Environmental Risks of Mining

Mining can impact local communities both positively and negatively. While positive impacts such as
employment and community development projects are important, they do not off-set the potential
negatives.
We have found mining can Negatively Affect people by:

Forcing them from their homes and land

Preventing them from accessing clean land and water

Impacting on their health and livelihoods

Causing divisions in communities over who benefits from the mine and who doesnt

Changing the social dynamics of a community

Exposing them to harassment by mine or government security

These impacts are exacerbated when local people arent consulted and are given no information about a
planned mine. Even worse is when people are not given a say on whether or not a mine should even be
developed.
The potential benefits that mining brings to a community can be undermined if secrecy surrounds the
payment of mining taxes to the government or the benefits shared at the local level.
The gendered impacts of mining
Our work shows that the impacts of mining are not gender neutral. Women often experience the negative
impacts of mining more than men, and rarely receive the benefits that men do.
Our works shows that:

women arent consulted when companies negotiate access to land, compensation or benefits

when mining damages the environment, it undermines womens ability to provide food and clean
water for their families and can increase their workload

compensation and benefits are paid to men on behalf of their families, denying women access to
minings financial benefits and potentially increasing their economic dependence on men

women can lose their traditional status in society when mining creates a cash-based economy

a transient male work force can bring increased alcohol, sex workers and violence into a
community, which can affect womens safety

women mine workers often face discrimination, poor working conditions and unequal pay for
equal work

Unregulated mining has the potential to release harmful substances into the soil, air, and water. Mission
2016 proposes that governments enforce regulations on companies and use cutting-edge technology to

reduce the damage from mining-related sources. As more mines open in countries with varying levels of
environmental protection, it is increasingly vital that safeguards established by the Strategic Minerals
Association (SMA) are in place before operations proceed

Environmental Damages of Mining

Open pit mining
Open pit mining, where material is excavated from an open pit, is one of the most common forms of mining
for strategic minerals. This type of mining is particularly damaging to the environment because strategic
minerals are often only available in small concentrations, which increases the amount of ore needed to be
mined.
Environmental hazards are present during every step of the open-pit mining process. Hardrock mining
exposes rock that has lain unexposed for geological eras. When crushed, these rocks expose radioactive
elements, asbestos-like minerals, and metallic dust. During separation, residual rock slurries, which are
mixtures of pulverized rock and liquid, are produced as tailings, toxic and radioactive elements from these
liquids can leak into bedrock if not properly contained.

Underground Mining
Underground mining has the potential for tunnel collapses and land subsidence (Betournay, 2011). It
involves large-scale movements of waste rock and vegetation, similar to open pit mining. Additionally,
like most traditional forms of mining, underground mining can release toxic compounds into the air and
water. As water takes on harmful concentrations of minerals and heavy metals, it becomes a contaminant.
Mercury is commonly used in as an amalgamating agent to facilitate the recovery of some precious
ores (Miranda et al., 1998). Mercury tailings then become a major source of concern, and improper
disposal can lead to contamination of the atmosphere and neighboring bodies of water. Most
underground mining operations increase sedimentation in nearby rivers through their use of hydraulic
pumps and suction dredges; blasting with hydraulic pumps removes ecologically valuable topsoil
containing seed banks, making it difficult for vegetation to recover (Miranda et al., 1998). Deforestation
due to mining leads to the disintegration of biomes and contributes to the effects of erosion.

In situ leach (ISL) mining

ISL mining has environmental and safety advantages over conventional mining in that the ore body is
dissolved and then pumped out, leaving minimal surface disturbance and no tailings or waste rock (World
Nuclear Association, 2012). There is no ore dust or direct ore exposure to the environment and a lower
consumption of water is needed in the mining process (International Atomic Energy Agency [IAEA],
2005). However, the strong acids used to dissolve the ore body commonly dissolve metals in the host
rock as well. The fluids remaining after the leaching process commonly contain elevated concentrations
of metals and radioactive isotopes, posing a significant risk to nearby ground and surface water
sources (IAEA, 2005). Additionally, the low pH of ISL mining wastewater can result in acidification of the
surrounding environment.

Heap Leaching
Environmental issues with heap leaching are centered on the failure to keep process solutions within the
heap leaching circuit. Release of toxic heap leaching fluids into the environment can affect the health of

both the surrounding ecosystem and human population (Reichardt, 2008). Water balance is crucial in
heap leaching projects because of the possibility of the overflow of solutions containing toxic
concentrations of heavy metals after a heavy rainfall or rapid snowmelt (Norman & Raforth, 1994). In some
cases cyanide is used to extract metals from oxidized ores and the resulting leach ponds have caused
significant wildlife mortality, including the deaths of about 7,613 animals between 1980 and 1989 at
cyanide-extraction ponds in California, Nevada, and Arizona (Eisler, 1991).

Brine Mining
Brine mining involves extracting and evaporating the brine solutions to remove harmful elements and
compounds (Gruber et al., 2011), potentially releasing them into the environment. The drilling and
transport of brine solutions can disrupt existing ecosystems and well casings, pipelines, and storage tanks
are subject to corrosion due to the high salinity content of the solutions that they are exposed to, which
can lead to leaks and contamination of adjacent bodies of water (New York State Division of Mineral
Resources, 1988) Currently, there is no economically plausible plan to clean up contamination of an aquifer
by sodium chloride and harmful concentrations of chloride inhibit plant growth and can cause fish kills
(Division of Mineral Resources, 1988).

Specific Contaminant Materials

Radionuclides
All REE-bearing minerals contain low levels of the radioactive isotopes that can become concentrated in
mine tailings. Radionuclides are released as dust during mining or from exposed waste rock stockpiles
where they are least containable (and mostly airborne). Radiation can also leak into the ground, and nearby
water sources after they have been separated into tailings, if the tailings are not stored safely. Once
radionuclides are in an ecosystem, they accumulate in plants, where the higher concentrations are
ingested and ascend the levels of the food chain (Paul & Campbell, 2011).Radioactive contamination has
become such a problem that monazite mining has been banned by China and the United States has imposed
strict regulations effectively accomplishing the same (Schuler, Buchert , Liu , Stefanie & Merz, 2011).

Dust & Metal

When companies break up materials during mining, the dust can release a variety of heavy metals
commonly associated with health problems. As dust, these minerals (such as the asbestos-like mineral
riebeckite) can be absorbed into lung tissue, causing problems like pneumoconiosis and

silicosis, commonly known as "Black Lung " (Paul & Campbell, 2011). Another example of
harmful dust generated is flue dust, a byproduct of mining fluorine.
The following chart details how these contaminants enter the environment during mining and refining.
Current mining and refining techniques make contaminant release common. Note: the two columns that
involve waste rock and the column labeled, "No site rehabilitation after cease of mining operation" all
involve mining specifically.

Additional Environmental Problems with Mining:

In addition to the issues addressed above, there are many other environmental issues associated with
mining:

Carbon output
Mining, like most heavy industries, is dependent on fossil fuels, which generate the energy needed to
operate a mine. To combat these carbon emissions, some countries have enacted regulations requiring
emission credits, but many countries do not have codes dealing with carbon output ("Molycorp, inc.,"
2010). Some form of environmental standards are needed for larger countries like China and Russia, and
other developing countries that mine large volumes of strategic minerals.

Erosion and endangered species habitat

Mining is an inherently invasive process that can cause damage to a landscape in an area much larger
than the mining site itself. The effects of this damage can continue years after a mine has shut down,
including the addition to greenhouse gasses, death of flora and fauna, and erosion of land and habitat.

Water use and wastewater

Most modern mining techniques have high water demands for extraction, processing, and waste
disposal. Wastewater from these processes can pollute water sources nearby and deplete freshwater
supplies in the region surrounding the mine. Some mines, such as the Mountain Pass mine in southern
California, have implemented waste-water recycling technologies, resulting in a huge decrease in water
demands and liquid waste (Molycorp, 2012).

Case Studies
We have compiled three short case studies of environmentally-harmful mines, to illustrate the results on the
environment and surrounding community of poorly regulated or monitored mines.
Greenland

Greenland Minerals and Energy Ltd, based out of Australia, planned to open a mine in Greenland in 2013.
However, the tailings disposal plan involved storing tailings in the Taseq lake, which will cause pollution of
not only the lake, but the rivers leading from it and the ocean beyond. Fluorine, heavy metals, and
radioactive decay products would all be introduced into the lake by these tailings (Schuler et al, 2011). Due
to the lack of environmental regulations from Denmark, the country overseeing the project, plans for the
mine continue to move forward, despite the harmful effects it would have on the environment and the
surrounding community.
China
Current estimates state that around 20,000 tons of REEs are illegally mined and exported from "off-grid"
mines in China every year. It is unlikely that any of these illegal mines have environmental safeguards in
place, which means that contamination, dust, and other wastes are not being addressed. This affects the
health of the workers as well as destroys the surrounding environment (Schuler et al, 2011).

Cost of inaction/action
If no action is taken to remediate the many environmental problems inherent to modern mining, the end
cost for governments and communities would be devastating. Already mines in China release 9,600 to
12,000 cubic meters of toxic gas containing flue dust concentrate, hydrofluoric acid, sulfur dioxide, and
sulfuric acid for each ton of rare earth elements produced. Additionally, nearly 75 cubic meters of acidic
waste water and one ton of radioactive waste residue are generated (Paul & Campbell, 2011). Preemptive
actions such as stricter regulations and proper waste disposal strategies can reduce the costs of
environmental damage, and in some cases pay for themselves. For example: the US company Molycorp
spent 10 million USD on its paste-tailings operation, but the water and chemical reagents it was able to
recycle saved have already paid for the installment, in addition to generating less waste. "Although the
operating cost of the paste tailings operation is expected to be greater than it would be for a tailings pond...
we expect that increased water recycling and reduced environmental risks associated with the paste tailings
facility will ultimately mitigate that additional cost" (Molycorp, 2012). Mission 2016's plan will increase
recycling efforts, greener mining and refining techniques, reduce the cost of environmental damage on the
surrounding community, and increase government involvement in the regulation of dirty mining practices.

Environmental impact of mining

The environmental impact of mining includes erosion, formation of sinkholes, loss of biodiversity,
and contamination of soil, groundwater and surface water by chemicals from mining processes. In some
cases, additional forest logging is done in the vicinity of mines to increase the gold volume for the sick and
room for the storage of the created debris and soil. [1] Besides creating environmental damage, the
contamination resulting from leakage of chemicals also affect the health of the local population. [2] Mining
companies in some countries are required to follow environmental and rehabilitation codes, ensuring the
area mined is returned close to its original state. Some mining methods may have significant environmental
and public health effects. Nuss and Eckelman (2014) [3]provide an overview of the life-cycle wide
environmental impacts of metals production associated with 62 metals in year 2008.
Erosion of exposed hillsides, mine dumps, tailings dams and resultant siltation of drainages, creeks and
rivers can significantly impact the surrounding areas, a prime example being the giant Ok Tedi
Mine in Papua New Guinea. In areas of wilderness mining may cause destruction and disturbance
of ecosystems and habitats, and in areas of farming it may disturb or destroy productive grazing and

croplands. In urbanised environments mining may produce noise pollution, dust pollution and visual
pollution.
1. Physical disturbances to the landscape
Erosion and Sedimentation
Subsidence & formation of sinkholes
2. Impacts of mining projects on soil quality
3. Contamination of groundwater and surface water
Mobilization of metals in waste rock
Acid rock drainage from waste rock
Acid seepage from tailings
Cyanide & Other Chemical Releases
4. Air contamination-Fugitive Dust Emissions
5. Ecology
Deforestation-species extinction
Habitat Modification
Loss of biodiversity
Impacts of mining projects on wildlife
6. Public safety
Health hazards--respiratory and skin diseases-asbestosis, silicosis, black lung
Incidental releases of mercury
Noise and vibration
7. Impacts of mining projects on social values
Human displacement and resettlement
Impacts of migration
Lost access to clean water
Impacts on livelihoods
Impacts on public health
Impacts to cultural and aesthetic resources
8. Climate change considerations

Physical disturbances to the landscape

The largest physical disturbances at a mine site are the actual mine workings, such as open pits and the
associated waste rock disposal areas. Mining facilities such as offices, shops, and mills, which occupy a
small part of the disturbed area, are usually salvaged or demolished when the mine is closed. The open pits
and waste rock disposal areas are the principal visual and aesthetic impacts of mining. Underground
mining generally results in relatively small waste rock disposal areas ranging from a few acres in size to
tens of acres (0.1 km2). These areas are typically located near the openings of the underground
workings. Open pit mining disturbs larger areas than underground mining, and thus has larger visual and

physical impacts. As the amount of waste rock in open pit mines is commonly two to three times the
amount of ore produced, tremendous volumes of waste rock are removed from the pits and deposited in
areas nearby.
Waste piles from processing, such as tailings impoundments, leach piles, and slag piles vary in size, but
can be very large. The impoundments associated with some of the largest mills, such as at open pit copper
mines, can cover thousands of acres (tens of km2) and be several hundred feet (about 100 m) thick. Heap
leach piles can cover tens to hundreds of acres (0.1 to 1 km2) and be a few hundred feet (about 100 m)
high. They resemble waste rock piles in location and size, but are more precisely engineered. Slag is a
glassy by-product of smelting; slag piles can cover tens to hundreds of acres (0.1 to 1 km2) and be over
100 hundred feet (30 m) high.
These impacts remain on the landscape until the disturbed areas are stabilized and reclaimed for other
uses, such as wildlife habitat or recreation areas, after mining has ceased.

Erosion and Sedimentation

When material is disturbed in significant quantities, as it is in the mining process, large quantities of
sediment are transported by water erosion. The sediment eventually drops out of solution and sedimentation
occurs at some point downstream from the erosive source. The degree of erosion and sedimentation
depends on: the degree to which the surface has been disturbed, the prevalence of vegetative cover, the type
of soil, the slope length, and the degree of the slope.
Erosion and sedimentation affect surface water and wetlands more than any other media. Erosion can
adversely affect soil organisms, vegetation, and revegetation efforts because it results in the movement
of soil, including topsoil and nutrients, from one location to another.

Subsidence & formation of sinkholes

Impacts of mining projects on soil quality

Mining can contaminate soils over a large area. Agricultural activities near a mining project may be particularly
affected. According to a study commissioned by the European Union:
Mining operations routinely modify the surrounding landscape by exposing previously undisturbed earthen
materials. Erosion of exposed soils, extracted mineral ores, tailings, and fine material in waste rock piles can result in
substantial sediment loading to surface waters and drainage ways. In addition, spills and leaks of hazardous materials
and the deposition of contaminated windblown dust can lead to soil contamination.
SOIL CONTAMINATION:
Human health and environmental risks from soils generally fall into two categories:
(1) contaminated soil resulting from windblown dust, and
(2) soils contaminated from chemical spills and residues.
Fugitive dust can pose significant environmental problems at some mines. The inherent toxicity of the dust depends
upon the proximity of environmental receptors and type of ore being mined. High levels of arsenic, lead, and
radionucleides in windblown dust usually pose the greatest risk. Soils contaminated from chemical spills and residues
at mine sites may pose a direct contact risk when these materials are misused

Contamination of groundwater and surface water

Water pollution
Mining can have adverse effects on surrounding surface and groundwater if protective measures are not
taken. The result can be unnaturally high concentrations of some chemicals, such as arsenic, sulfuric acid,

and mercury over a significant area of surface or subsurface.[4] Runoff of mere soil or rock debris -although
non-toxic- also devastates the surrounding vegetation. The dumping of the runoff in surface waters or in
forests is the worst option here. Submarine tailings disposal is regarded as a better option (if the soil is
pumped to a great depth).[5] Mere land storage and refilling of the mine after it has been depleted is even
better, if no forests need to be cleared for the storage of the debris. There is potential for massive
contamination of the area surrounding mines due to the various chemicals used in the mining process as
well as the potentially damaging compounds and metals removed from the ground with the ore. Large
amounts of water produced from mine drainage, mine cooling, aqueous extraction and other mining
processes increases the potential for these chemicals to contaminate ground and surface water. In wellregulated mines, hydrologists and geologists take careful measurements of water and soil to exclude any
type of water contamination that could be caused by the mine's operations. The reducing or eliminating of
environmental degradation is enforced in modern American mining by federal and state law, by restricting
operators to meet standards for protecting surface and ground water from contamination. This is best done
through the use of non-toxic extraction processes as bioleaching. If the project site becomes nonetheless
polluted, mitigation techniques such as acid mine drainage (AMD) need to be performed.
The five principal technologies used to monitor and control water flow at mine sites are diversion systems,
containment ponds, groundwater pumping systems, subsurface drainage systems, and subsurface barriers.
In the case of AMD, contaminated water is generally pumped to a treatment facility that neutralizes the
contaminants.[6]
A 2006 review of environmental impact statements found that "water quality predictions made after
considering the effects of mitigations largely underestimated actual impacts to groundwater, seeps, and
surface water"

Mobilization of metals in waste rock

Waste rock disposal areas are usually located as close to the mine as possible to minimize haulage costs. If
not properly managed, erosion of mineralized waste rock into surface drainages may lead to
concentrations of metals in stream sediments. This situation can be potentially harmful, particularly if
the metals are in a chemical form that allows them to be easily released from the sediments into stream
waters. When this occurs, the metals are considered to be mobilized and bioavailable in the
environment.
In some cases, bioavailable metals are absorbed by plants and animals, causing detrimental effects.
Although current U.S. mining and reclamation practices guided by environmental regulations minimize or
prevent waste rock erosion into streams, disposal of waste rock in places where it could erode into
surface drainages has occurred historically. These conditions still exist at some old or abandoned mines.
Slag is a by-product of the smelting process. Most slags, because they are composed primarily of
oxidized, glassy material, are not as significant a potential source of metals released into the
environment as mine wastes and mill tailings. However, some slags may contain remnant minerals that
can be a potential source of metal release to the environment.

Acid rock drainage from waste rock

Why do we need to rehabilitate mine sites and what is causing the problem? As discussed in the previous
section, the soil and rock (overburden) excavated to expose the materials of interest (i.e. coal, metal ores,
non-metallic ores), in addition to the waste rock and tailings formed during the processing of valuable
minerals, often contain sulfide minerals such a pyrite (FeS2) that when exposed to air and water, will

oxidize and release large quantities of iron and sulfate into solution. In addition, H+ ions are liberated
during the oxidation process producing an acidic solution that readily weathers and releases other trace
minerals (i.e. copper and zinc) into solution. The acidic solution formed, characteristic of high metals and
sulfate and low pH, is generally termed Acid Mine Drainage (AMD).
Acid generation and drainage affect both surface and groundwater. The sources of surface water
contamination are leachate from mine openings, seepage and discharges from waste rock, tailings,
groundwater seepage, and surface water runoff from waste rock and tailings piles. Mined materials
such as waste rock or tailings use for construction or other purposes (i.e. road beds, rock drains, and fill
material) can also produce acid mine drainage.
The environmental impact of AMD can be severe. High concentrations of metals and acidic conditions can
have adverse effects on fish, aquatic plant communities and humans. Nationwide, over 19,300 km
(12,000 miles) of rivers and streams and over 730 km2 (180,000 acres) of lakes and reservoirs are
adversely affected by contaminated water draining from abandoned mines. To remedy the problem,
industry in the U.S. spends millions of dollars a day reclaiming mine sites to prevent the formation of acid
mine drainage. However, despite the magnitude of the problem, the situation is much better than it was 30
years ago, when the number of stream miles adversely affected was 50% worse. The improvement can be
attributed to the reclamation of many abandoned operations, and to the regulatory requirements on
mining operations, which now must both prevent AMD generation and treat their effluent water during
and after mining to meet effluent limits.
Many waste rocks contain sulfide minerals associated with metals, such as lead, zinc, copper, silver, or cadmium. An
important sulfide mineral common in waste rock is pyrite, iron sulfide. When pyrite is exposed to air and water, it
undergoes a chemical reaction called oxidation. The oxidation process produces acidic conditions that can inhibit
plant growth at the surface of a waste pile. Bare, non-vegetated, orange-colored surface materials make some waste
rock areas highly visible, and they are the most obvious result of these acidic conditions.

If water infiltrates into pyrite-laden waste rock, the resulting oxidation can acidify the water, enabling it to
dissolve metals such as copper, zinc, and silver. This production of acidic water, is commonly referred to
as acid rock drainage. If acid rock drainage is not prevented from occurring, and if it is left uncontrolled,
the resulting acidic and metal-bearing water may drain into and contaminate streams or migrate into the
local groundwater. The acidity of contaminated groundwater may become neutralized as it moves through
soils and rocks. However, significant levels of dissolved constituents can remain, inhibiting its use for
drinking water or irrigation.
Where acid rock drainage occurs, the dissolution and subsequent mobilization of metals into surface and
groundwater is probably the most significant environmental impact associated with metallic sulfide
mineral mining. Acidic and metal-bearing groundwater occurs in abandoned underground mine workings
and deeper surface excavations that encounter the groundwater of a mineralized area. Because they are
usually located at or below the water table, underground mines act as a type of well which keeps filling
with water. Because these waters migrate through underground mine workings before discharging, they
interact with the minerals and rocks exposed in the mine. If sulfide minerals are present in these rocks,
especially pyrite, the sulfides can oxidize and cause acid rock drainage.

Acid seepage from tailings

Tailings produced from the milling of sulfide ores primarily copper, lead, and zinc ores may have
concentrations of pyrite that are greater than those common in waste rock. Also, because tailings are
composed of small mineral particles the size of fine sand and smaller, they can react with air and

water more readily than waste rocks. Therefore, the potential to develop acidic conditions in pyrite-rich
tailings is very high.
Seepage from tailings can be prevented or minimized by placing an impermeable barrier, such as
clay, at the bottom of the impoundment before tailings disposal. Many pre-1970s tailings impoundments
did not have such barriers. The infiltration of surface water into tailings can be prevented by using
reclamation methods that facilitate runoff rather than ponding of surface waters. If not prevented or
controlled, the acidic and metal-bearing waters from tailings can impact stream habitats and groundwater.

Cyanide & Other Chemical Releases

Chemicals, such as cyanide, are used in the refining process to leach and separate valuable minerals from
other unwanted minerals. Cyanide and other toxic chemicals such as oil, petroleum products, solvents,
acids, and reagants used for processing can be released into the environment and can subsequently affect
water, soil, aquatic organisms, wildlife, waterfowl, and humans. The cyanide-contaminated solution left
after valuable minerals have been removed is placed in a tailings pond or solution retention basin. These
ponds and basins have proven to attract unsuspecting waterfowl and wildlife that suffer both acute and
chronic poisoning as a result of direct contact with and ingestion of cyanide-contaminated solution.
Leakage from the piles of waste that are leached with cyanide can allow release cyanide and other toxic
constituents directly into the environment via surface water and groundwater flow.

Air contamination
Airborne emissions occur during each stage of the mine cycle, but especially during exploration, development,
construction, and operational activities. Mining operations mobilize large amounts of material, and waste piles
containing small size particles are easily dispersed by the wind.
The largest sources of air pollution in mining operations are:
Particulate matter transported by the wind as a result of excavations, blasting, transportation of materials, wind
erosion (more frequent in open-pit mining), fugitive dust from tailings facilities, stockpiles, waste dumps, and haul
roads. Exhaust emissions from mobile sources (cars, trucks, heavy equipment) raise these particulate levels; and
Gas emissions from the combustion of fuels in stationary and mobile sources, explosions, and mineral processing.

At some sites, gas and particulate emissions that were released to the atmosphere from historical
smelting operations have been a source of human health concerns and environmental impacts.
Recognizing the importance of minimizing and mitigating this impact, modern smelters use processes that
drastically reduce particulate and sulfur dioxide emissions.
In the past, sulfur dioxide has been the most common emission of concern, because it reacts with
atmospheric water vapor to form sulfuric acid or acid rain. The acidic conditions that develop in the
soils where these emissions precipitate can harm existing vegetation and prevent new vegetation from
growing. Barren areas near smelting operations have been an enduring environmental impact of historical
smelting. Some impacted areas that have existed for decades are now beginning to recover.
In some cases, the emissions from older metal smelters may have affected human health. For example,
elevated levels of lead in blood have been measured in residents of some communities located near leadzinc smelters during their operation. Today, smelting operations, combined with environmental controls,
are implemented to prevent potential environmental and health issues related to emissions.

Fugitive Dust Emissions

In the process of large-scale earthwork, dust emissions are inevitably a problem. These dust particles
originate from the following potential sources: ore crushing, conveyance of crushed ore, loading bins,
blasting, mine and motor vehicle traffic, use of hauling roads, waste rock piles, windblown tailings, and
disturbed areas. Dust can contain toxic heavy metals such as arsenic, lead, and other. These toxic heavy
metals, when incorporated with dust can contaminate the air. Dust can also deposit in surface water
causing sedimentation and turbidity problems.

Ecology
Deforestation-species extinction
Habitat Modification
The large disturbances caused by mining can disrupt environments, adversely affecting aquatic habitats
(i.e. lakes, ponds, streams, rivers), terrestrial habitats (i.e. deserts, grasslands, forests), and wetlands
that many organisms rely on for survival. The disruption of site hydrology by large consumption or release
of water, manipulation of topography, and the release of particulates and chemicals can all have indirect
impacts on various habitats.

Loss of biodiversity
The implantation of a mine is a major habitat modification, and smaller perturbations occur on a larger
scale than exploitation site, mine-waste residuals contamination of the environment for example. Adverse
effects can be observed long after the end of the mine activity.[9] Destruction or drastic modification of the
original site and anthropogenicsubstances release can have major impact on biodiversity in the area.
Destruction of the habitat is the main component of biodiversity losses, but direct poisoning caused by
mine-extracted material, and indirect poisoning through food and water, can also affect animals, vegetals
and microorganisms. Habitat modification such as pH and temperature modification disturb communities in
the area. Endemic species are especially sensitive, since they need very specific environmental conditions.
Destruction or slight modification of their habitat puts them at the risk of extinction. Habitats can be
damaged when there is not enough terrestrial as well by non-chemicals products, such as large rocks from
the mines that are discarded in the surrounding landscape with no concern for impacts on natural habitat.[10]
Concentrations of heavy metals are known to decrease with distance from the mine, [9] and effects on
biodiversity follow the same pattern. Impacts can vary greatly depending on mobility and bioavailability of
the contaminant: less-mobile molecules will stay inert in the environment while highly mobile molecules
will easily move into another compartment or be taken up by organisms. For example, speciation of metals
in sediments could modify their bioavailability, and thus their toxicity for aquatic organisms.[11]
Bioaccumulation plays an important role in polluted habitats: mining impacts on biodiversity should be,
assuming that concentration levels are not high enough to directly kill exposed organisms, greater on the
species on top of the food chain because of this phenomenon.[citation needed]
Adverse mining effects on biodiversity depend to a great extent on the nature of the contaminant, the level
of concentration at which it can be found in the environment, and the nature of the ecosystem itself. Some
species are quite resistant to anthropogenic disturbances, while some others will completely disappear from
the contaminated zone. Time alone does not seem to allow the habitat to recover completely from the
contamination.[12] Remediation takes time,[13] and in most of the cases will not enable the recovery of the
diversity present before the mining activity.

Impacts of mining projects on wildlife

Wildlife is a broad term that refers to all plants and any animals (or other organisms) that are not
domesticated. Mining affects the environment and associated biota through the removal of vegetation and
topsoil, the displacement of fauna, the release of pollutants, and the generation of noise.
Habitat Loss

Habitat Fragmentation

Public safety
Old mining sites are inherently interesting to people, but potentially dangerous as well. They may have
surface pits, exposed or hidden entrances to underground workings, or old intriguing buildings. Another
safety consideration at some mine sites is ground sinking or subsidence. The ground may sink
gradually where underground workings have come close to the surface. Because an unexpected collapse
can occur without warning, such areas usually are identified and should be avoided. When modern
mines are closed, mine owners mitigate such hazards by closing off mine workings, regrading and
decreasing the steep slopes of surface excavations, and salvaging or demolishing buildings and facilities.
In some states where old mining areas are common, such as Colorado and Nevada, current mine owners,
government agencies, or other interested parties may undertake reclamation and safety mitigation
projects that address hazards at these sites. At a minimum, these programs identify hazards, install
warning and no trespass signs, and fence off dangerous areas. The closing of entrances to old
underground workings may also be done as a part of these efforts. Some abandoned mine workings have
become important habitats for bat colonies. Closure of mine openings can be designed to allow the bats
continued access and protection. This practice is especially valuable for endangered bat species.
Because many old mine sites may not be safe, the casual visitor to such sites is cautioned to exercise care
and avoid entering them.

Health hazards--respiratory and skin diseases-asbestosis, silicosis, black

lung
Humans are also affected by mining. There are many diseases that can come from the pollutants that are
released into the air and water during the mining process. For example, during smelting operations
enormous quantities of air pollutants, such as the suspended particulate matter, SO x, arsenic particles and
cadmium are emitted. Metals are usually emitted into the air as particulates.

There are also many occupational health hazards. Most of the miners suffer from various respiratory and
skin diseases. Miners working in different types of mines suffer from asbestosis, silicosis, black lung
disease etc.

Impacts of mining projects on social values

The social impacts of large-scale mining projects are controversial and complex. Mineral development can
create wealth, but it can also cause considerable disruption. Mining projects may create jobs, roads,
schools, and increase the demands of goods and services in remote and impoverished areas, but the benefits
and costs may be unevenly shared. If communities feel they are being unfairly treated or inadequately
compensated, mining projects can lead to social tension and violent conflict.
EIAs can underestimate or even ignore the impacts of mining projects on local people. Communities feel
particularly vulnerable when linkages with authorities and other sectors of the economy are weak, or when
environmental impacts of mining (soil, ai, and water pollution) affect the subsistence and livelihood of local
people.
Power differentials can leave a sense of helplessness when communities confront the potential for change
induced by large and powerful companies. The EIA process should enforce mechanisms that enable local
communities to play effective roles in decisionmaking. Mineral activities must ensure that the basic rights
of the individual and communities affected are upheld and not infringed upon. These must include the right
to control and use land; the right to clean water, a safe environment, and livelihood; the right to be free
from intimidation and violence; and the right to be fairly compensated for loss.

Human displacement and resettlement

The displacement of settled communities is a significant cause of resentment and conflict associated with
large-scale mineral development. Entire communities may be uprooted and forced to shift elsewhere, often
into purpose-built settlements not necessarily of their own choosing. Besides losing their homes,
communities may also lose their land, and thus their livelihoods. Community institutions and power
relations may also be disrupted. Displaced communities are often settled in areas without adequate
resources or are left near the mine, where they may bear the brunt of pollution and contamination. Forced
resettlement can be particularly disastrous for indigenous communities who have strong cultural and
spiritual ties to the lands of their ancestors and who may find it difficult to survive when these are
broken.9

Impacts of migration
One of the most significant impacts of mining activity is the migration of people into a mine area,
particularly in remote parts of developing countries where the mine represents the single most important
economic activity. For example, at the Grasberg mine in Indonesia the local population increased from less
than 1000 in 1973 to between 100,000 and 110,000 in 1999. Similarly, the population of the squatter
settlements around Porgera in PNG, which opened in 1990, has grown from 4000 to over 18,000.10 This
influx of newcomers can have a profound impact on the original inhabitants, and disputes may arise over
land and the way benefits have been shared.
Sudden increases in population can also lead to pressures on land, water, and other resources as well as
bringing problems of sanitation and waste disposal.
Migration effects may extend far beyond the immediate vicinity of the mine. Improved infrastructure can
also bring an influx of settlers. For instance, it is estimated that the 80- meter-wide, 890-kilometre-long

transportation corridor built from the Atlantic Ocean to the Carajas mine in Brazil created an area of
influence of 300,000 square kilometres.

Lost access to clean water

Impacts on water quality and quantity are among the most contentious aspects of mining projects.
Companies insist that the use of modern technologies will ensure environmentally friendly mining
practices. However, evidence of the negative environmental impacts of past mining activity causes local
and downstream populations to worry that new mining activities will adversely affect their water supply. ...
There are major stakes in these conflicts, affecting everything from local livelihood sustainability to the
solvency of national governments. Fears for water quantity and quality have triggered numerous and
sometimes violent conflicts between miners and communities.

Impacts on livelihoods
When mining activities are not adequately managed, the result is degraded soils, water, biodiversity, and
forest resources, which are critical to the subsistence of local people. When contamination is not controlled,
the cost of the contamination is transferred to other economic activities, such as agriculture and fishing. The
situation is made worse when mining activities take place in areas inhabited by populations historically
marginalized, discriminated against, or excluded.
Proponents of mining projects must insure that the basic rights of affected individuals and communities are
upheld and not infringed upon. These include rights to control and use land, the right to clean water, and the
right to livelihood. Such rights may be enshrined in national law, based on and expressed through a range of
international human rights instruments and agreements. All groups are equal under the law, and the interests
of the most vulnerable groups (low-income and marginalized) need to be identified and protected.

Impacts on public health

EIAs of mining projects often underestimate the potential health risks of mining projects. Hazardous
substances and wastes in water, air, and soil can have serious, negative impacts on public health. The World
Health Organization (WHO) defines health as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being,
and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.12
The term hazardous substances is broad and includes all substances that can be harmful to people and/or
the environment. Because of the quantity, concentration, or physical, chemical or infectious characteristics,
hazardous substances may
(1) cause or contribute to an increase of mortality or an increase in serious irreversible or incapacitating
illness; or
(2) pose a substantial present or potential hazard to human health or the environment when improperly
treated, stored, transported, disposed of, or otherwise managed.
Frequent public health problems related to mining activities include:
Water: Surface and ground water contamination with metals and elements; microbiological contamination
from sewage and wastes in campsites and mine worker residential areas;
Air: Exposure to high concentrations of sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, heavy metals, including lead,
mercury and cadmium; and
Soil: Deposition of toxic elements from air emissions.

Mining activities can suddenly affect quality of life and the physical, mental, and social well-being of local
communities. Improvised mining towns and camps often threaten food availability and safety, increasing
the risk of malnourishment. Indirect effects of mining on public health can include increased incidence of
tuberculosis, asthma, chronic bronchitis, and gastrointestinal diseases.

Impacts to cultural and aesthetic resources

Mining activities can cause direct and indirect impacts to cultural resources. Direct impacts can result from
construction and other mining activities. Indirect impacts can result from soil erosion and increased
accessibility to current or proposed mining sites. Mining projects can affect sacred landscapes, historical
infrastructures, and natural landmarks. Potential impacts include:
Complete destruction of the resource through surface disturbance or excavation;
Degradation or destruction, due to topographic or hydrological pattern changes, or from soil movement
(removal, erosion, sedimentation);
Unauthorized removal of artifacts or vandalism as a result of increased access to previously inaccessible
areas;
Visual impacts due to clearing of vegetation, large excavations, dust, and the presence of large-scale
equipment, and vehicles.

Climate change considerations

Every EIA for a project that has the potential to change the global carbon budget should include an
assessment of a projects carbon impact. Large-scale mining projects have the potential to alter global
carbon in at least the following ways:
Lost CO2 uptake by forests and vegetation that is cleared. Many large-scale mining projects are proposed
in heavily forested areas of tropical regions that are critical for absorbing atmospheric carbon dioxide
(CO2) and maintaining a healthy balance between CO2 emissions and CO2 uptake. Some mining projects
propose long-term or even permanent destruction of tropical forests. EIAs for mining projects must include
a careful accounting of how any proposed disturbance of tropical forests will alter the carbon budget. The
EIA should also include an analysis of the potential for the host country to lose funding from international
consortiums that have and will be established to conserve tropical forests.
CO2 emitted by machines (e.g., dieselpowered heavy vehicles) involved in extracting and transporting ore.
The EIA should include a quantitative estimate of CO2 emissions from machines and vehicles that will be
needed during the life of the mining project. These estimates can be based on the rate of fuel consumption
(typically diesel fuel) multiplied by a conversion factor that relates units (typically liters or gallons) of fuel
that is consumed and units (typically metric tons) of CO2 that is emitted.
CO2 emitted by the processing of ore into metal (for example, by pyro-metallurgical versus hydrometallurgical techniques). An example is found in an assessment by CSIRO minerals of Australia which
used the Life Cycle Assessment methodology to estimate the life cycle emissions of greenhouse gases from
copper and nickel production, including mining. This assessment found that Life Cycle greenhouse gas
emissions from copper and nickel production range from 3.3 kilograms (kg) of CO2 per kg of metal for
copper produced by smelting to 16.1 kg of CO2 per kg of metal for nickel produced by pressure acid
leaching followed by solvent extraction and electrowinning.13 The bottom line is that metal mining
generates more than 1 kg of greenhouse gas for every 1 kg of metal that is produced, and this does not take
into account lost carbon uptake of cleared forests.