energy is greatest for small highly charged cations cations such as
Al+3
In the two substances of the two kinds described above the bonding is uniform through
the substance and this kind of structure is described as a giant structure
Covalent bonding can lead to 2 diff structures
Giant covalent is all atoms in a substance are joined to each other by strong bonds
covalent
Molecular covalent structure (strong intra forces weak inter forces) bonds between on
molecule and another are so weak molecular covalent substances are often liquids or
gases at room temperature, where as others are usually solids. The state depends on the
strength of the intermolecular forces. Halogens -> VDW forces increase. They usually
quite soft as a result of the weak forces and dissolve in non-polar substances
Hydrogen bonding can have a large effect on the properties of molecular covalent
substances
Much stronger than other intermolecular forces = higher boiling/melting points
In solids, h bonding can often result in the crystals being hard and more brittle than those
solids with other types of intermolecular forces. Sugar is a good example, soluble in
water. Molecule can form hydrogen bond to water to compensate for water-water
hydrogen bonds broken. In alcohols the hydroxyl group forms h bonds but the
hydrocarbon chain increases the solubility of alcohol in water decrease
Diamond is the most common example of substance that has a giant covalent structure
Each carbon atom in diamond is sp^3 hybridized and are joined to four others arranged
tetrahedrally so that there is strong bonding in all three dimensions. The arrangement of
carbon atoms in diamond is illustrated. Diamond is probably the gets example of a giant
covalent structure. Silicon dioxide which occurs commonly as quartz and sand has a very
similar structure to diamond except that each carbon is replaced by a silicon and the C-C
bonds are replaced by an oxygen bridging between the silicon atoms. A two dimensional
diagram of the bonding is show below.
Graphite is a second allotrope of carbon. (allotropes are different forms of an element that
exist in the same physical state, ozone and normal diatomic oxygen molecules are another

example of allotropes.) it is unusual that it comprises a giant covalent network in two

dimensions but has only weak VDW forces between these sheets of carbon atoms. There
is a delocalized pie-bond between all of the sp^2 hybridized carbon atoms in a given
sheet so that the bond order of the carbon-carbon bond is 1 1/3 hence the carbon-carbon
bond length is slightly less than that found in diamond. The distance between the sheets
is quite large and the forces between them quite small, hence they can easily slide over
each other. This results in graphite being a soft solid used as a lubricant and as layers of
carbon are easily rubbed off onto paper it is used in lead pencils. The delocalized
electrons between the layers are free to move so that graphite is a good conductor of
electricity in two dimensions. The fullerenes are a recently discovered allotrope of pure
carbon. They contain approximately spherical molecules made up of five and six
membered carbon rings. The fullerene that has been most completely studied is C60
In fullerenes each sp^2 hybridized carbon is bonded by sigma bonds to three other
carbons but because the surface of the sphere is not planar there is little delocalization of
the unpaired bonding electrons. Chemically it behaves as an electron deficient molecule
agents to form anions with a variety of charges. Addition reactions can occur. Unlike
diamond the graphite fullerenes are molecular; they will dissolve in non-polar solvents
such as methylbenzene and sublimes at about 800k. Fullerenes have interesting
compressibility properties and some of their derivatives have unusual electrical
properties. Closely related to the fullerenes are they nanotubes which comprise capped
cylinders of carbon atoms bonded in a very similar manner to fullerenes.

A summary of chemical bonding.

Chemical bonding is the interaction of valence electrons that result in atoms of the same
or different kinds, binding together. The number of bonds an atom forms depends mainly
on the number of valence electrons. The type of bonding that occurs depends mainly on
how strong the valence electrons are attracted by the nucleus; on the electronegativty of
the elements.
Ionic bonding involves electron transfer between different atoms of very different
eledctronegativities. The atom with low electronegativty loses electron to form a
positively charged cation. The atom of high electronegativty gains electrons to form a
negativtly charged anion. Because of the strong electrostatic attraction between opposite
charges these ions come together to form a regular array known as an ionic crystal lattice.
Because there are strong forces throughout the whole solid, the solid is hard and brittle,
with a high melting and boiling point. The ions allow it to conduct electrify when molten
or in solution but not as a solid. They are often soluble in water because the ions can
bond to the polar water molecules.

Covalent bonding involves the sharing of electrons between two atoms of high
electronegativty. This can result in single bond, double bond, or triple bond. [single obond; doubleo- + pie bond; triple o-+2pie bonds. O bonds generally formed by hybrid
orbitals, pie-bonds by perpendicular p-orbitals. Delocalized pie-bonds involve more than
two atoms and do not have one electron pair per bond.] If the covalent bond is between
two different types of atoms the electrons will not be evenly shared and the bond will be a
polar bond. Covalent bonding results in two kinds of structure, giant covalent and
molecular covalent.
Giant covalent structures are totally joined together by covalent bonds. As a result they
are very hard, have high mp and bp do not dissolve in solvents and do not conduct
electricity.
Molecular covalent structures contain small groups of atoms joined by covalent bonds to
form molecules. Molecules have a definite shape that results from the repulsion between
electron pairs, both in bonds(o-bonds only) and in non-bonding electron pairs. If the
molecule contains polar bonds then in very symmetrical molecules their polarity will
cancel to give a non-polar molecule, but if less symmetrical they will not cancel, resulting
in a polar molecule.
Between molecules there are only weak intermolecular forces. There are three kinds of
these. The weakest are VDW forces, which exist between all species as a result of the
inductive effect of instantaneous dipoles. Next strongest are the dipole-dipole forces that
result from the electrostatic attraction between polar molecules. The strongest kind if
hydrogen bonding, which occurs in molecules containing a hydrogen atom bonded to N
O or F. the properties of molecular covalent substances are dictated by the intermolecular
forces. As these are weak they are gases, liquids or soft, low melting solids. They do not
conduct electricity and are generally soluble in non-polar solvents rather than water,
unless they can hydrogen bond to water. Hydrogen bonding increases the hardness, mp
and bp.
Metallic bonding occurs between atoms of low electronegativty. The valence electrons
are completely shared by all atoms so they can be regarded as a close packed lattice of
cations in a sea of mobile electrons. Hence metals conduct electricity even in the solid
state. There are no specific bonds so the layers can slide over each other making metals
malleable and ductile. The bond strength increase with the number of valence electrons,
but generally the bonds are strong giving a high mp and bp.
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