BOILERS - Energy-Models

11/21/2016
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BOILERS
Syllabus
Boilers:Types,Combustioninboilers,Performancesevaluation,Analysisof
losses,Feedwatertreatment,Blowdown,Energyconservationopportunities.
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to
Course
2.1Introduction
Aboilerisanenclosedvesselthatprovidesameansforcombustionheatto
betransferredintowateruntilitbecomesheatedwaterorsteam.Thehot
waterorsteamunderpressureisthenusablefortransferringtheheattoa
process.Waterisausefulandcheapmediumfortransferringheattoa
process.Whenwaterisboiledintosteamitsvolumeincreasesabout1,600
times,producingaforcethatisalmostasexplosiveasgunpowder.This
causestheboilertobeextremelydangerousequipmentthatmustbetreated
withutmostcare.
Theprocessofheatingaliquiduntilitreachesitsgaseousstateiscalled
evaporation.Heatistransferredfromonebodytoanotherbymeansof(1)
radiation,whichisthetransferofheatfromahotbodytoacoldbodywithout
aconveyingmedium,(2)convection,thetransferofheatbyaconveying
medium,suchasairorwaterand(3)conduction,transferofheatbyactual
physicalcontact,moleculetomolecule.
http://energymodels.com/boilers
TypicalBoilerSpecification
BoilerMake&Year
MCR(MaximumContinuous
Rating)
RatedWorkingPressure
TypeofBoiler
FuelFired
Pipingand
Ductwork
Systems
Pumpsand
Fans
Refrigeration
TimeValue
ofMoney
Lighting
(NASA)
BoilerSpecification
Theheating
surfaceisany
partofthe
boilermetal
thathashot
gasesof
combustion
ononeside
Course
Lessons
:XYZ&2003
:10TPH(F&A100oC)
:10.54kg/cm2(g)
:3PassFiretube
:FuelOil
DuctSizing
Charts&
Tables
PipeSizing
Charts
Tables
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andwateron
theother.Anypartoftheboilermetalthatactuallycontributestomaking
steamisheatingsurface.Theamountofheatingsurfaceofaboileris
expressedinsquaremeters.Thelargertheheatingsurfaceaboilerhas,the
moreefficientitbecomes.Thequantityofthesteamproducedisindicatedin
tonsofwaterevaporatedtosteamperhour.Maximumcontinuousratingisthe
hourlyevaporationthatcanbemaintainedfor24hours.F&Ameansthe
amountofsteamgeneratedfromwaterat100oCtosaturatedsteamat100oC.
IndianBoilerRegulation
TheIndianBoilersActwasenactedtoconsolidateandamendthelawrelating
tosteamboilers.IndianBoilersRegulation(IBR)wascreatedinexerciseof
thepowersconferredbysection28&29oftheIndianBoilersAct.
IBRSteamBoilersmeansanyclosedvesselexceeding22.75litersin
capacityandwhichisusedexpressivelyforgeneratingsteamunderpressure
andincludesanymountingorotherfittingattachedtosuchvessel,whichis
wholly,orpartlyunderpressurewhenthesteamisshutoff.
IBRSteamPipemeansanypipethroughwhichsteampassesfromaboiler
toaprimemoverorotheruserorboth,ifpressureatwhichsteampasses
throughsuchpipesexceeds3.5kg/cm2aboveatmosphericpressureorsuch
pipeexceeds254mmininternaldiameterandincludesineithercaseany
connectedfittingofasteampipe.
2.2BoilerSystems
Theboilersystemcomprisesof:feedwatersystem,steamsystemandfuel
system.Thefeedwatersystemprovideswatertotheboilerandregulatesit
automaticallytomeetthesteamdemand.Variousvalvesprovideaccessfor
maintenanceandrepair.Thesteamsystemcollectsandcontrolsthesteam
producedintheboiler.Steamisdirectedthroughapipingsystemtothepoint
ofuse.Throughoutthesystem,steampressureisregulatedusingvalvesand
checkedwithsteampressuregauges.Thefuelsystemincludesall
equipmentusedtoprovidefueltogeneratethenecessaryheat.The
equipmentrequiredinthefuelsystemdependsonthetypeoffuelusedinthe
system.AtypicalboilerroomschematicisshowninFigure2.1.
BOILERS
Centrifugal
Chiller
Fundamentals
Facilities
Management
HEATING
AND
COOLING
SYSTEM
UPGRADES
HVAC:
Centrifugal
Chillers
Chiller
Plant
Design
PV
Modelingin
eQUEST
Introduction
to
Photovoltaic
Systems
HowSolar
Electric
Technology
Works
Basic
Photovoltaic
Principles
and
Methods
Photovoltaic
(PV)
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Tutorial
(/sites/all/files/advancedpages31086/boilers1.png)
Figure2.1BoilerRoomSchematic
Thewatersuppliedtotheboilerthatisconvertedintosteamiscalledfeed
water.Thetwosourcesoffeedwaterare:(1)feedwaterorcondensed
steamreturnedfromtheprocessesand(2)Makeupwater(treatedrawwater)
whichmustcomefromoutsidetheboilerroomandplantprocesses.For
higherboilerefficiencies,thefeedwaterispreheatedbyeconomizer,using
thewasteheatinthefluegas.
2.3BoilerTypesandClassifications
Therearevirtuallyinfinitenumbersofboilerdesignsbutgenerallytheyfitinto
oneoftwocategories:
Firetubeor"fire
intube"boilers
containlongsteel
tubesthrough
whichthehot
gassesfroma
furnacepassand
aroundwhichthe
watertobe
convertedto
steamcirculates.
(ReferFigure
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2.2).Firetube
boilers,typically
havealower
initialcost,are
morefuelefficient
andeasierto
operate,butthey
arelimited
generallyto
capacitiesof25
tons/hrand
pressuresof17.5 (/sites/all/files/advancedpages31086/boilers2.png)
kg/cm2.
Figure2.2FireTubeBoiler
Watertubeor"waterintube"
boilersinwhichtheconditions
arereversedwiththewater
passingthroughthetubesand
thehotgassespassingoutside
thetubes(seefigure2.3).
Theseboilerscanbeofsingle
ormultipledrumtype.These
boilerscanbebuilttoany
steamcapacitiesand
pressures,andhavehigher
efficienciesthanfiretube
boilers.
Figure2.3WaterTubeBoiler
PackagedBoiler:The
packagedboilerissocalled
becauseitcomesasa
completepackage.Once
deliveredtosite,itrequires
onlythesteam,waterpipe
work,fuelsupplyandelectrical
connectionstobemadeforit
tobecomeoperational.
Packageboilersaregenerally
ofshelltypewithfiretube
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designsoastoachievehigh
heattransferratesbyboth
radiationandconvection(Refer
Figure2.4).
Figure2.4PackagedBoiler
Thefeaturesofpackageboilersare:
Smallcombustionspaceandhighheatreleaserateresultinginfaster
evaporation.
Largenumberofsmalldiametertubesleadingtogoodconvectiveheat
transfer.
Forcedorinduceddraftsystemsresultingingoodcombustionefficiency.
Numberofpassesresultinginbetteroverallheattransfer.
Higherthermalefficiencylevelscomparedwithotherboilers.
Theseboilersareclassifiedbasedonthenumberofpassesthenumberof
timesthehotcombustiongasespassthroughtheboiler.Thecombustion
chamberistaken,asthefirstpassafterwhichtheremaybeone,twoorthree
setsoffiretubes.Themostcommonboilerofthisclassisathreepassunit
withtwosetsoffiretubesandwiththeexhaustgasesexitingthroughtherear
oftheboiler.
StokerFiredBoiler:
Stokersareclassifiedaccordingtothemethodoffeedingfueltothefurnace
andbythetypeofgrate.Themainclassificationsare:
1.Chaingrateortravelinggratestoker
2.Spreaderstoker
ChainGrateorTravelingGrateStokerBoiler
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ChainGrateorTravelingGrateStokerBoiler
Coalisfedontooneendofamovingsteelchaingrate.Asgratemovesalong
thelengthofthefurnace,thecoalburnsbeforedroppingoffattheendasash.
Somedegreeofskillisrequired,particularlywhensettingupthegrate,air
dampersandbaffles,toensurecleancombustionleavingminimumofunburnt
carbonintheash.
Figure2.5ChainGrateStoker
Thecoalfeedhopperrunsalongtheentirecoalfeedendofthefurnace.
Acoalgrateisusedtocontroltherateatwhichcoalisfedintothefurnace,
andtocontrolthethicknessofthecoalbedandspeedofthegrate.Coalmust
beuniforminsize,aslargelumpswillnotburnoutcompletelybythetime
theyreachtheendofthegrate.Asthebedthicknessdecreasesfrom
coalfeedendtorearend,differentamountsofairarerequiredmorequantity
atcoalfeedendandlessatrearend(seeFigure2.5).
SpreaderStokerBoiler
Spreaderstokers(seefigure2.6)utilizeacombinationofsuspensionburning
andgrateburning.Thecoaliscontinuallyfedintothefurnaceaboveaburning
bedofcoal.Thecoalfinesareburnedinsuspensionthelargerparticlesfall
tothegrate,wheretheyareburnedinathin,fastburningcoalbed.This
methodoffiringprovidesgoodflexibilitytomeetloadfluctuations,since
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ignitionisalmostinstantaneouswhenfiringrateisincreased.Hence,the
spreaderstokerisfavoredoverothertypesofstokersinmanyindustrial
applications.
Figure2.6SpreaderStoker
PulverizedFuelBoiler
Mostcoalfiredpowerstationboilersusepulverizedcoal,andmanyofthe
largerindustrialwatertubeboilersalsousethispulverizedfuel.This
technologyiswelldeveloped,andtherearethousandsofunitsaroundthe
world,accountingforwellover90%ofcoalfiredcapacity.
Thecoalisground(pulverised)toafinepowder,sothatlessthan2%is
+300micrometre(m)and7075%isbelow75microns,forabituminous
coal.Itshouldbenotedthattoofineapowderiswastefulofgrindingmill
power.Ontheotherhand,toocoarseapowderdoesnotburncompletelyin
thecombustionchamberandresultsinhigherunburntlosses.
Thepulverised
coalisblownwith
partofthe
combustionairinto
theboilerplant
throughaseriesof
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burnernozzles.
Secondaryand
tertiaryairmay
alsobeadded.
Combustiontakes
placeat
temperaturesfrom
13001700oC,
dependinglargely
oncoalgrade.
Particleresidence
timeintheboileris
typically2to5
seconds,andthe
particlesmustbe
smallenoughfor
complete
combustionto
havetakenplace
duringthistime.
Thissystemhas
manyadvantages
suchasabilityto
firevaryingquality (/sites/all/files/advancedpages31086/boilers7.png)
ofcoal,quick
responsesto
Figure2.7TangentialFiring
changesinload,
useofhighpre
heatair
temperaturesetc.
Oneofthemost
popularsystems
forfiringpulverized
coalisthe
tangentialfiring
usingfourburners
cornertocornerto
createafireballat
thecenterofthe
furnace(see
Figure2.7).
FBCBoiler
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FBCBoiler
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Whenan
evenly
distributed
airorgasis
passed
upward
througha
finely
dividedbed
ofsolid
particles
suchas
sand
supported
onafine
mesh,the
particlesare
undisturbed
atlow
velocity.As
airvelocity
isgradually
increased,a
stageis
reached
whenthe
individual
particlesare
suspended
intheair
stream.
Further,
increasein
velocity
givesriseto
bubble
formation,
vigorous
turbulence
andrapid
mixingand
thebedis
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saidtobe
fluidized.
Ifthe
sandina
fluidized
stateis
heatedto
theignition
temperature
ofthecoal
andthecoal
isinjected
continuously
intothe
bed,the
coalwill
burnrapidly,
andthebed
attainsa
uniform
temperature
dueto
effective
mixing.
Figure2.8FluidisedBedCombustion
Properair
distribution
isvitalfor
maintaining
uniform
fluidisation
acrossthe
bed.).Ashis
disposedby
dryandwet
ashdisposal
systems.
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Fluidisedbedcombustionhassignificantadvantagesoverconventionalfiring
systemsandoffersmultiplebenefitsnamelyfuelflexibility,reducedemission
ofnoxiouspollutantssuchasSOxandNOx,compactboilerdesignand
highercombustionefficiency.MoredetailsaboutFBCboilersaregivenin
Chapter6onFluidizedBedBoiler.
2.4PerformanceEvaluationofBoilers
Theperformanceparametersofboiler,likeefficiencyandevaporationratio
reduceswithtimeduetopoorcombustion,heattransfersurfacefoulingand
pooroperationandmaintenance.Evenforanewboiler,reasonssuchas
deterioratingfuelquality,waterqualityetc.canresultinpoorboiler
performance.Boilerefficiencytestshelpustofindoutthedeviationofboiler
efficiencyfromthebestefficiencyandtargetproblemareaforcorrective
action.
BoilerEfficiency
Thermalefficiencyofboilerisdefinedasthepercentageofheatinputthatis
effectivelyutilisedtogeneratesteam.Therearetwomethodsofassessing
boilerefficiency.
1.TheDirectMethod:Wheretheenergygainoftheworkingfluid(waterand
steam)iscomparedwiththeenergycontentoftheboilerfuel.
2.TheIndirectMethod:Wheretheefficiencyisthedifferencebetweenthe
lossesandtheenergyinput.
a.DirectMethod
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a.DirectMethod
Thisisalsoknownasinputoutputmethodduetothefactthatitneedsonly
theusefuloutput(steam)andtheheatinput(i.e.fuel)forevaluatingthe
efficiency.Thisefficiencycanbeevaluatedusingtheformula
(/sites/all/files/advancedpages31086/boilers
10.png)
Parameterstobemonitoredforthecalculationofboilerefficiencybydirect
methodare:
Quantityofsteamgeneratedperhour(Q)inkg/hr.
Quantityoffuelusedperhour(q)inkg/hr.
Theworkingpressure(inkg/cm2(g))andsuperheattemperature(oC),if
any
Thetemperatureoffeedwater(oC)
Typeoffuelandgrosscalorificvalueofthefuel(GCV)inkCal/kgoffuel
11.png)
where, hgEnthalpyofsaturatedsteaminkCal/kgofsteam
hfEnthalpyoffeedwaterinkCal/kgofwater
Example
Findouttheefficiencyoftheboilerbydirectmethodwiththedatagiven
below:
Typeofboiler
Quantityofsteam(dry)generated
Steampressure(gauge)/temp
Quantityofcoalconsumed
Feedwatertemperature
GCVofcoal
Enthalpyofsteamat10kg/cm2pressure
Enthalpyoffeedwater
:Coalfired
:8TPH
:10kg/cm2(g)/180oC
:1.8TPH
:85oC
:3200kCal/kg
:665kCal/kg(saturated)
:85kCal/kg
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(/sites/all/files/advancedpages
31086/boilers12.png)
Itshouldbenotedthatboilermaynotgenerate100%saturateddrysteam,
andtheremaybesomeamountofwetnessinthesteam.
Advantagesofdirectmethod:
Plantpeoplecanevaluatequicklytheefficiencyofboilers
Requiresfewparametersforcomputation
Needsfewinstrumentsformonitoring
Disadvantagesofdirectmethod:
Doesnotgivecluestotheoperatorastowhyefficiencyofsystemislower
Doesnotcalculatevariouslossesaccountableforvariousefficiencylevels
b.IndirectMethod
TherearereferencestandardsforBoilerTestingatSiteusingindirectmethod
namelyBritishStandard,BS845:1987andUSAStandardisASMEPTC41
PowerTestCodeSteamGeneratingUnits'.
Indirectmethodisalsocalledasheatlossmethod.Theefficiencycanbe
arrivedat,bysubtractingtheheatlossfractionsfrom100.Thestandardsdo
notincludeblowdownlossintheefficiencydeterminationprocess.Adetailed
procedureforcalculatingboilerefficiencybyindirectmethodisgivenbelow.
However,itmaybenotedthatthepracticingenergymangersinindustries
prefersimplercalculationprocedures.
Theprinciplelossesthatoccurinaboilerare:
Lossofheatduetodryfluegas
Lossofheatduetomoistureinfuelandcombustionair
Lossofheatduetocombustionofhydrogen
Lossofheatduetoradiation
Lossofheatduetounburnt
Intheabove,lossduetomoistureinfuelandthelossduetocombustionof
hydrogenaredependentonthefuel,andcannotbecontrolledbydesign.
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Thedatarequiredforcalculationofboilerefficiencyusingindirectmethod
are:
Ultimateanalysisoffuel(H2,O2,S,C,moisturecontent,ashcontent)
PercentageofOxygenorCO2inthefluegas
FluegastemperatureinoC(Tf)
AmbienttemperatureinoC(Ta)&humidityofairinkg/kgofdryair
GCVoffuelinkCal/kg
Percentagecombustibleinash(incaseofsolidfuels)
GCVofashinkCal/kg(incaseofsolidfuels)
Solution:
Theoreticalairrequirement
=[(11.6C)+{34.8(H2O2/8)}+(4.35S)]/100kg/kgoffuel
ExcessAirsupplied
(EA)=
13.png)
Actualmassofairsupplied/kgoffuel(AAS)={1+EA/100}theoreticalair
i.Percentageheatlossdue
todryfluegas=
m=massofdryfluegasinkg/kgoffuel
m=Combustionproductsfromfuel:CO2+SO2+Nitrogeninfuel+
Nitrogenintheactualmassofairsupplied+O2influegas.(H2O/Water
vapourinthefluegasshouldnotbeconsidered)
Cp=Specificheatoffluegas(0.23kCal/kgoC)
ii.PercentageheatlossduetoevaporationofwaterformedduetoH2infuel
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Where,H2kgofH2in1kgoffuel
CpSpecificheatofsuperheatedsteam(0.45kCal/kgoC)
iii.Percentageheatlossduetoevaporationofmoisturepresentinfuel
Where,Mkgofmoisturein1kgoffuel
CpSpecificheatofsuperheatedsteam(0.45kCal/kg)oC
584isthelatentheatcorrespondingtothepartialpressureofwater
vapour.
iv.Percentageheatlossduetomoisturepresentinair
CpSpecificheatofsuperheatedsteam(0.45kCal/kgoC)
v.Percentageheatlossduetounburntinflyash
vi.Percentageheatlossduetounburntinbottomash
vii.Percentageheatlossduetoradiationandotherunaccountedloss
Theactualradiationandconvectionlossesaredifficulttoassessbecauseof
particularemissivityofvarioussurfaces,itsinclination,airflowpatternetc.In
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arelativelysmallboiler,withacapacityof10MW,theradiationand
unaccountedlossescouldamounttobetween1%and2%ofthegross
calorificvalueofthefuel,whileina500MWboiler,valuesbetween0.2%to
1%aretypical.Thelossmaybeassumedappropriatelydependingonthe
surfacecondition.
Efficiencyofboiler()=100(i+ii+iii+iv+v+vi+
vii)
Example:Thefollowingarethedatacollectedforatypicaloilfiredboiler.Find
outtheefficiencyoftheboilerbyindirectmethodandBoilerEvaporationratio.
Typeofboiler
UltimateanalysisofOil
C:84.0%
S:3.0%
GCVofOil
SteamGenerationPressure
Enthalpyofsteam
Feedwatertemperature
PercentageofOxygeninfluegas
PercentageofCO2influegas
Fluegastemperature(Tf)
Ambienttemperature(Ta)
Humidityofair
:Oilfired
H2:12.0%
O2:1.0%
:10200kCal/kg
:7kg/cm2(g)saturated
:660kCal/kg
:60oC
:7
:11
:220oC
:27oC
:0.018kg/kgofdryair
Solution
Step1:Findthetheoreticalairrequirement
=[(11.6C)+{34.8(H2O2/8)}+(4.35S)]/100kg/kgofoil
=[(11.684)+[{34.8(121/8)}+(4.353)]/100kg/kgofoil
=14kgofair/kgofoil
Step2:Findthe%Excessairsupplied
Excessairsupplied
(EA)
=(O2100)/(21O2)
=(7100)/(217)
=50%
Step3:FindtheActualmassofairsupplied
Actualmassofairsupplied/kgoffuel=[1+EA/100]TheoriticalAir
(AAS)
=[1+50/100]14
=1.514
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=21kgofair/kgofoil
Step4:Estimationofalllosses
i.Dryfluegasloss
Percentageheatlossdue
todryfluegas=
/a>
m=massofCO2+massofSO2+massofN2+massofO2
(/sites/all/files/advanced
pages31086/boilers21.png)
m=21kg/kgofoil
Percentageheatloss
duetodryfluegas
Alternativelyasimplemethodcanbeusedfordetermining
thedryfluegaslossasgivenbelow.
a)Percentageheatloss
duetodryfluegas
Totalmassoffluegas =massofactualairsupplied+massoffuelsupplied
(m)
=21+1=22
%Dryfluegasloss
ii.HeatlossduetoevaporationofwaterformedduetoH2in
fuel
(/sites/all/files/advanced
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pages31086/boilers25.png)
Where,H2percentageofH2infuel
=7.10%
iii.Heatlossduetomoisturepresentinair
iv.Heatlossduetoradiationandotherunaccountedlosses
Forasmallboileritisestimatedtobe2%
BoilerEfficiency
i.
Heatlossduetodryfluegas
ii.
HeatlossduetoevaporationofwaterformedduetoH2infuel
iii. Heatlossduetomoisturepresentinair
iv. Heatlossduetoradiationandotherunaccountedloss
Boiler
=100[9.14+7.10+0.322+2]
Efficiency
=10018.56=81%(app)
Evaporation
Ratio
:
9.14%
:7.10
%
:0.322
%
:2%
=Heatutilisedforsteamgeneration/Heatadditiontothe
steam
=102000.83/(66060)
=14.11
BoilerEvaporationRatio
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Evaporationratiomeanskilogramofsteamgeneratedperkilogramoffuel
consumed.
TypicalExamples:
Coalfiredboiler:6
Oilfiredboiler:13
i.e1kgofcoalcangenerate6kgof
steam
1kgofoilcangenerate13kgof
steam
However,thisfigurewilldependupontypeofboiler,calorificvalueofthe
fuelandassociatedefficiencies.
2.5BoilerBlowdown
Whenwaterisboiledandsteamisgenerated,anydissolvedsolidscontained
inthewaterremainintheboiler.Ifmoresolidsareputinwiththefeedwater,
theywillconcentrateandmayeventuallyreachalevelwheretheirsolubilityin
thewaterisexceededandtheydepositfromthesolution.Aboveacertain
levelofconcentration,thesesolidsencouragefoamingandcausecarryover
ofwaterintothesteam.Thedepositsalsoleadtoscaleformationinsidethe
boiler,resultinginlocalizedoverheatingandfinallycausingboilertubefailure.
Itis,therefore,necessarytocontrolthelevelofconcentrationofthesolids
andthisisachievedbytheprocessof'blowingdown',whereacertainvolume
ofwaterisblownoffandisautomaticallyreplacedbyfeedwaterthus
maintainingtheoptimumleveloftotaldissolvedsolids(TDS)intheboiler
water.Blowdownisnecessarytoprotectthesurfacesoftheheatexchanger
intheboiler.However,blowdowncanbeasignificantsourceofheatloss,if
improperlycarriedout.Themaximumamountoftotaldissolvedsolids(TDS)
concentrationpermissibleinvarioustypesofboilersisgiveninTable2.1.
TABLE2.1RECOMMENDEDTDSLEVELSFOR
VARIOUSBOILERS
BoilerType
1.
MaximumTDS(ppm)*
Lancashire
10,000ppm
2
2.
Smokeandwatertubeboilers(12kg/cm )
5,000ppm
3.
LowpressureWatertubeboiler
HighPressureWatertubeboilerwith
superheateretc.
20003000
4.
5.
6.
Packageandeconomicboilers
Coilboilersandsteamgenerators
3,0003,500ppm
3,000ppm
2000(inthefeedwater
Note:Referguidelinesspecifiedbymanufacturerformoredetails
*partspermillion
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ConductivityasIndicatorofBoilerWaterQuality
Sinceitistediousandtimeconsumingtomeasuretotaldissolvedsolids
(TDS)inboilerwatersystem,conductivitymeasurementisusedfor
monitoringtheoverallTDSpresentintheboiler.Ariseinconductivity
indicatesariseinthe"contamination"oftheboilerwater.
Conventionalmethodsforblowingdowntheboilerdependontwokindsof
blowdownintermittentandcontinuous
IntermittentBlowdown
Theintermittentblowndownisgivenbymanuallyoperatingavalvefittedto
dischargepipeatthelowestpointofboilershelltoreduceparameters(TDS
orconductivity,pH,SilicaandPhosphatesconcentration)withinprescribed
limitssothatsteamqualityisnotlikelytobeaffected.Inintermittent
blowdown,alargediameterlineisopenedforashortperiodoftime,thetime
beingbasedonathumbrulesuchas"onceinashiftfor2minutes".
Intermittentblowdownrequireslargeshorttermincreasesintheamountof
feedwaterputintotheboiler,andhencemaynecessitatelargerfeedwater
pumpsthanifcontinuousblowdownisused.Also,TDSlevelwillbevarying,
therebycausingfluctuationsofthewaterlevelintheboilerduetochangesin
steambubblesizeanddistributionwhichaccompanychangesin
concentrationofsolids.Alsosubstantialamountofheatenergyislostwith
intermittentblowdown.
ContinuousBlowdown
Thereisasteadyandconstantdispatchofsmallstreamofconcentrated
boilerwater,andreplacementbysteadyandconstantinflowoffeedwater.
ThisensuresconstantTDSandsteam
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Figure2.9BlowdownHeatRecoverySystem
purityatgivensteamload.Onceblowdownvalveissetforagiven
conditions,thereisnoneedforregularoperatorintervention
Eventhoughlargequantitiesofheatarewasted,opportunityexistsfor
recoveringthisheatbyblowingintoaflashtankandgeneratingflashsteam.
Thisflashsteamcanbeusedforpreheatingboilerfeedwaterorforanyother
purpose(seeFigure2.9forblowdownheatrecoverysystem).Thistypeof
blowdowniscommoninhighpressureboilers.
Blowdowncalculations
Thequantityofblowdownrequiredtocontrolboilerwatersolidsconcentration
iscalculatedbyusingthefollowingformula:
Blowdown(%)= FeedwaterTDS%Makeupwater
MaximumPermissibleTDSinBoilerwater
IfmaximumpermissiblelimitofTDSasinapackageboileris3000ppm,
percentagemakeupwateris10%andTDSinfeedwateris300ppm,then
thepercentageblowdownisgivenas:
=300x10/3000
=1%
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Ifboilerevaporationrateis3000kg/hrthenrequiredblowdownrateis:
30001
100
=30kg/hr
BenefitsofBlowdown
Goodboilerblowdowncontrolcansignificantlyreducetreatmentand
operationalcoststhatinclude:
Lowerpretreatmentcosts
Lessmakeupwaterconsumption
Reducedmaintenancedowntime
Increasedboilerlife
Lowerconsumptionoftreatmentchemicals
2.6BoilerWaterTreatment
Producingqualitysteamondemanddependsonproperlymanagedwater
treatmenttocontrolsteampurity,depositsandcorrosion.Aboileristhesump
oftheboilersystem.Itultimatelyreceivesallofthepreboilercontaminants.
Boilerperformance,efficiency,andservicelifearedirectproductsofselecting
andcontrollingfeedwaterusedintheboiler.
Whenfeedwaterenterstheboiler,theelevatedtemperaturesand
pressurescausethecomponentsofwatertobehavedifferently.Mostofthe
componentsinthefeedwateraresoluble.However,underheatandpressure
mostofthesolublecomponentscomeoutofsolutionasparticulatesolids,
sometimesincrystallizedformsandothertimesasamorphousparticles.
Whensolubilityofaspecificcomponentinwaterisexceeded,scaleor
depositsdevelop.Theboilerwatermustbesufficientlyfreeofdepositforming
solidstoallowrapidandefficientheattransferanditmustnotbecorrosiveto
theboilermetal.
DepositControl
Depositsinboilersmayresultfromhardnesscontaminationoffeedwaterand
corrosionproductsfromthecondensateandfeedwatersystem.Hardness
contaminationofthefeedwatermayariseduetodeficientsoftenersystem.
Depositsandcorrosionresultinefficiencylossesandmayresultinboiler
tubefailuresandinabilitytoproducesteam.Depositsactasinsulatorsand
slowsheattransfer.Largeamountsofdepositsthroughouttheboilercould
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reducetheheattransferenoughtoreducetheboilerefficiencysignificantly.
Differenttypeofdepositsaffectstheboilerefficiencydifferently.Thusitmay
beusefultoanalysethedepositsforitscharacteristics.Theinsulatingeffectof
depositscausestheboilermetaltemperaturetoriseandmayleadtotube
failurebyoverheating.
ImpuritiesCausingDeposits
Themostimportantchemicalscontainedinwaterthatinfluencesthe
formationofdepositsintheboilersarethesaltsofcalciumandmagnesium,
whichareknownashardnesssalts.
Calciumandmagnesiumbicarbonatedissolveinwatertoformanalkaline
solutionandthesesaltsareknownasalkalinehardness.Theydecompose
uponheating,releasingcarbondioxideandformingasoftsludge,which
settlesout.Thesearecalledtemporaryhardnesshardnessthatcanbe
removedbyboiling
Calciumandmagnesiumsulphates,chloridesandnitrates,etc.when
dissolvedinwaterarechemicallyneutralandareknownasnonalkaline
hardness.Thesearecalledpermanenthardnessandformhardscaleson
boilersurfaces,whicharedifficulttoremove.Nonalkalinityhardness
chemicalsfalloutthesolutionduetoreductioninsolubilityasthetemperature
rises,byconcentrationduetoevaporationwhichtakesplacewithintheboiler,
orbychemicalchangetoalesssolublecompound.
Silica
Thepresenceofsilicainboilerwatercanrisetoformationofhardsilicate
scales.Itcanalsoassociatewithcalciumandmagnesiumsalts,forming
calciumandmagnesiumsilicatesofverylowthermalconductivity.Silicacan
giverisetodepositsonsteamturbineblades,afterbeencarriedovereitherin
dropletsofwaterinsteam,orinvolatileforminsteamathigherpressures.
Twomajortypesofboilerwatertreatmentare:Internalwatertreatmentand
Externalwatertreatment.
InternalWaterTreatment
Internaltreatmentiscarriedoutbyaddingchemicalstoboilertopreventthe
formationofscalebyconvertingthescaleformingcompoundstofreeflowing
sludges,whichcanberemovedbyblowdown.Thismethodislimitedto
boilers,wherefeedwaterislowinhardnesssalts,tolowpressureshighTDS
contentinboilerwateristolerated,andwhenonlysmallquantityofwateris
requiredtobetreated.Iftheseconditionsarenotapplied,thenhighratesof
blowdownarerequiredtodisposeoffthesludge.Theybecomeuneconomical
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fromheatandwaterlossconsideration.
Differentwatersrequiredifferentchemicals.Sodiumcarbonate,sodium
aluminate,sodiumphosphate,sodiumsulphiteandcompoundsofvegetable
orinorganicoriginareallusedforthispurpose.Proprietarychemicalsare
availabletosuitvariouswaterconditions.Thespecialistmustbeconsultedto
determinethemostsuitablechemicalstouseineachcase.Internaltreatment
aloneisnotrecommended.
ExternalWaterTreatment
Externaltreatmentisusedtoremovesuspendedsolids,dissolvedsolids
(particularlythecalciumandmagnesiumionswhichareamajorcauseof
scaleformation)anddissolvedgases(oxygenandcarbondioxide).
Theexternaltreatmentprocessesavailableare:ionexchange
demineralizationreverseosmosisanddeaeration.Beforeanyoftheseare
used,itisnecessarytoremovesuspendedsolidsandcolourfromtheraw
water,becausethesemayfoultheresinsusedinthesubsequenttreatment
sections.
Methodsofpretreatmentincludesimplesedimentationinsettlingtanksor
settlinginclarifierswithaidofcoagulantsandflocculants.Pressuresand
filters,withsprayaerationtoremovecarbondioxideandiron,maybeusedto
removemetalsaltsfromborewellwater.
Thefirststageoftreatmentistoremovehardnesssaltandpossiblynon
hardnesssalts.Removalofonlyhardnesssaltsiscalledsoftening,whiletotal
removalofsaltsfromsolutioniscalleddemineralization.Theprocesses
are:
Ionexchangeprocess(SoftenerPlant)
Inionexchangeprocess,the
Softeningreaction:
hardnessisremovedasthe
Na2R+Ca(HCO3)2CaR+2Na(HCO3)
waterpassesthroughbedof
naturalzeoliteorsyntheticresin
Regenerationreaction
andwithouttheformationofany CaR+2NaCl R+CaCl
2
2
precipitate.Thesimplesttypeis
'baseexchange'inwhichcalcium
andmagnesiumionsareexchangedforsodiumions.Aftersaturation
regenerationisdonewithsodiumchloride.Thesodiumsaltsbeingsoluble,do
notformscalesinboilers.Sincebaseexchangeronlyreplacesthecalcium
andmagnesiumwithsodium,itdoesnotreducetheTDScontent,and
blowdownquantity.Italsodoesnotreducethealkalinity.
Demineralizationisthecompleteremovalofallsalts.Thisisachievedby
usinga"cation"resin,whichexchangesthecationsintherawwaterwith
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hydrogenions,producinghydrochloric,sulphuricandcarbonicacid.Carbonic
acidisremovedindegassingtowerinwhichairisblownthroughtheacid
water.Followingthis,thewaterpassesthroughan"anion"resinwhich
exchangesanionswiththemineralacid(e.g.sulphuricacid)andformswater.
Regenerationofcationsandanionsisnecessaryatintervalsusing,typically,
mineralacidandcausticsodarespectively.Thecompleteremovalofsilica
canbeachievedbycorrectchoiceofanionresin.
Ionexchangeprocessescanbeusedforalmosttotaldemineralizationif
required,asisthecaseinlargeelectricpowerplantboilers
Deaeration
Figure2.10Deaerator
Indeaeration,dissolvedgases,suchasoxygenandcarbondioxide,are
expelledbypreheatingthefeedwaterbeforeitenterstheboiler.
Allnaturalwaterscontaindissolvedgasesinsolution.Certaingases,such
ascarbondioxideandoxygen,greatlyincreasecorrosion.Whenheatedin
boilersystems,carbondioxide(CO2)andoxygen(O2)arereleasedasgases
andcombinewithwater(H2O)toformcarbonicacid,(H2CO3).
Removalofoxygen,carbondioxideandothernoncondensablegasesfrom
boilerfeedwaterisvitaltoboilerequipmentlongevityaswellassafetyof
operation.Carbonicacidcorrodesmetalreducingthelifeofequipmentand
piping.Italsodissolvesiron(Fe)whichwhenreturnedtotheboiler
precipitatesandcausesscalingontheboilerandtubes.Thisscalenotonly
contributestoreducingthelifeoftheequipmentbutalsoincreasesthe
amountofenergyneededtoachieveheattransfer.
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Deaerationcanbedonebymechanicaldeaeration,bychemicalde
derationorbybothtogether.
Mechanicaldeaeration
Mechanicaldeaerationfortheremovalofthesedissolvedgasesistypically
utilizedpriortotheadditionofchemicaloxygenscavengers.Mechanicalde
aerationisbasedonCharles'andHenry'slawsofphysics.Simplified,these
lawsstatethatremovalofoxygenandcarbondioxidecanbeaccomplished
byheatingtheboilerfeedwater,whichreducestheconcentrationofoxygen
andcarbondioxideintheatmospheresurroundingthefeedwater.Mechanical
deaerationcanbethemosteconomical.Theyoperateattheboilingpointof
wateratthepressureinthedeaerator.Theycanbeofvacuumorpressure
type.
Thevacuumtypeofdeaeratoroperatesbelowatmosphericpressure,at
about82oC,canreducetheoxygencontentinwatertolessthan0.02mg/litre.
Vacuumpumpsorsteamejectorsarerequiredtomaintainthevacuum.
Thepressuretypedeaeratorsoperatesbyallowingsteamintothefeedwater
throughapressurecontrolvalvetomaintainthedesiredoperatingpressure,
andhencetemperatureataminimumof105oC.Thesteamraisesthewater
temperaturecausingthereleaseofO2andCO2gasesthatarethenvented
fromthesystem.Thistypecanreducetheoxygencontentto0.005mg/litre.
Whereexcesslowpressuresteamisavailable,theoperatingpressurecan
beselectedtomakeuseofthissteamandhenceimprovefueleconomy.In
boilersystems,steamispreferredfordeaerationbecause:
SteamisessentiallyfreefromO2andCO2,
Steamisreadilyavailable
Steamaddstheheatrequiredtocompletethereaction.
ChemicaldeAeration
Whilethemostefficientmechanicaldeaeratorsreduceoxygentoverylow
levels(0.005mg/litre),eventraceamountsofoxygenmaycausecorrosion
damagetoasystem.Consequently,goodoperatingpracticerequiresremoval
ofthattraceoxygenwithachemicaloxygenscavengersuchassodiumsulfite
orhydrazine.Sodiumsulphitereactswithoxygentoformsodiumsulphate,
whichincreasestheTDSintheboilerwaterandhenceincreasesthe
blowdownrequirementsandmakeupwaterquality.Hydrazinereactswith
oxygentoformnitrogenandwater.Itisinvariablyusedinhighpressures
boilerswhenlowboilerwatersolidsarenecessary,asitdoesnotincreasethe
TDSoftheboilerwater.
ReverseOsmosis
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ReverseOsmosis
Reverseosmosisusesthefactthatwhensolutionsofdifferingconcentrations
areseparatedbyasemipermeablemembrane,waterfromlessconcentrated
solutionpassesthroughthemembranetodilutetheliquidofhigh
concentration.Ifthesolutionofhighconcentrationispressurized,theprocess
isreversedandthewaterfromthesolutionofhighconcentrationflowstothe
weakersolution.Thisisknownasreverseosmosis.Thequalityofwater
produceddependsupontheconcentrationofthesolutiononthehigh
pressuresideandpressuredifferentialascrossthemembrane.Thisprocess
issuitableforwaterswithveryhighTDS,suchasseawater.
The
semipermeable
nature of the
membrane
allows
the
water to pass
much
more
readilythanthe
dissolved
minerals.Since
thewaterinthe
less
concentrated
solution seeks
to dilute the
more
concentrated
solution, the
water passage
through
the
membrane
generates
a
noticeable
headdifference
between the
two solutions.
This
head
difference is a
measureofthe
concentration
difference of
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the
two
solutions and
is referred to
as the osmotic
pressure
difference.
BACKTO
TOP
When
a
pressure
is
applied to the
concentrated
solution which
is great that
the
osmotic
pressure
difference, the
direction
of
water passage
through
the
membrane is
reversed and
the
process
thatwereferto
as
reverse
osmosis
is
established.
That is, the
membrane's
ability
to
selectively
pass water is
unchanged,
only
the
direction of the
water flow is
changed.
Thefeedwater
and
concentrate
(reject stream)
ports illustrates
a continuously
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operating RO
system.
Figure2.11ReverseOsmosis
Recommendedboilerandfeedwaterquality
Theimpuritiesfoundinboilerwaterdependontheuntreatedfeedwater
quality,thetreatmentprocessusedandtheboileroperatingprocedures.Asa
generalrule,thehighertheboileroperatingpressure,thegreaterwillbethe
sensitivitytoimpurities.Recommendedfeedwaterandboilerwaterlimitsare
showninTable2.2andTable2.3.
TABLE2.2RECOMMENDEDFEEDWATERLIMITS
Factor
Totaliron(max)
ppm
Totalcopper
(max)ppm
Totalsilica(max)
ppm
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TOP
Oxygen(max)
ppm
Hydrazine
residualppm
pHat25oC
Hardness,ppm
Upto20
kg/cm2
2139
kg/cm2
4159
kg/cm2
0.05
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
1.0
0.3
0.1
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.020.04
8.89.2
10
8.89.2
0.5
8.29.2
TABLE2.3RECOMMENDEDBOILERWATERLIMITS
(IS10392,YEAR1982)
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Factor
TDS,ppm
Totalirondissolved
solidsppm
Specificelectrical
conductivity
at25oC(mho)
Phosphateresidual
ppm
pHat25oC
Silica(max)ppm
Upto20
2139
2
kg/cm
kg/cm2
30003500 15002500
4059
kg/cm2
5001500
500
200
150
1000
400
300
2040
2040
1525
1010.5
25
1010.5
15
9.810.2
10
2.7EnergyConservationOpportunities
Thevariousenergyefficiencyopportunitiesinboilersystemcanberelatedto
combustion,heattransfer,avoidablelosses,highauxiliarypower
consumption,waterqualityandblowdown.
Examiningthefollowingfactorscanindicateifaboilerisbeingrunto
maximizeitsefficiency:
1.StackTemperature
Thestacktemperatureshouldbeaslowaspossible.However,itshouldnot
besolowthatwatervaporintheexhaustcondensesonthestackwalls.This
isimportantinfuelscontainingsignficantsulphuraslowtemperaturecanlead
tosulphurdewpointcorrosion.Stacktemperaturesgreaterthan200oC
indicatespotentialforrecoveryofwasteheat.Italsoindicatethescalingof
heattransfer/recoveryequipmentandhencetheurgencyoftakinganearly
shutdownforwater/fluesidecleaning.
2.FeedWaterPreheatingusingEconomiser
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Typically,thefluegasesleavingamodern3passshellboilerareat
temperaturesof200to300oC.Thus,thereisapotentialtorecoverheatfrom
thesegases.Thefluegasexittemperaturefromaboilerisusually
maintainedataminimumof200oC,sothatthesulphuroxidesinthefluegas
donotcondenseandcausecorrosioninheattransfersurfaces.Whenaclean
fuelsuchasnaturalgas,LPGorgasoilisused,theeconomyofheat
recoverymustbeworkedout,asthefluegastemperaturemaybewellbelow
200oC.
Thepotentialforenergysavingdependsonthetypeofboilerinstalledand
thefuelused.Foratypicallyoldermodelshellboiler,withafluegasexit
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temperatureof260oC,aneconomizercouldbeusedtoreduceitto200oC,
increasingthefeedwatertemperatureby15oC.Increaseinoverallthermal
efficiencywouldbeintheorderof3%.Foramodern3passshellboilerfiring
naturalgaswithafluegasexittemperatureof140oCacondensing
economizerwouldreducetheexittemperatureto65oCincreasingthermal
efficiencyby5%.
3.CombustionAirPreheat
Combustionairpreheatingisanalternativetofeedwaterheating.Inorderto
improvethermalefficiencyby1%,thecombustionairtemperaturemustbe
raisedby20oC.Mostgasandoilburnersusedinaboilerplantarenot
designedforhighairpreheattemperatures.
Modernburnerscanwithstandmuchhighercombustionairpreheat,soitis
possibletoconsidersuchunitsasheatexchangersintheexitflueasan
alternativetoaneconomizer,wheneitherspaceorahighfeedwaterreturn
temperaturemakeitviable.
4.IncompleteCombustion
Incompletecombustioncanarisefromashortageofairorsurplusoffuelor
poordistributionoffuel.Itisusuallyobviousfromthecolourorsmoke,and
mustbecorrectedimmediately.
Inthecaseofoilandgasfiredsystems,COorsmoke(foroilfiredsystems
only)withnormalorhighexcessairindicatesburnersystemproblems.A
morefrequentcauseofincompletecombustionisthepoormixingoffueland
airattheburner.Pooroilfirescanresultfromimproperviscosity,worntips,
carbonizationontipsanddeteriorationofdiffusersorspinnerplates.
Withcoalfiring,unburnedcarboncancompriseabigloss.Itoccursasgrit
carryoverorcarboninashandmayamounttomorethan2%oftheheat
suppliedtotheboiler.Nonuniformfuelsizecouldbeoneofthereasonsfor
incompletecombustion.Inchaingratestokers,largelumpswillnotburnout
completely,whilesmallpiecesandfinesmayblocktheairpassage,thus
BACKTO
causingpoorairdistribution.Insprinklerstokers,stokergratecondition,fuel
TOP
distributors,windboxairregulationandoverfiresystemscanaffectcarbon
loss.Increaseinthefinesinpulverizedcoalalsoincreasescarbonloss.
5.ExcessAirControl
TheTable2.4givesthetheoreticalamountofairrequiredforcombustionof
varioustypesoffuel.
Excessairisrequiredinallpracticalcasestoensurecompletecombustion,
toallowforthenormalvariationsincombustionandtoensuresatisfactory
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stackconditionsforsomefuels.Theoptimumexcessairlevelformaximum
boilerefficiencyoccurswhenthesumofthelossesduetoincomplete
combustionandlossduetoheatinfluegasesisminimum.Thislevelvaries
withfurnacedesign,typeofburner,fuelandprocessvariables.Itcanbe
determinedbyconductingtestswithdifferentairfuelratios.
TABLE2.4THEORETICALCOMBUSTIONDATACOMMON
BOILERFUELS
Fuel
CO2%in
kgofair kgof
3
m of Theoretical
flue
req./kg
flue
flue/kg CO2%in
gas
of
gas/kg
offuel dryfluegas achieved
fuel
offuel
inpractice
SolidFuels
Bagasse
3.2
3.43
2.61
20.65
1012
Coal
10.8
11.7
9.40
18.70
1313
(bituminous)
8.4
9.10
6.97
19.40
913
Lignite
4.6
5.63
4.58
19.8
1415
PaddyHusk
5.8
6.4
4.79
20.3
11.13
Wood
LiquidFuels
FurnaceOil
13.90 14.30 11.50
15.0
914
LSHS
14.04
14.63
10.79
15.5
914
TypicalvaluesofexcessairsuppliedforvariousfuelsaregiveninTable2.5.
TABLE2.5EXCESSAIRLEVELSFORDIFFERENTFUELS
ExcessAir(%
Fuel
TypeofFurnaceorBurners
bywt)
Pulverised
Completelywatercooledfurnacefor
1520
coal
slagtapordryashremoval
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TOP
Partiallywatercooledfurnacefordry
ashremoval
1540
Spreaderstoker
Watercoolervibratinggratestokers
3060
3060
Chaingrateandtravelinggatestokers
Underfeedstoker
Oilburners,registertype
1550
2050
1520
Multifuelburnersandflatflame
Highpressureburner
2030
57
Wood
Dutchover(1023%throughgrates)and
Hoffttype
2025
Bagasse
Allfurnaces
2535
Coal
Fueloil
Naturalgas
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Blackliquor
Recoveryfurnacesfordraftandsoda
pulpingprocesses
3040
Controllingexcessairtoanoptimumlevelalwaysresultsinreductioninflue
gaslossesforevery1%reductioninexcessairthereisapproximately0.6%
riseinefficiency.
Variousmethodsareavailabletocontroltheexcessair:
Portableoxygenanalysersanddraftgaugescanbeusedtomakeperiodic
readingstoguidetheoperatortomanuallyadjusttheflowofairfor
optimumoperation.Excessairreductionupto20%isfeasible.
Themostcommonmethodisthecontinuousoxygenanalyzerwithalocal
readoutmounteddraftgauge,bywhichtheoperatorcanadjustairflow.A
furtherreductionof1015%canbeachievedovertheprevioussystem.
Thesamecontinuousoxygenanalyzercanhavearemotecontrolled
pneumaticdamperpositioner,bywhichthereadoutsareavailableina
controlroom.Thisenablesanoperatortoremotelycontrolanumberof
firingsystemssimultaneously.
Themostsophisticatedsystemistheautomaticstackdampercontrol,
whosecostisreallyjustifiedonlyforlargesystems.
6.RadiationandConvectionHeatLoss
Theexternalsurfacesofashellboilerarehotterthanthesurroundings.The
surfacesthusloseheattothesurroundingsdependingonthesurfacearea
andthedifferenceintemperaturebetweenthesurfaceandthesurroundings.
Theheatlossfromtheboilershellisnormallyafixedenergyloss,
irrespectiveoftheboileroutput.Withmodernboilerdesigns,thismay
representonly1.5%onthegrosscalorificvalueatfullrating,butwillincrease
toaround6%,iftheboileroperatesatonly25percentoutput.
Repairingoraugmentinginsulationcanreduceheatlossthroughboiler
wallsandpiping.
BACKTO
TOP
7.AutomaticBlowdownControl
Uncontrolledcontinuousblowdownisverywasteful.Automaticblowdown
controlscanbeinstalledthatsenseandrespondtoboilerwaterconductivity
andpH.A10%blowdownina15kg/cm2boilerresultsin3%efficiencyloss.
8.ReductionofScalingandSootLosses
Inoilandcoalfiredboilers,sootbuildupontubesactsasaninsulatoragainst
heattransfer.Anysuchdepositsshouldberemovedonaregularbasis.
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Elevatedstacktemperaturesmayindicateexcessivesootbuildup.Alsosame
resultwilloccurduetoscalingonthewaterside.
Highexitgastemperaturesatnormalexcessairindicatepoorheattransfer
performance.Thisconditioncanresultfromagradualbuildupofgassideor
watersidedeposits.Watersidedepositsrequireareviewofwatertreatment
proceduresandtubecleaningtoremovedeposits.Anestimated1%efficiency
lossoccurswithevery22oCincreaseinstacktemperature.
Stacktemperatureshouldbecheckedandrecordedregularlyasan
indicatorofsootdeposits.Whenthefluegastemperaturerisesabout20oC
abovethetemperatureforanewlycleanedboiler,itistimetoremovethesoot
deposits.Itis,therefore,recommendedtoinstalladialtypethermometerat
thebaseofthestacktomonitortheexhaustfluegastemperature.
Itisestimatedthat3mmofsootcancauseanincreaseinfuelconsumption
by2.5%duetoincreasedfluegastemperatures.Periodicofflinecleaningof
radiantfurnacesurfaces,boilertubebanks,economizersandairheatersmay
benecessarytoremovestubborndeposits.
9.ReductionofBoilerSteamPressure
Thisisaneffectivemeansofreducingfuelconsumption,ifpermissible,byas
muchas1to2%.Lowersteampressuregivesalowersaturatedsteam
temperatureandwithoutstackheatrecovery,asimilarreductioninthe
temperatureofthefluegastemperatureresults.
Steamisgeneratedatpressuresnormallydictatedbythehighestpressure
/temperaturerequirementsforaparticularprocess.Insomecases,the
processdoesnotoperateallthetime,andthereareperiodswhentheboiler
pressurecouldbereduced.Theenergymanagershouldconsiderpressure
reductioncarefully,beforerecommendingit.Adverseeffects,suchasan
increaseinwatercarryoverfromtheboilerowingtopressurereduction,may
negateanypotentialsaving.Pressureshouldbereducedinstages,andno
morethana20percentreductionshouldbeconsidered.
10.VariableSpeedControlforFans,Blowersand
Pumps
BACKTO
TOP
Variablespeedcontrolisanimportantmeansofachievingenergysavings.
Generally,combustionaircontroliseffectedbythrottlingdampersfittedat
forcedandinduceddraftfans.Thoughdampersaresimplemeansofcontrol,
theylackaccuracy,givingpoorcontrolcharacteristicsatthetopandbottomof
theoperatingrange.Ingeneral,iftheloadcharacteristicoftheboileris
variable,thepossibilityofreplacingthedampersbyaVSDshouldbe
evaluated.
11.EffectofBoilerLoadingonEfficiency
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11.EffectofBoilerLoadingonEfficiency
Themaximumefficiencyoftheboilerdoesnotoccuratfullload,butatabout
twothirdsofthefullload.Iftheloadontheboilerdecreasesfurther,efficiency
alsotendstodecrease.Atzerooutput,theefficiencyoftheboileriszero,and
anyfuelfiredisusedonlytosupplythelosses.Thefactorsaffectingboiler
efficiencyare:
Astheloadfalls,sodoesthevalueofthemassflowrateofthefluegases
throughthetubes.Thisreductioninflowrateforthesameheattransfer
area,reducedtheexitfluegastemperaturesbyasmallextent,reducing
thesensibleheatloss.
Belowhalfload,mostcombustionappliancesneedmoreexcessairtoburn
thefuelcompletely.Thisincreasesthesensibleheatloss
Ingeneral,efficiencyoftheboilerreducessignificantlybelow25%oftherated
loadandasfaraspossible,operationofboilersbelowthislevelshouldbe
avoided
12.ProperBoilerScheduling
Since,theoptimumefficiencyofboilersoccursat6585%offullload,itis
usuallymoreefficient,onthewhole,tooperateafewernumberofboilersat
higherloads,thantooperatealargenumberatlowloads.
13.BoilerReplacement
Thepotentialsavingsfromreplacingaboilerdependontheanticipated
changeinoverallefficiency.Achangeinaboilercanbefinanciallyattractiveif
theexistingboileris:
oldandinefficient
notcapableoffiringcheapersubstitutionfuel
overorundersizedforpresentrequirements
BACKTO
notdesignedforidealloadingconditions
TOP
Thefeasibilitystudyshouldexamineallimplicationsoflongtermfuel
availabilityandcompanygrowthplans.Allfinancialandengineeringfactors
shouldbeconsidered.Sinceboilerplantstraditionallyhaveausefullifeofwell
over25years,replacementmustbecarefullystudied.
2.8CaseStudy
InstallingBoilerEconomiser
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Apapermillretrofittedaneconomisertoexistingboiler.Thegeneral
specificationoftheboilerisgivenbelow:
BoilerCapacity
(T/h)
8
FeedWaterTemp
(oC)
110
SteamPressure
(bar)
18
Fueloil
Furnaceoil
Thethermalefficiencyoftheboilerwasmeasuredandcalculatedbythe
indirectmethodusingfluegasesanalyseranddatalogger.Theresultis
summarisedbelow:
Thermalefficiency :81%
Fluegas
:315oC
temperature
CO2%
:13
CO(ppm)
:167
Thetemperatureinthefluegasisintherangeof315to320oC.Thewaste
heatinthefluegasisrecoveredbyinstallinganeconomizer,whichtransfers
wasteheatfromthefluegasestotheboilerfeedwater.Thisresultedinarise
infeedwatertemperaturebyabout26oC.
BasicData
Averagequantityofsteamgenerated.....
Averagefluegastemperature................
Averagesteamgeneration/kgoffueloil
Feedwaterinlettemperature.................
Fueloilsupplyrate................................
Fluegasquantity...................................
:5T/hr
:315oC
:14kg
:110oC
:314kg/hr
:17.4kg/kgoffuel
CostEconomics
Quantityoffluegases.............................
Quantityofheatavailableinthefluegases
BACKTO
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Riseinthefeedwatertemperature...........
Heatrequiredforpreheatingthefeedwater
Savingintermsoffurnaceoil.....................
Annualoperatinghours...........................
Annualsavingsoffueloil.........................
:31417.4=5463.6kg/h
:5463.60.23(315
200)=144512kCal/h
:26oC.
:5000126=130000
kCal/h
:130000/10000=13kg/h
:8600
:860013=111800kg
Conclusion
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Throughrecoveryofwasteheatbyinstallationofaneconomizer,thepaper
millwasabletosave13kg/hr.offurnaceoil,whichamountstoabout1,11,800
kgoffurnaceoilperannum.
QUESTIONS
1.
Whatistheimportanceofdraftinboilers?
2.
Whatisabalanceddraftsystem?
3.
Whichisthesinglemajorheatlossinboiler?
4.
Explaintheprincipleofmodulatingcontrolinaboiler?
5.
Explaintheprincipleoffiretubeandwatertubeboilers?
6.
Explaintheprinciplesoffluidizedbedcombustionandpulverizedfuel
combustion?
7.
Namethreefactorsaffectingtheboilerefficiencyandexplainbriefly?
8.
Discussthevarioustypesofdraftinboilersystem?
9.
Whatdoyouunderstandbyterminologyfiretubeandwatertubein
boiler?
10. Discussthevarioustypesofheatlossesinaboiler?
11. Howdoyoumeasureboilerefficiencyusingdirectmethod?
12.
Whatdoyouunderstandbytermevaporationratio?Whatarethe
typicalvaluesforcoalandoilfiredboiler?
13. Whatdoyouunderstandbytheterm'TurnDownRatio'?
14.
Whatarethemethodsavailableforassessingtheboilerefficiencyand
explainbriefly?
15. Howdoyouassessboilerblowdownrequirement?
16. Discussautomaticblowdowncontrolsystem?
BACKTO
TOP
17.
Whyblowdownisgiveninboiler?
18. Whatisthefunctionofdeaeratorinboiler?
19. Whatisthedifferencebetweenaneconomizerandanairpreheater?
20.
Listthe5energyconservationmeasuresinimprovingtheboiler
efficiencywithoutinvestment.
21. Whatisintermittentandcontinuousblowdown?
22. Whyissulphurincoalundesirable?
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23. Ismoistureincoalwasteful?
24. Whatisatomisationoffueloilincombustion?
25. Whatarethecausesforheavyblacksmokeinaboiler?
26. 1kgofwaterat25oCisconvertedintosteamatatmospheric
condition.Whatisthevalueofsensibleheatandlatentheataddedto
thesteam?
27. Forboilerat8kg/cm2(g)steampressure.Thefollowingdetailsare
given
Saturationtemperatureofsteam
=170oC
Sensibleheatofwater
=171kCal/kg
Latentheatofevaporation
=490kCal/kg
Moisturecontentinthesteam
=4%
Whatisthetotalheatcontentofthesteam?
28. Thefollowingaretheultimateanalysisforcoal:Calculatethe
stoichiometricairrequirement.
Carbon38%,Ash35%,Hydrogen5%,Sulphur2%.
Forthesamedata,calculatethetheoreticalCO2.
IftheactualmeasuredCO2is8%,findouttheexcessairlevels?
29. Apackagedboilerisoperatingat5%O2.Findouttheexcessairlevel?
30. Inafurnaceoilfiredboiler,theevaporationratio(kgofsteam
generated/kgoffurnaceoil)wasfoundtobe20againstabest
possiblelimitof13.(a)inyouropinionwhatcouldbethereasonsfor
thesame?(b)wouldyouliketorecommendtheusertomaintainthe
samepracticeandconditionsastheevaporationratioismorethanthe
feasiblelimit?
REFERENCES
1.SteamBoilerRoomQuestions&Answers,ThirdEditionbyStephen
BACKTO
TOP M.ElonkaandAlexHiggins
2.SteamBoilerOperationbyJamesJ.Jackson,PrenticeHallInc,New
Jersey,1980.
3.BoilersbyCarlD.Shields,McGrawHillBookCompany,U.S,1961.
4.IndustrialHeatGenerationandDistributionNIFESTrainingManual
IssuedForCECIndiaEnergyBusProject
5.PracticalBoilerWaterTreatmentbyLeo.I.Pincus,McGrawHillInc,New
York,1962.
6.TechnicalPapers,BoilerCongress2000Seminar,11&12January2000
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11/21/2016
7.IndustrialBoilersbyDavidGunnandRobertHorton,LongmanScientific
&Technical,NewYork
8.SteamGeneration,DistributionandUtilisationbyTERI,GTZandEMC
9.EfficientOperationofBoilersbyNationalProductivityCouncil
www.eren.doe.gov(www.eren.doe.gov)
www.oit.doe.gov/bestpractices(www.oit.doe.gov/bestpractices)
www.pcra.org(www.pcra.org)
www.energyefficiency.gov.uk(www.energyefficiency.gov.uk)
www.actionenergy.org.uk(www.actionenergy.org.uk)
www.cia.org.uk(www.cia.org.uk)
www.altenergy.com(www.altenergy.com)
Course2Lesson(/advancedtraining/course2systemsandplants/course2lesson)
AbouttheAuthor
(/content/varkiethomas)
VarkieC.Thomas,Ph.D.,P.E.Research
ProfessorCollegeofArchitectureIllinois
InstituteofTechnologyChicago,Illinois,USA
VarkieThomastaughtgraduatecoursesinEnergyEfficientBuildingDesign,
BuildingEnergyPerformanceAnalysisandadviseddoctoralcandidates
(19962008)asanAdjunctProfessoratIllinoisInstituteofTechnology(IIT)
fromSOM.HeiscurrentlyaResearchProfessorwiththePh.D.programat
IIT.HewasamemberoftheUNTechnicalProgramtoChinain1991anda
VisitingProfessorfromPurdueinMalaysiain1996/97fundedbytheWorld
Bank.
BACKTO
TOP
Academic:B.Sc.(Honors)inMathematicsfromSt.XaviersCollegeBombay
UniversityPostGraduateDiplomainEnvironmentalEngineeringfrom
LondonSouthBankUniversityPostGraduateDiploma(withDistinction)and
Ph.D.inIndustrialManagementfromStrathclydeUniversityGlasgow.
RegisteredProfessionalEngineer(P.E.)andCertifiedEnergyManager(CEM
Association.ofEnergyEngineers).
Instructors(/category/aboutus/instructors)
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