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To solve the nonlinear equations of motion of the rail-counterweight system, one must
employ a step-by-step time history analysis. Initially in this study, the Newmark- method
was used. This method is quite popular for the numerical integration of the equations of
motion in structural dynamics, especially for nonlinear systems. It was, however, discovered
that there were some problems with this approach in providing accurate enough results,
especially for stiffer brackets. The problem stems from the fact that in the force-deformation
relationships shown in Figures 2.2 and 2.3, there is a several orders of magnitude difference in
the stiffness values of the two portions. This can cause serious inaccuracy problems if the
time step for numerical integration is not chosen properly. The problem is primarily due to the
difficulty in locating the point where the change in the stiffness occurs. It was therefore
considered necessary to investigate the effectiveness and accuracy of other numerical
integration approaches. The methods that were used are: (1) Displacement-based Newmark-
algorithm, (2) Acceleration-based Newmark- algorithm, (3) Predictor-Corrector methods,
137
(4) Runge-Kutta with fixed time steps, an (5) Runge-Kutta with adaptive time steps. In the
following we provide the necessary steps of each numerical algorithm for the nonlinear (bilinear) spring force model for the sake of the completeness of this study, although finally the
Runge-Kutta with adaptive time step was chosen for its accuracy and efficiency.
A.1 Newmark-
Although the method is discussed in many textbooks in structural dynamics (see, for instance,
Chopra, 1995), a brief description of this method specialized for the nonlinear forcedeformation model is provided here. Two approaches are presented, displacement-based and
acceleration based.
Displacement based
The Newmark- method is based on the solution of an incremental form of the equations of
motion. For the equations of motion (2.47), the incremental equilibrium equation is:
!!i
Mq!!i + FD ( q!i+1 ) FD ( q!i ) + FS ( qi+1 ) FS ( qi ) ( f i+1 f i ) = My
(A.1)
FD ( q!i ) = C i q!i
(A.2)
FS ( qi ) = K i qi
(A.3)
where
Assuming a certain specific variation for the acceleration within the time interval t =
ti+1 ti, the incremental velocity and acceleration can be written as:
q!i = c1 qi c2 q!i c3q!!i
(A.4)
(A.5)
138
; c2 =
; c3 = t
1
t
1
1
1
c4 =
; c5 =
; c6 =
2
2
t
t
(A.6)
where = , = for the average acceleration method and = , = 1/6 for the linear
acceleration method.
Substituting (A.4) and (A.5) into (A.1) we obtain:
c4 Mqi + FD ( c1 qi + q!i c2 q!i c3q!!i ) FD ( q!i )
+ FS ( qi + qi ) FS ( qi ) f Pi = 0
(A.7)
where
f i = f i+ 1 f i
(A.8)
(A.9)
If the tangent stiffness K and damping matrix C remain the same during the time step, i.e.
each spring at the corners remain in the same region of the bilinear force-deformation
relationship, equation (A.7) can be solved for qi:
qi = ( c4 M + c1C + K ) Ri
(A.10)
Ri = Pi + C ( c2 q!i + c3q!!i )
(A.11)
where
Once qi is known, the incremental velocity and acceleration can be obtained from (A.4) and
(A.5). They, in turn, can be used to obtain the values at the end of the interval:
qi+1 = qi + qi
139
(A.12)
(A.13)
(A.14)
Usually the acceleration is calculated directly from the equations of motion at time ti+1 instead
of using (A.14).
Because the tangent stiffness K and damping matrix C may not remain the same during
the time step, we have to do iteration using Newton-Raphson scheme where the solution of
function g qi = 0 as in equation (A.7) is calculated incrementally so that
qi = qi
(n)
= qi
(1)
) + ( q ) + ... + ( q )
(2)
(n)
(A.15)
qi
g ( qi )
= dg
d ( qi ) ( k 1)
qi
(k )
(A.16)
qi
(k )
) = (c M + c C
4
( k 1)
+ K ( k 1) ) Ri
1
(k )
(A.17)
where
Ri
(k )
( k 1)
( k 1)
( k 1)
qi+1
K (0) qi f i
+ K
fi
(A.18)
C ( k ) = C ( q!i(+k1) )
(A.19)
K ( k ) = K ( qi(+k1) )
(A.20)
(k )
= f ( qi(+k1) ) f ( qi )
(k )
qi+1
= qi + qi
140
(k )
(A.21)
(A.22)
(k )
(k )
(k )
q!i+1 = q!i + q!i = q!i + c1 qi c2 q!i c3q!!i
(A.23)
The iteration should stop when the deformation of each spring remains in the same
region of the force-deformation diagram at two consecutive iterations. If each spring remains
in the same region at the (k-1)-th and k-th iteration, then:
C ( k ) = C ( k 1)
(A.24)
K ( k ) = K ( k 1)
(A.25)
f i
(k )
= f i
( k 1)
(A.26)
(k )
= qi
( k 1)
+ qi
(k )
(A.27)
the incremental force Ri(k+1) for the next step can be written as:
Ri
( k +1)
= Ri ( c4 M + c1C ( k 1) + K ( k 1) ) qi
k
(k )
= Ri Ri = 0
k
(A.28)
Thus the next correction to the displacement will be zero and the iteration can be stopped.
In the following, the steps of the displacement-based Newmark method for the
numerical integration of equations of motion (2.47) are described.
1. Choose time step t and parameter and .
2. Calculate the constants c1 to c6 from equation (A.6).
3. Initialize the displacement, velocity, and acceleration vectors.
4. Based on displacement vector, record the position of each spring in the force-deformation
diagram.
5. Based on the displacement vector, calculate the tangent stiffness matrix K, damping
matrix C and nonlinear force vector fi.
141
142
Acceleration-based
Some of the constants in (A.6) have t or t2 in their denominator, and this may create some
numerical problems because of the very small time step. Therefore, a numerical scheme
based on the calculation of acceleration first and then the velocity and displacement was
formulated. This formulation did not involve division by small numbers associated with t2
but of course this formulation has terms that are multiplied by these small numbers.
In this scheme approach, the incremental equations of motion are solved for incremental
acceleration first, and the incremental velocity and displacement are calculated from this
incremental acceleration as:
q!i = a1 q!!i + a2 q!!i
(A.29)
(A.30)
where
a1 =
t
t 2
; a2 = t ; a3 = t 2 ; a4 =
2
2
(A.31)
The nonlinear function g(qi) = 0 similar to equation (A.7) for this approach is:
Mq!!i + FD ( q!i + a1 q!!i + a2 q!!i ) FD ( q!i )
+ FS ( qi + a3 q!!i + a4 q!!i ) FS ( qi ) f i Pi = 0
(A.32)
where
!!i
Pi = My
(A.33)
where
143
(A.34)
(A.35)
(k )
1
(k )
= ( M + a1C ( k 1) + a3 K k 1 ) R i
(A.36)
where
Ri = Pi
( k 1)
( k 1)
( k 1)
qi +1
K (0) qi f i
+ K
(k )
q!!i = ( q!!i ) + ( q!!i )
(1)
+ ... + ( q!!i )
(2)
(k )
(A.37)
(A.38)
(k )
(k )
q!i = a1 q!!i + a2 q!!i
(A.39)
(k )
+ a4 q!!i + a2 q!i
(A.40)
(k )
(A.41)
(k )
(k )
q!i +1 = q!i + q!i
(A.42)
qi
= a3 q!!i
(k )
qi+1
(k )
= qi + qi
(2)
+ ... + ( q!!i )
(n)
(A.43)
is obtained when each spring remains on the same region in two consecutive iterations.
In the following, the steps of the acceleration-based Newmark method for the numerical
integration of equations of motion are described.
1. Choose time step t and parameter .
2. Calculate the constants a1 to a4 from equation (A.6).
3. Initialize the displacement, velocity, and acceleration vectors.
4. Based on displacement vector, record the position of each spring in the force-deformation
diagram.
144
5. Based on the displacement vector, calculate the tangent stiffness matrix K, damping
matrix C and nonlinear force vector fi.
6. Calculate Pi from (A.33) and R i from (A.35).
7. Use (A.34), then (A.29), (A.30), (A.12), and (A.13) consecutively to obtain the
displacement and velocity at the next time step, respectively.
8. Based on the new displacement vector, calculate the displacement of each spring and
record the position of each spring in the force-deformation diagram. Compare the position
of each spring to the previous one (step 4). If each spring stays within the same region, the
results of step 7 are final and go to step 13, otherwise the results from step 7 are only the
first approximation and continue to step 9.
9. Based on current (k-1)-th displacement vector, recalculate the tangent stiffness K(k-1),
damping matrix C(k-1) and nonlinear force vector {fi}(k-1).
(k )
10. Calculate R i using (A.37).
11. Use (A.36), then (A.38) through (A.42) consecutively to obtain the next approximation for
displacement and velocity vector.
12. Calculate the displacement of each spring and record the position of each spring in the
force-deformation diagram. Compare the positions to the previous ones. If each of them
stays in the same region, the results from step 11 are final and continue to step 13.
Otherwise, replace the (k-1)-th results with the new approximations and repeat from step
9.
13. Calculate the acceleration for the next time step using the equations of motion.
14. Repeat from step 5 with the next time step.
145
q! = f ( t , q )
(A.44)
qi +1 = qi +
1
( k1 + 2k2 + 2k3 + k4 )
6
(A.45)
where
k1 = t f ( ti , qi )
t
k
k2 = t f ti + , qi + 1
2
2
t
k
k3 = t f ti + , qi + 2
2
2
(A.46)
k4 = t f ( ti + t , qi + k3 )
The equations of motion (2.47) must be transformed into the state space representation
to be solved using this method. The local truncation error for this method is of order O(t5).
This method is relatively easy to implement and gives good accuracy, but as also happen to
other constant time step method, the calculation time may become very large especially in the
case where very small time step is needed.
Adaptive step size
To reduce computation time, adaptive step size version of Runge-Kutta method is used. The
general formula for adaptive step size method of Runge-Kutta is in the form of:
6
qi +1 = qi + cn k n
n =1
where
146
(A.47)
k1 = t f (ti , qi )
n 1
kn = t f ti + an t , qi + bnm km , n = 2,..., 6
m =1
(A.48)
a2 = 15 , a3 = 103 , a4 = 53 , a5 = 1, a6 =
7
8
b21 = 15
b31 =
3
40
, b32 =
9
40
9
, b43 =
b41 = 103 , b42 = 10
6
5
b51 =
11
54
70
27
b61 =
1631
55296
c1 =
37
378
, b52 = 52 , b53 =
, b54 =
35
27
575
44275
, b62 = 175
512 , b63 = 13824 , b64 = 110592 , b65 =
, c2 = 0, c3 =
250
621
253
4096
512
, c4 = 125
594 , c5 = 0, c6 = 1771
t0 = t1 0
1
0.2
(A.49)
Press et al. (1992) found a step size correction that was more reliable with respect to
accumulation of errors as follows
147
0.9t1
t0 =
0.9t1
0
1
0.2
0
1
0.25
for 0 1
(A.50)
for 0 1
with the vector of desired accuracy scaled proportional to the time step:
0 = t f ( ti , qi )
(A.51)
4t
( 2q!i q!i 1 + 2q!i 2 )
3
(A.52)
To speed the convergence, the predicted solution is modified by the truncation errors Ei from
the previous time step:
qi0+1 = qip+1 +
112
Ei
9
(A.53)
(A.54)
(A.55)
and the final solution for the time step is again modified by the truncation error:
qi +1 = qik++11 Ei +1
(A.56)
where
Ei +1 =
9
qik++11 qip+1 )
(
121
(A.57)
As mentioned before, other method has to be used to generate the first starting points, in
this case the first three time step. Here, to be consistent with using predictor-corrector
149
methods, we use lower order predictor-corrector methods, i.e. first-order for the first, secondorder for the second, and third-order for the third time step.
The Euler method is used as predictor for the first-order at the first time step:
qi0+1 = qi + t q!i
(A.58)
t k
( q!1 + q!0 )
2
(A.59)
In the second time step Adams-Bashforth two-step method is used as the predictor:
q20 = q1 +
t
( 3q!1 q!0 )
2
(A.60)
t
5q!2k + 8q!1 q!0 )
(
12
(A.61)
For the third time step we use Adams-Bashforth three-step method as the predictor:
q30 = q2 +
t
( 23q!2 16q!1 + 5q!0 )
12
(A.62)
t
9q!3k + 19q!2 5q!1 + q!0 )
(
24
(A.63)
At every time step mentioned above, the iteration for the corrector is stopped when the
convergence criteria is satisfied.
150
smaller step size is, of course, the total time of computation. The computation time for the
constant time step methods are much longer than that of the adaptive step size.
Finally we try t = 10-6 seconds and the results are shown in Figures A-5 and A-6. The
computation time is not practical anymore since each of the constant time step method takes
more than 40 hours to produce the results, compare to about 15 minutes taken by with the
adaptive step size method on a Pentium 4 machine. All the methods now give results close to
each other, especially with Northridge 0.1g. For the higher excitation level, however, some
differences still persists when the roller is near the support.
The results above show that the adaptive step size of Runge-Kutta is more reliable and
efficient for the analysis. Obviously the computation time is much less with the adaptive time
step method. We could also use a variable time step approach with the Newmark- approach.
In fact, we tried the time steps used in the adaptive scheme with the Newmark- approach,
but had numerical problems for the some of smaller time step values used by the adaptive
scheme. Since the results of the Newmark-, predictor corrector, and RK4 tend to approach
the values calculated by the adaptive Runge-Kutta scheme with improving accuracy for
decreasing values of the time step sizes, this seems to verify the reliability of the latter scheme
as claimed by Press. This method has, therefore, been used in thus study to obtain all the
numerical results.
152
110
100
90
Stress [MPa]
80
70
60
Adaptive RK
3
N Acc., t = 10
3
N Disp., t = 10
3
RK, t = 10
50
40
30
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Ratio au / L
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Figure A.1 Maximum stress in the rail for counterweight in the top story of the building,
Northridge 0.1g.
153
400
350
Stress [MPa]
300
250
200
Adaptive RK
3
N Acc., t = 10
3
N Disp., t = 10
3
RK, t = 10
150
100
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Ratio au / L
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Figure A.2 Maximum stress in the rail for counterweight in the top story of the building,
Northridge 0.843g.
154
110
100
90
Stress [MPa]
80
70
60
Adaptive RK
4
PC, t = 10
4
N, t = 10
4
RK, t = 10
50
40
30
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Ratio au / L
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Figure A.3 Maximum stress in the rail for counterweight in the top story of the building,
Northridge 0.1g.
155
400
Adaptive RK
4
N, t = 10
4
RK, t = 10
350
Stress [MPa]
300
250
200
150
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Ratio au / L
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Figure A.4 Maximum stress in the rail for counterweight in the top story of the building,
Northridge 0.843g.
156
110
100
90
Stress [MPa]
80
70
60
Adaptive RK
6
PC, t = 10
6
N, t = 10
6
RK, t = 10
50
40
30
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Ratio au / L
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Figure A.5 Maximum stress in the rail for counterweight in the top story of the building,
Northridge 0.1g.
157
400
Adaptive RK
6
PC, t = 10
6
N, t = 10
6
RK, t = 10
350
Stress [MPa]
300
250
200
150
100
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Ratio au / L
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Figure A.6 Maximum stress in the rail for counterweight in the top story of the building,
Northridge 0.843g.
158