The Performance Pipe Engineering Manual PDF

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CPChem
PERFORMANCE PIPE
TM
a di
vision of Che
vr
on Phillips Chemical Compan
y LP
division
Chevr
vron
Company
The Performance Pipe

Engineering Manual
TM
Book 1: Engineering Properties

All rights reserved. This publicaiton is fully protected by copyright and nothing that appears in it may
be reprinted, copied, or otherwise reproduced by any means including electronic media, either wholly
or in part, without the express written permission of Performance PipeTM a division of Chevron Phillips
Chemical Company LP.
NOTICE -- This Manual is intended to be used as a guide to support the designer of polyethylene
piping systems. It is not intended to be used as installation instructions, and should not be substituted in place of the advice of a professional design engineer. There may be a more current version
of this manual. Contact Performance PipeTM for more informantion.
PLEXCO, PLEXVUE, and YELLOWSTRIPE are registered trademarks of Chevron Phillips

Chemical Company LP in the United States of America; BLUESTRIPE, CP CHEM, DRISCOPLEX,
GREENSTRIPE, PERFORMANCE PIPE, PLEXCO BLUESTRIPE, PLEXSHIELD, PLEXSTRIPE,
PURPLESTRIPE, REDSTRIPE, and SPIROLITE are trademarks of Chevron Phillips Chemical
Company LP in the United States of America.
2002 Performance PipeTM
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1. About PERFORMANCE PIPE

Performance Pipe1 is the successor to Plexco2 and Driscopipe3. On July 1, 2000, Chevron
Chemical Company and Phillips Chemical Company joined to form Chevron Phillips Chemical
Company LP. Performance Pipe, a division of Chevron Phillips Chemical Company LP,
succeeds Plexco and Driscopipe as North Americas largest producer of polyethylene piping
products for industrial, municipal and utility applications.
Performance Pipe tenders more than forty years of polyethylene piping experience, twelve
manufacturing facilities certified to ISO 9001 in nine states, and two manufacturing facilities in
Mexico.
Performance Pipe manufactures 1/2" through 54" outside diameter controlled polyethylene pipe
and tubing, DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE 18" through 120" inside diameter controlled
polyethylene profile-wall pipe, and molded fittings, fabricated fittings, manholes, tanks, and
fabricated structures for domestic and international markets.
The unmatched quality and performance of DRISCOPLEX polyethylene piping products is
enhanced and strengthened with over four decades of quality polyolefin plastic resin production
from Chevron Phillips Chemical Company.
The Polyethylene Pipe Advantage

Performance Pipe polyethylene piping products have unique features that are ideal for many
varied applications. DRISCOPLEX polyethylene pipes have excellent abrasion resistance,
superb impact resistance, and extraordinary toughness. The smooth, non-wetting bore offers
low resistance to the flow of water, wastewater, and water borne slurries. DRISCOPLEX
polyethylene pipes are resistant to a broad range of corrosive chemicals, they do not support
biological growth, and they resist the adherence of scale and deposits.
Performance Pipe polyethylene piping products are cost-effective solutions for a broad range of
piping applications in gas, water, utility, municipal, industrial, marine, mining, and agricultural
applications; in installations that are above ground, on the surface, buried, sliplined, trenchless,
floating, and submerged. Fluids transported include water, wastewater, slurries, compressed
gasses, odorous and corrosive gasses, chemicals, and hazardous wastes.
Throughout this manual, Performance Pipe refers to Performance Pipe, a division of Chevron Phillips Chemical
Company LP. Performance Pipe followed by a product description (e.g. Performance Pipe polyethylene pipe)
denotes products manufactured by Performance Pipe, and when followed by a product description, Performance Pipe
is a trademark of Chevron Phillips Chemical Company LP. DRISCOPLEX is a trade name of Chevron Phillips
Chemical Company LP. SPIROLITE is a registered trademark (registration pending) of Chevron Phillips Chemical
Company LP.
2
Plexco was formerly a Division of Chevron Chemical Company.
Driscopipe was formerly a Division of Phillips Petroleum Company.
Book 1: Chapter 1: About Performance Pipe

1/21/2002 Supercedes all previous issues
page 1
2002 Chevron Phillips Chemical Company LP
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Some of the features of DRISCOPLEX polyethylene piping products include:
Identification Stripes and Colors
Handling
Flexibility and Toughness
Pressure Rating
Service Temperatures
Non-Contaminating
Outstanding Chemical Resistance
Sealed, Leak-Tight Heat Fusion Joints
Excellent Hydraulics
Surge and Liquid Velocity
Abrasion Resistance
Thermal Expansion
Lower Life Cycle Costs

Color-coding has become the preferred way to identify differences among piping services, sizing
systems, and to differentiate multiple DRs (pressure ratings) on the jobsite. For identification
that is as permanent as the pipe, many DRISCOPLEX products have color stripes extruded
into the pipe surface. Solid color pipes or a color shell extruded on the outside or inside of the
pipe are also available.
Colors to identify applications:
Yellow for natural gas
Blue for potable water
Red for underground fire main
Green for wastewater
Purple for treated effluent
Other stripe colors white, orange, gray to meet application requirements
Color stripe patterns to identify sizing systems:
IPS (iron pipe) sized pipe four color stripes equally spaced around the pipe
DIPS (ductile iron) sized pipe three pairs of color stripes equally spaced around the pipe
Color stripes to identify DR:

Single-striped pipe provides an easy, obvious, quick means to identify the pipe DR (dimension
ratio) on a multiple DR project. Each permanent, co-extruded color designates a different DR
page 2
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which determines pressure rating. Single-striped DRISCOPLEX pipe for mining, industrial and
municipal applications makes installation and inspection more cost effective, and helps ensure
that pipes with the correct pressure rating are installed in their proper location.
Color
White
Red
Yellow
Gray
Orange
Blue
Purple
Green
Pink
Brown
DR
7.3
11
13.5
15.5
17
21
26
32.5
41
Solid Colors
Solid color pipe, duct and conduit are available. DRISCOPLEX 6500 PE 2406 medium
density gas pipe is used world wide for gas distribution. DRISCOPLEX 4600 and
DRISCOPLEX 4700 solid gray pipe facilitates video inspection in sewer applications. Red
and black electrical conduit, and orange, black, gray, blue and white communications duct are
available for single or parallel coil installation.
Handling
Made from materials much, much lighter than ductile iron and reinforced concrete, tough,
lightweight DRISCOPLEX polyethylene pipes do not require the heavy handling and laying
equipment commonly required for ductile iron and concrete pipe. Rather than handling short,
heavy pipe sections, longer lengths of comparably sized polyethylene pipes typically weigh less
than a fifth as much. Some smaller sizes can even be carried by hand.

Polyethylene pipe is flexible, allowing it to follow rolling terrain contours and reducing the need
for fittings.
Caution Protect polyethylene piping against excessive bending and shear loads where pipes
emerge from structures such as walls or casings; and at rigid connections such as flanges and
mechanical joints.
Protect small pipes at connections to plastic or metal tapping tees or service or branch outlets
(protective sleeves should be used).
Protect connections to much larger pipes, tanks, manholes, etc.
During installation, protect fabricated PE fittings against bending.
At a minimum, areas that are subject to bending or shear loads must be carefully installed
and properly supported to minimize undue loads that could result in premature failure.
DRISCOPLEX polyethylene pipes retain working flexibility even in harsh climates and under
adverse conditions. Water within the pipe may freeze solid without damage to the pipe;
however, ice blockages must be thawed before pumping is resumed. Unstable soils and
seasonal freeze/thaw conditions have little effect on this flexible, elastic piping system.
Polyethylene pipe is becoming the material of choice for directional drilling. Its flexibility and
toughness facilitate installation and reduces costs.

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Pressure Rating
Pressure rating is based on long-term sustained pressure tests and analysis that are designed
to replicate the long-term behavior of polyethylene. Long-term performance of polyethylene
materials under stress is characterized by the Hydrostatic Design Basis (HDB), which is
determined using ASTM D 2837. Pressure rating is calculated using the HDB, the pipe diameter
and wall thickness, and appropriate design (safety) factors for temperature and the environment
inside and outside the pipe.
Quick burst is not used to determine pressure rating. Quick bursts are an indication of shortterm strength and ductility, but tests show that long-term performance is dependent on longterm resistance to applied stress, temperature, fatigue and chemical effects. Short-term
properties such as tensile strength and ductility do not provide an indication of service life.
Quick burst pressures for DRISCOPLEX polyethylene pipes are determined by testing under
ASTM D 1599. Typically, quick burst pressures exceed four times the pipes long term pressure
rating.
Sub-freezing temperatures are well tolerated by DRISCOPLEX polyethylene pipes. Operating
service temperatures may be from -50 F (-45 C) or lower, up to 140 F (60 C) for pressure
applications, or up to 180 F (82 C) for non-pressure applications. Pressurized fluids must be
in a flowable liquid or gaseous state.
As with all thermoplastic piping products, service pressure ratings, mechanical design properties
and in some cases, service life expectations are reduced at elevated temperatures.
Non-contaminating
The purity of the fluids being conveyed is safeguarded by the absence of easily extractable
substances. Polyethylene piping materials for potable water applications have been evaluated
and certified by the National Sanitation Foundation to NSF Standard 61. Potable water products
meet the requirements of standards such as AWWA C901 or AWWA C906.

Few materials offer better over-all resistance to corrosive acids, bases and salts. In addition,
polyethylene is unaffected by bacteria, fungi or even aggressive naturally occurring soils. It has
good resistance to many organic substances, such as solvents and fuels.
Polyethylene piping does not rust, rot, corrode, or tuberculate like traditional metal or concrete
piping. It is not subject to galvanic or hydrogen sulfide corrosion.
Sealed Joints
DRISCOPLEX outside-diameter controlled polyethylene pipes can be joined into long,
continuous lengths by heat fusion, a joining technique that provides leak-free joints that are as
strong and chemically resistant as the pipe itself.

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Inside-diameter controlled DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipes are joined using push-on
type, gasketed-spigot-and-bell joints. The DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE joint meets or
exceeds ASTM D 3212 deflected joint leak tightness requirements.
Polyethylene pipe behaves as an ideally smooth conduit, offering extremely low resistance to
the flow of fluids. Superior chemical resistance and a non-wetting (wax-like) surface combine to
virtually eliminate scaling and pitting, and to preserve excellent hydraulic characteristics
throughout the pipes service life.

Unlike traditional piping which may require a working pressure reduction to cope with surge
events, DRISCOPLEX polyethylene pipe is resilient, and can withstand surge-induced
pressures that exceed the pipes pressure rating (pressure class). When joined using properly
made butt fusion joints, fully restrained mechanical connections, and flanged connections, the
allowable water hammer surge pressure may be up to 50% above the pipe pressure rating
(pressure class) when surges are frequent, or up to 100% above the pipe pressure rating
(pressure class) when surges are infrequent. Surge pressure allowance may be restricted when
there are many fittings, and where other appurtenances such as valves or hydrants limit surge
pressures. Because polyethylene is resilient and has a lower elastic modulus, surge pressures
in polyethylene pipe are 80% lower than in ductile iron, and 50% less than in PVC.
Acceptable fluid flow velocity is dependent on the application and on system design. For
example, pressure water system flow velocities as high as 14 fps may be acceptable where
uncontrolled surge is infrequent, and where surge pressures are controlled, velocities higher
than 20 fps may be acceptable.
Abrasion Resistance
Because of its high impact strength, resilience, high molecular weight, and corrosion resistance,
DRISCOPLEX PE 3408 HDPE pipe is used successfully for transporting liquid slurries in
power plants, mining, dredging and similar applications. Polyethylene piping frequently
outwears harder piping materials when conveying many types of abrasive solids in liquid
slurries. In slurry applications, polyethylenes behavior is similar to elastomer-lined pipe where
particles in suspension bounce off the pipe wall. Extra-high molecular weight DRISCOPLEX
PE 3408 HDPE pipe resists impact and cutting abrasion from sharp particles when properly
designed. Particle size and fluid velocity are important considerations for slurry piping design.
WARNING Do not use polyethylene pipe for dry pneumatic slurry or dry sliding
applications. Dry particles sliding on dry polyethylene will cause an electrostatic charge
to build up on the pipe surface, sometimes thousands of volts. A sudden electrostatic
discharge can be hazardous.
Polyethylene pipe is not electrically conductive and cannot be grounded by attaching grounding
wires to the pipe. Dry sliding applications also generate heat from sliding friction that may
reduce pipe structural integrity, or even melt the surface.

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Thermal Expansion
Non-buried pipelines, such as surface or suspended pipelines, or pipelines within above grade
casings, will expand or contract in diameter and length with changing temperature. An
approximate length change allowance is one ten one-hundred, that is about 1" for a 10 F
temperature change for each 100 of pipe.
System designs should accommodate thermal length change effects when they apply. Thermal
expansion and contraction length change can be much greater compared to non-PE piping
systems, but loads on anchors and supports are usually much lower. Hanging the pipe from
supports that allow lateral movement, expansion loops, snaking the pipe in the right-of-way, and
various anchoring techniques may be employed. Expansion joints should not be considered
unless they are designed specifically for PE pipe.
Additional Information
For additional information on use, design and installation considerations, see the Performance
Pipe Engineering Manual Book 2: System Design and the Performance Pipe Engineering
Manual Book 3: System Installation.
Go to Chapter 2

page 6
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2. Performance Pipe Products

Performance Pipe polyethylene pipe, fittings, and fabrications are manufactured using
state-of-the-art pipe extrusion, injection molding, and fabrication processes.
DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipe, fittings and fabrications are manufactured
using proprietary technology for large, inside diameter controlled polyethylene piping,
and state-of-the-art fabrication processes. Performance Pipe products are
manufactured to meet or exceed industry standards for polyethylene piping.
Piping Constructions
Conventionally extruded DRISCOPLEX polyethylene pipe in 3" and larger sizes are
produced in standard 40 or 50 straight lengths. Longer lengths are available, but are
limited by commercial carrier trailer lengths. Longer lengths reduce the number of joints,
and speed installation.
Polyethylene pipe in 6 and smaller sizes is available in coils. Coil dimensions and pipe
length are dependent on diameter and DR (dimension ratio). For 2" and smaller sizes,
coils are standard.
Special handling and laying equipment may be required for coiled pipe. During
installation, 4" through 6" coiled pipe may require field processing through re-rounding
and straightening equipment.
DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipe is inside diameter controlled, and produced
in 20 standard laying lengths. Thirteen-foot lengths are available upon request. Pushon type, gasketed-spigot-and-bell joints are standard.
For information about Performance Pipe polyethylene pipe products, striping, colors,
and for custom products such as special outside diameters, extra heavy or extra thin
walls, special wall profiles, and custom fabrications, contact your Performance Pipe
Distributor or Performance Pipe Territory Manager.
Sizing Systems
Performance Pipe manufactures polyethylene pipe and fittings to meet or exceed
applicable industry standards. Several sizing systems are used:
CTS: Copper Tube Size same OD as inch-sized copper tubing
IPS: Iron Pipe Size same OD as inch-sized iron and steel pipe
DIPS: Ductile Iron Pipe Size same OD as inch-sized ductile iron pipe
Custom OD Sizes Inch or metric OD sizes per customer specification
ID Controlled DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE ID Sizes per ASTM F 894;

Conventionally extruded ID-controlled Sizes per ASTM D 2239 and AWWA C901
Third Party Certification and Listing

Some DRISCOPLEX products are third party certified or listed:
Book 1: Chapter 2: Performance Pipe Products
page 7
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CSA Canadian Standards Association
FMR Factory Mutual Research
NSF National Sanitation Foundation
IAPMO International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (marked

with Unified Plumbing Code (UPC) Shield)
RUS Rural Utility Service listed
Table 2-1 Performance Pipe DRISCOPLEX Products

Typical Markets for
Pipe and Fittings
Municipal, Industrial
FMR Approved
Underground Fire
Main
Previous Designations
Performance Pipe
DRISCOPLEX
Series
Typical
Features
Former Plexco Product
Former Driscopipe
Product
DRISCOPLEX 1000
1, 22
EHMW
1000
DRISCOPLEX 8700
1, 19
EHMW
8700
1, 2, 8, 12
REDSTRIPE FM
1000 FM
1, 2, 8, 23
BLUESTRIPE-FM
5, 6, 12, 32
5, 6, 23, 32
DRISCOPLEX 1500
DRISCOPLEX 1600
Mining
DRISCOPLEX 1700
1, 3
PLEXSTRIPE
1000 SP
Perforated Pipe
DRISCOPLEX 1900
1, 4
EHMW Perforated Pipe
Water Distribution
DRISCOPLEX 4000
5, 6, 7
BLUESTRIPE (DIPS)
4000 BLUESHELL (DIPS)
Industrial, Water
Distribution, Process
DRISCOPLEX 4100
1, 8, 33, 34
BLUESTRIPE (IPS)
4100 BLUESHELL (IPS)
Water Service Pipe

& Tubing
DRISCOPLEX 5100
9, 19
BLUESTRIPE
5100 ULTRA-LINE
DRISCOPLEX 4200
8, 10
GREENSTRIPE (IPS)
4200 GREENSHELL (IPS)
DRISCOPLEX 4300
5, 6, 10
GREENSTRIPE
(DIPS)
4300 GREENSHELL
(DIPS)
DRISCOPLEX 2000
SPIROLITE
11
SPIROLITE
DRISCOPLEX 4400
8, 13
PURPLESTRIPE (IPS)
4400 LAVENDERSHELL
(IPS)
DRISCOPLEX 4500
5, 6, 13
PURPLESTRIPE
(DIPS)
4500 LAVENDERSHELL
(DIPS)
DRISCOPLEX 4600
1, 14
PLEXVUE (IPS)
DRISCOPLEX 4700
5, 6, 14, 20
PLEXVUE (DIPS)
DRISCOPLEX 1200
1, 15
1200 OPTICORE (IPS)
DRISCOPLEX 1400
5, 15
1400 OPTICORE (DIPS)
Irrigation
DRISCOPLEX 4800
16
MDPE
Dual Containment
DRISCOPLEX 2400
1, 17
DCS
Liner Pipe
DRISCOPLEX 9200
18
EHMW
9200
Sanitary Sewer
Treated/Reclaimed
Water
Sliplining

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Typical Markets for

Pipe and Fittings
Performance Pipe
DRISCOPLEX
Series
Typical
Features
Manholes,
Structures, Tanks
DRISCOPLEX 2000
Previous Designations
Former Plexco Product
Former Driscopipe
Product
21
Manholes, Structures,
Tanks
DRISCOPLEX 6500
1, 24
Yellowpipe
6500
DRISCOPLEX 6800
1, 25
Plexstripe II
6800
DRISCOPLEX 8100
1, 26
8100
DRISCOPLEX 8300
1, 27
Yellowstripe
DRISCOPLEX 6600
31
Plexshield
Oil Patch-Gas
Gathering
DRISCOPLEX 6400
1, 28
Oil & Gas Pipe
6400
Geothermal
DRISCOPLEX 5300
Plexco EHMW
5300
DRISCOPLEX 3100
1, 29
Redstripe & Redpipe
3100
DRISCOPLEX 3200
1, 30
Plexstripe
3200
Gas Distribution
Duct/Conduit
NOTICE. Capabilities vary from manufacturing plant to manufacturing plant. Contact Performance Pipe to
determine the availability of specific products and the availability of particular stripe or shell colors, striping patterns,
and IPS or DIPS sizing.
Legend for Typical Features:
1.
IPS sizing system.
12. Red color stripes are standard.
2.
FMR Approved Class 150 or Class

200 in 2 24 IPS pipe sizes.
13. Purple color stripes are standard. A

lavender color shell is available on
special order.
3.
A single longitudinal color stripe is

extruded into the pipe OD to identify
DR.
4.
Various perforation patterns are

available.
5.
DIPS sizing system.
7.
8.
9.
The DIPS longitudinal color stripe

pattern is three equally spaced pairs
of color stripes extruded into the
pipe OD.
Blue color stripes are standard. A
blue color shell is available on
special order.
The IPS longitudinal color stripe
pattern is four equally spaced single
color stripes extruded into the pipe
OD.
NSF Approved. CTS, IPS, and
SIDR in 1/2 2 sizes.
10. Green color stripes are standard. A

green color shell is available on
special order.
11. RSC 40-160 in 18 120 ID sizes in
open or closed profile.
26. Premium PE 3408/PE 100 HDPE.

Yellow color shell.
14. Solid light gray color.

15. Light gray color lining extruded into
pipe ID.
16. Black PE 2406 material.
6.
25. Black PE 3408 with three equally

spaced pairs of longitudinal yellow
stripes extruded into the pipe OD.
17. Factory assembled casing and

carrier.
18. Custom wall thickness and
diameters available on special order.
19. PE 3408/PE100 material.
20. Green color stripes are standard.
27. Premium PE 3408/PE 100 HDPE.

Four equally spaced longitudinal
yellow stripes extruded into the pipe
OD.
28. Made per API 15LE. Not for gas
distribution.
29. Electric duct-conduit. Three equally
spaced, longitudinal red stripes
extruded into the pipe OD.
30. Communications duct-conduit.
Single longitudinal color stripe
available.
21. Manholes, tanks and special

structures made from DRISCOPLEX
2000 SPIROLITE and
DRISCOPLEX PE 3408 piping
products.
31. Gas distribution service tubing within

a rodent resistant corrugated tube.
22. 1-1/2 IPS and smaller sizes only.
33. Blue color stripes or blue color shell

available on special order.
23. Dual certified FMR & NSF. Blue

color stripes standard.
24. Yellow PE 2406. IAPMO (UPC)
certification for yard gas available.

page 9
32. FMR Approved Class 150 or Class

200 in 4 24 DIPS pipe sizes.
34. 2 IPS and 3 IPS made to ASTM D

3035, AWWA C901 and NSF 61. 4
IPS and larger made to ASTM F
714, AWWA C906 and NSF 61.
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Table 2-2 Markets and Typical Applications and Uses for Performance Pipe M & I Piping Products
Market
Typical Applications and Uses
Industrial and Municipal
Industrial Process Piping Dredging, Slurry and Flyash Lines Road Drainage and
Culverts Temporary Bypass Pumping River, Lake and Reservoir Crossings
Force Mains Odor Control Sludge Lines Outfalls and Diffusers Chemical
Mineral Extraction Chemical and Corrosive Wastes Leachate Control Systems
Fabricated Fittings and Custom Fabrications Manholes, Tanks, Structures, Catch
Basins Impoundment Piping Pipeline Rehabilitation Chemical and Zebra
Mussel Treatment Systems Snow Making Systems Subsurface Snow Melting
Systems
FMR Approved Underground

Fire Main
Underground Municipal and Industrial Fire Water Systems
Mining
Acid Mine Drainage Chemical Mineral Extraction Process Pipe and Fittings
Decant Systems Slurry and Tailings Lines Dewatering Impoundment Piping
Perforated Pipe
Aeration Systems Landfill Gas Collection Leachate Collection Drainage and

Waste Disposal Absorption Fields Odor Control
Water Distribution
Water Service Tubing
Sanitary Sewer
Treated/Reclaimed Water
Underground Potable Water Distribution Mains River, Lake and Reservoir

Crossings Intake Piping Directional Drilling Potable Water Fire Main
Small Diameter Underground Potable Water Distribution Service Lines
Gravity Sanitary Sewer Mains Sanitary Sewer Forced Mains Odor Control
Temporary Bypass Pumping Dewatering Storm Drains Directional Drilling
Chipper Systems
Raw Water Systems Outfalls and Diffusers
Sliplining
Pipeline Rehabilitation Pipe Bursting Sliplining
Irrigation
Hard-Hose Reel Irrigation Drag-Line Irrigation Underground Irrigation Water

Supply Mains
Dual Containment
Liner Pipe
Chemicals and Corrosive Wastes Pressure and Gravity Flow Chemical Process
Piping Fuel Piping Purity Assurance (Contamination Prevention) Piping Systems
Pipeline Rehabilitation Tight-Fitting Liners Casing for Insulated Pipe
Manholes, Tanks, Structures
Municipal Sanitary Sewers Industrial Sewers Landfill Leachate Control Systems

Chemicals and Corrosive Wastes Storm Drain Systems Odor Control
Gas Distribution
Underground Utility Gas Distribution Yard Gas Insertion Renewal Underground

Propane & LPG Distribution
Oilfield & Gas Gathering

Geothermal
Conduit-Duct
Brine CO2 SO4 Crude Oil Wet Gas Condensate Return Lines
Ground Source Heat Pumps Downhole Geothermal Loop Systems Horizontal
Closed Loop Systems Subsurface Snow Melting Systems
Electric Duct & Casing Communications Duct & Casing Directional Drilling
Go to Chapter 3

page 10
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3. Polyethylene Material Fundamentals

From the 1941 discovery of low-density polyethylene, through the first production in 1957 of
high-density polyethylene using a low-pressure process, polyethylene has developed into a
diverse family of materials for packaging, wire and cable jacketing, piping and other
applications. Each use demands dedicated polymer engineering to obtain the balance of
properties necessary for the application.
Polyethylene materials are engineered for the requirements of the application. Packaging
materials are engineered for easy processing, but not for long-term stress. Wire and cable
materials are engineered for high electrical and thermal properties. Piping materials must
withstand decades of stress and strain from internal pressure, earthloads, and other adverse
environmental conditions.
Both short term and long term physical property tests are used to characterize how an
engineered-for-application polyethylene material may be expected to perform in use. For
temporary-use applications like packaging, short-term tests are usually sufficient, but for
demanding, long-term applications such as pipe, tests that accurately evaluate long-term
property characteristics are essential.
Polymerization
To a large degree, the molecular structure of polyethylene determines its suitability as a piping
material. Polyethylene is made by the polymerization of the ethylene monomer, generally with
the addition of another alpha-olefin co-monomer such as propylene, butene, hexene, etc. For
piping applications, thousands of monomeric units are combined to form polyethylene.
If the ethylene monomer were used exclusively, you would grow a very linear polyethylene
homopolymer. However, as higher alpha-olefin co-monomers are introduced, the monomer
chain lengthens by their inclusion, and short chain or side chain branching occurs. Overall
however, co-polymer polyethylene is still considered a linear polymer. See Figure 3-1.
Co-polymer polyethylene materials used for piping are prepared by the polymerization of no less
than 85% ethylene, and no less than 95% of total olefins (up to 10% higher alpha-olefin comonomers) with additional compounding
Figure 3-1 Branched Polyethylene
ingredients.
Molecule
The polymerization reaction process utilizes
highly sophisticated catalyst systems that initiate
polymerization and propagate the reaction. Resin
manufacturers
utilize
proprietary
catalyst
technology and specialized reaction processes to
control polymer processing. Polymers are
engineered for various end uses with catalysts,
and combinations of monomer and co-monomer
units. Key control indicators for the polymerization
process are density, and melt flow rates at
several conditions.
Fundamental Characteristics
In the broadest sense, polyethylene resin
properties are determined largely by three
Book 1: Chapter 3: Polyethylene Material Fundamentals page 11
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fundamental characteristics: crystallinity (density), molecular weight, and molecular weight

distribution.
Crystallinity (Density)
In the solid phase, polyethylene is characterized as a semi-crystalline polymer, that is, it has
both crystalline and amorphous regions. Crystalline regions are dense, ordered regions where
the molecules are in a regular, ordered structure. Amorphous regions are less dense areas of
irregular, random molecular entanglement.
As molten polyethylene cools, nuclei form,
and spherulitic crystals of folded molecule
chains begin to grow. When a side chain
branch is reached, the branch may be
accommodated within the fold, or it may
disrupt crystal formation and end up in the
amorphous region surrounding the crystal,
or it may cross over into another
crystalline structure. See Figure 3-2.
Figure 3-2 Crystalline and Amorphous

Structure
The density of solid polyethylene resin is

dependent upon the rate of cooling from
the molten state. Quickly quenched
materials have lower density because
crystalline structure has had less time to
form and grow. Slow cooling from the melt
phase allows more time for crystallization,
so density is higher. Heavily branched
materials have lower density because
branching disrupts the crystallization process. Standardized tests that use a specified cooling
procedure are used to determine resin density. When polyethylene is re-melted then resolidified, the density of the re-solidified material may vary from the original resin density if the
cooling rate is different.
Medium density polyethylene pipe resins typically have average base (unpigmented) resin
densities from 0.937 gm/cm3 to 0.940 gm/cm3. High-density pipe resins have densities of 0.941
gm/cm3 and above.
Pigmentation Effects on Density

Pigments and other additives are compounded into polyethylene pipe resins for various
reasons; however, these ingredients are a very small percentage of the overall pipe compound.
When pigments are compounded into the base resin, the overall density may increase slightly.
However, the physical properties of the pigmented compound are set predominantly by the
physical properties of the base resin.
Pigmentation may be a color, or inert ingredients such as titanium dioxide or carbon black. In
the case of carbon black, density is increased by 0.0044 gm/cm3 per percent carbon. For
example, a 0.945 gm/cm3 high-density base resin that is compounded with 2.5% carbon black
will have a pigmented density of 0.956 gm/cm3. Although the carbon black has increased the
overall density of the compound, the physical properties are still those of the 0.945 gm/cm3 base
resin. ASTM D 1505 is a standard for resin density measurement.

Return to TOC
Molecular Weight
When polymerized, the polyethylene molecule is a linear chain of carbon-carbon single bonds,
flanked by hydrogen. See Figure 3-1. The numbers of monomer and comonomer units joined
together determine molecular weight in the polyethylene molecule. The molecular weight of
each mer unit, C2H2, is 26, so a polyethylene molecule with an average molecular weight of
260,000 has 10,000 mer units in the molecule chain.
Analytical methods that directly determine molecular weight include solution viscosity, size
exclusion chromatography (SEC), and gel permeation chromatography (GPC). These
sophisticated procedures usually involve running a molten resin solution through a series of
columns to determine molecular weight.
In the melt state, higher molecular weight materials usually flow less readily than lower
molecular weight materials; thus, melt flow rate may provide an indirect reference not a direct
measure of molecular weight. Melt flow rate is significantly affected by the polymerization
process, by catalyst technology, by side chain branching, by co-polymer material, and by
molecular weight distribution. Among different polyethylenes, it is incorrect to infer performance
relationships on the basis of melt flow rate.
Melt flow rate is used to compare a sample of a material against specifications for that same
material. Melt flow rate is determined using ASTM D 1238. Under set temperature and load
conditions, the mass of material extruded through a calibrated orifice in a set time is the melt
flow rate of the material.
Per ASTM D 1238, polyethylene melt flow rate is usually tested at 190 C, and under loads of
2.16 kg (melt index, MI), and 21.6 kg (high load melt index, HLMI). Loads of 5 kg, 10 kg, and 15
kg are also used.
Many properties improve with increasing molecular weight; however the processability of the
melted material decreases with increasing molecular weight. Melt processing is important for
polyethylene piping materials in extrusion and molding, and in heat fusion joining. Successful
medium density and high-density polyethylene piping materials generally have MIs in the range
of 0.04 to 0.20 gm/10 min.
Molecular Weight
Distribution
Figure 3-3 Molecular Weight Distribution and Modality
During the polymerization process,

molecules of different lengths, or
weights,
will
be
produced.
Molecules will begin to grow at
different
times
during
polymerization, so there will be
molecules of various lengths when
polymerization
is
completed.
Molecular
weight
distribution
denotes the statistical distribution
of molecule weights in a material.
Molecular weight distributions may
be narrow, broad, skewed, or polymodal.
When
molecule
weights
are

Narrow
Bi-Modal
Skewed
Broad
Molecular Weight
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closely grouped around a common (average) molecule weight, the distribution is termed narrow.
A greater dispersion of weights around the average is indicates a broader distribution. A
skewed distribution is an unequal distribution of heavier or lighter molecules to either side of the
average. See Figure 3-3.
Modality is an indication that there is more than one concentration of molecular weights in the
distribution. Materials with two concentrations are bi-modal, and those with multiple
concentrations are multi-modal or poly-modal.
The polymerization process and the catalysts used determine molecular weight distribution.
Different polymerization processes and catalysts will produce materials with different melt flow
rates, different distributions, and different physical property values. Different materials may have
the same average molecular weights, but very different molecular weight distributions.
Between polyethylene materials of like molecular weight, the broad molecular weight distribution
material will have a higher melt flow rate compared to the same material with narrow molecular
weight distribution.
Understanding Property-Characteristic Interrelationships

Polyethylene piping is specially engineered for piping applications. Reviewing how changes in
crystallinity, molecular weight, and molecular weight distribution affect material physical
properties can provide a general understanding of how polyethylene piping materials are
engineered to provide the necessary balance of strength, toughness, and long-term
performance.
A Discussion of Table 3-1

Table 3-1 illustrates show some general interrelationships among the fundamental
characteristics of polyethylene and the typical effect on physical properties when a fundamental
characteristic is changed. Table 3-1 assumes a single, basic polyethylene material having a
given crystallinity, molecular weight, and molecular weight distribution. The columns below the
fundamental property indicate the relative effect (increase, decrease, or no change) on the
physical property when the fundamental property is changed as indicated.
The effects of change are indicated across the rows from left to right, that is, take the base
material, and increase its density; take the increased density material and increase its molecular
weight; and then take that same material and broaden its molecular weight distribution.
Table 3-1 illustrates that when density is increased, stiffness, hardness, tensile strength and
chemical resistance all increase. Increases in these properties are usually considered beneficial
for pipe, but increasing density also has a downside. By increasing density, the material
becomes less ductile, more sensitive to impact, and more sensitive to cracking under long term
stress generally things that are not so good for pipe.
In the next column, the molecular weight of the higher density material is increased. This offsets
some of the negatives that came along with increased density. Impact strength, low temperature
toughness, and resistance to cracking from long term stress are all improved by increasing
molecular weight. The downside of increased molecular weight is reduced melt processability
(melt flow rate), which is important in product manufacture and in heat fusion joining.
Melt processability is improved by broadening the molecular weight distribution. Resistance to
slow crack growth that is, long-term performance is also improved.
Table 3-1 generally illustrates that successful polyethylene piping materials are the result of an
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engineered balance of density, molecular weight, and molecular weight distribution so that
strength, toughness, long-term performance, and the ability to manufacture, join, and install are
optimized.
Table 3-1 is intended only as a general illustration of influences and interrelationships. Some
polyethylene materials may have interactions among properties and characteristics that may
deviate significantly from the Table 3-1 illustration.
In particular, different polymerization reaction processes, catalysts, and co-monomers will
produce different polymers. Polyethylene made using one polymerization process, or set of
catalysts, or co-monomer should not be directly compared to materials made using different
processes, catalysts, or co-monomers. Polymerization processes and catalyst technologies can
impart distinctive characteristics to the material that may enhance or diminish a property or
characteristic, and how it interacts with another. Table 3-1 does not address the possible effects
of different polymerization processes, catalyst technologies, or co-monomers on materials.
Table 3-1 Physical Property Changes due to Fundamental Characteristic Changes
Fundamental Characteristic (change)
Material Property
Crystallinity (increase)
Molecular Weight
(increase)
Molecular Weight
Distribution (broaden)
Stiffness
Increases
Tensile Strength at Yield
Increases
Tensile Strength at Break
Increases
Increases, then levels off
Tensile Elongation at
Break (Ductility)
Decreases
Softening Temperature
Increases
Increases
Increases
Impact Strength
Decreases
Increases, then levels off
Low Temperature
Toughness
Decreases
Increases
Increases
Permeation Resistance
Increases
Chemical Resistance
Increases
Resistance to Slow Crack

Growth
Decreases
Increases
Increases
Weatherability
Increases
Melt Flow Rate

Processability
Decreases
Increases
Hardness
Increases
Interrelationships among characteristics and properties may alter these effects. See the text discussions.
Graphical Illustrations of Interrelationships

The following figures further illustrate some interrelationships among various physical properties
and fundamental characteristics. For all of the figures, the relationships are for polyethylene
base resin (unpigmented) as typically used in compound formulations for piping applications.

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Stiffness
Figure 3-4 Stiffness
Stiffness increases directly with increasing

crystallinity (increasing density). See Figure 34.
Density
Tensile Strength, Impact & Melt

Viscosity
Tensile yield strength increases directly with
increasing density (crystallinity), and increases
then levels off with increasing molecular
weight. See Figure 3-5.
Figure 3-5 Yield Strength
Density

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Tensile yield, break, and elongation are Figure 3-6 Tensile Strength vs. Molecular
Orientation
affected by specimen preparation and
molecular orientation. Slow cooling maximizes
density and yield strength, and minimizes
1
2
3
elongation at break. Break strength is typically
higher than yield strength when molecules are
aligned with the strain (tensile pull) direction;
break is lower than yield when alignment is
across the strain direction. When there is little
or no molecular orientation, break and yield
strengths are about the same. See Figure 3-6.
1 - Aligned across pull

2 - Random alignment
3 - Aligned with pull
Strain (elongation)
Impact resistance decreases with increasing Figure 3-7 Property Change vs. Molecular
density, increases then levels off with
Weight
increasing molecular weight, and increases
with broadening molecular weight, but to a
lesser extent.
Melt viscosity is the inverse of melt flow rate;
that is, higher viscosity results in a lower melt
flow rate. Melt viscosity increases (melt flow
rate decreases) with increasing molecular
weight. Melt viscosity decreases (melt flow rate
increases) with broadening molecular weight
distribution. See Figure 3-7.
Tensile Strength
Impact
Melt Viscosity
Pipe Polymer Range
Increasing Molecular Weight

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Tensile Elongation
Tensile elongation is inversely related to Figure 3-8 Tensile Elongation vs. Pulling
Speed
density, and is sensitive to strain rate (pulling
speed). At a set strain rate, tensile elongation
decreases with increasing density. For a given
density, tensile elongation is reduced at higher
pulling speeds (higher strain rates).
See
Figure 3-8.
Test Speed
Resistance to Slow Crack Growth

Polyethylene piping is generally intended for
long-term service where resistance to failure
from long-term stress and strain is required.
Tests that simulate conditions of long-term
stress or strain show that materials typically
fail from cracks that initiate on the surface,
then grow slowly through the pipe wall, that is,
slow crack growth (SCG). Polyethylene piping
materials are engineered for superior
resistance to SCG failure.
Early SCG tests typically involved subjecting a
specimen to a constant deformation, in an
aggressive chemical at an elevated
temperature. However, under these early
environmental stress crack resistance (ESCR)
tests, modern polyethylene piping materials
commonly resist cracking failure almost
indefinitely.
Figure 3-9 Resistance to Slow Crack

Growth
Broad Molecular
Weight Distribution
Narrow Molecular
Weight Distribution
Molecular Weight
The newer generations of SCG tests introduce a sharp notch initiation site, and at elevated
temperature, apply a tensile load across the notch. The testing conditions for notch, load, and
elevated temperature are designed using fracture mechanics principles so that in a few days of
laboratory testing, a representative indication of tens of years of field service may be obtained.
Resistance to SCG failure decreases with increasing density, increases with higher molecular
weight, and increases with broader molecular weight distribution. See Figure 3-9.

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Permeation
The rate of permeation or activated diffusion of
gasses is dependent upon polyethylene
density (crystallinity) and the molecular weight
of the permeating gas. Permeation by
solvating
chemicals
(such
as
liquid
hydrocarbons) is generally greater at elevated
temperatures,
and
when
chemical
concentrations are higher.
Figure 3-10 Resistance to Permeation
In most circumstances, permeating (solvating)

chemicals do not physically injure the
polyethylene material. Gasses diffuse very
slowly through the pipe wall, resulting in a
slight loss of gas from within the pipe. The
Density
volume of gas that may permeate through
polyethylene pipe is low. For example,
methane permeation through a mile of DR 11 pipe at 60 psi is as low as 0.27 ft3 per day.
Caution Solvating liquids will permeate the pipe wall, which may reduce long-term
strength, and may preclude the use of heat fusion joining.
Hardness
Figure 3-11 Hardness
Hardness is tested against the Shore D scale

using a spring-loaded penetrometer. The
procedure is similar to hardness testing of
metals, although plastics are generally much
softer than metals.
Density
Go to Chapter 4

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4. Polyethylene Material Standards

Cell Classification Number
Polyethylene pipe and fitting materials (resins) are characterized according to ASTM D 3350.
This standard identifies polyethylene piping resins according to a cell classification system that
sequentially identifies seven physical properties. Cell numbers and letters are used to identify
physical property cell value ranges for the physical properties. A cell classification number thus
identifies seven physical properties, and value ranges for those properties.1
Table 4-1 identifies in order, the physical properties specified in ASTM D 3350, and the value
ranges for those properties.
An ASTM D 3350 cell classification identifies specific physical properties and value ranges for
these physical properties.
ASTM D 3350 does not specify manufacturing tolerances for resin physical properties.
ASTM D 3350 does not provide specific engineering data for design purposes.
The cell classification for a resin is based on the resin manufacturers typical (average, nominal,
etc.) physical property values for numerous production lots of a material. However, the
manufacturers material production tolerances can allow a production lot or a single test
specimen to be outside of ASTM D 3350 cell classification range values. This does not indicate
an out of specification material. For this reason, it is not appropriate to use ASTM D 3350 cell
value ranges as a basis for determining whether a material sample meets a manufacturers
specifications.
For example, a medium density PE material has a typical density value of 0.940 g/cm3 and a
resin manufacturing tolerance for density of 0.005 g/cm3. Under ASTM D 3350, the material is
correctly classified as a density cell 2 (0.926-0.940 g/cm3) material. Within the manufacturers
tolerance, the acceptable density range for this example material is from 0.935 g/cm3 to 0.945
g/cm3; therefore, any single specimen or individual lot having a density between 0.940 g/cm3and
0.945 g/cm3 is correctly classified as a Density Cell 2 material, and is not an out-of-specification
material.
Long Term Strength

Most of the material properties discussed thus far are evaluations of short-term performance.
However, durable goods such as pipe must handle the application for the long-term.
Traditional metal and concrete pipes usually deteriorate over time from galvanic or chemical
corrosion. Thus, long-term corrosion resistance is a critical design consideration for these
materials.
Polyethylene is immune to galvanic corrosion, and resistant to a wide range of chemicals that
corrode traditional piping materials. Polyethylene piping must be engineered for resistance to
cracking from long-term application-applied stresses. Applied stresses may be tensile or
compressive or both; however, long-term performance is normally associated with resistance to
cracking from tensile stresses.
1
ASTM D 1248 is no longer applicable to piping materials. In 1998, PE piping materials were deleted from D 1248.
Book 1: Chapter 4: PE Standards

page 20
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Table 4-1 ASTM D 3350 Properties and Cell Classification Limits

Property
Test
Method
Density, gm/cm3
D 1505
(a)
0.910-0.925
0.926-0.941
0.941-0.955
>0.955
(b)
Melt Index, gm/10 min
D 1238
(a)
>1.0
1.0 - 0.4
<0.4 0.15
<0.15
(c)
(d)
(b)
138 - <276
(20 - <40)
276 - <552
(40 - <80)
552 - <758
(980 - <110)
758 - <1103
(110 - <160)
>1103
(>160)
(b)
Flexural Modulus, MPa,

(1000 psi)
D 790
(a)
<138
(<20)
Tensile Strength, MPa

(1000 psi)
D 638
(a)
<15
(<2.2)
15 - <18
(2.2 - <2.6)
18 - <21
(2.6 - <3.0)
21 - <24
(3.0 - <3.5)
24 - <28)
(3.5 - <4.0
>28
(>4.0)
(b)
D 1698
(a)
A
48
50
B
24
50
C
192
20
C
600
20
(b)
2. PENT (hours)
Molded plaque; 80C;
2.4 MPa; Notch depth
per Table 1 F 1473
F 1473
(a)
0.1
10
30
100
(b)
Hydrostatic Design
Basis, MPa (psi)
D 2837
NPR (f)
5.22
(800)
6.89
(1000)
8.62
(1250)
11.03
(1600)
Natural
Color
Black; 2% min.
carbon black
Natural with UV
stabilizer
Color with UV
stabilizer
Slow Crack Growth Resistance (e)

a.
b.
c.
1. ESCR
Test Condition
Test Duration
Failure, max, %
Cell Classification Letter (g)

Color & UV Stabilizer
D 3350
(a) Unspecified.
(b) Specify value.
(c) Classify materials having a melt index <0.15 as Cell 5 only if they have a flow rate not greater than 4.0 g/10 min when tested in accordance with Test Method D
1238, Condition 190/21.6.
(d) Classify materials having a melt index <0.15 as Cell 6 only if they have a flow rate not greater than 0.30 g/10 min when tested in accordance with Test Method
D 1238, Condition 310/21.5.
(e) Slow Crack Growth Resistance is classified using either ESCR per D 1693 or PENT using F 1248, but not both. Where there are cell values for ESCR per D
1693 and PENT per F 1473, equivalency of material performance between D 1693 and F 1473 is not implied.
(f) NPR = not pressure rated.
(g) The letter denoting the classification for color and UV stabilizer is added at the end of the cell classification number.

page 21
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Externally applied tensile and compressive stresses may result from earthloads, or thermal
expansion or contraction. Internal (hoop) tensile stresses are applied when there is pressure
inside the pipe. In general, higher stress, higher temperature, higher concentrations of
aggressive chemicals, and cyclically applied stresses act to reduce lifetime.
Polyethylene pipe materials are evaluated for long-term stress by conducting long-term
sustained pressure tests per ASTM D 1598. Data from these tests are evaluated in accordance
with ASTM D 2837.
Based on the data, the temperature and the media inside the pipe, a long-term hydrostatic
stress (LTHS) is determined. The LTHS is compared to hydrostatic design basis (HDB)
categories to determine the HDB - the materials long-term tensile stress rating at a temperature
and for a given fluid media. The HDB is used for pressure rating, and in engineering calculations
that involve long-term tensile strength. Pressure rated polyethylene materials must also undergo
testing and analysis to validate that a ductile to brittle transition will not occur during the
projected service period.
Lastly, the long-term performance of polyethylene piping in an application is highly dependent
upon installation. When the piping and the installation are properly designed for the application
and the pipe is properly installed in accordance with the installation design, application and
installation related stresses are minimized, and long-term performance is maximized.
Application, design, and installation information is available in the Performance Pipe
Engineering Manual, Books 1, 2, and 3, information and standards from AGA, ASTM, AWWA,
PPI, and others, and regulatory and codifying agencies.
Material Designation Code

Polyethylene materials for pressure piping are commonly identified by an ASTM Material
Designation Code (PE 2406 or PE 3408). ASTM defines the Code as the letter abbreviation for
the thermoplastic (PE for polyethylene), followed by two numbers that identify ASTM D 3350 cell
values for density and slow crack growth resistance, followed by two numbers that identify the
materials Hydrostatic Design Stress, HDS2, in hundreds of psi with any tens and units dropped.
ASTM Material Designation Codes for Performance Pipe pressure piping materials are:
Medium density - PE 2406
PE = polyethylene
2 = density cell 2
4 = SCG cell 4 or higher3
06 = 630 psi HDS4
High density - PE 3408
PE = polyethylene
3 = density cell 3
4 = SCG cell 4 or higher3
08 = 800 psi HDS
2
The Hydrostatic Design Stress, HDS = HDB X fE, an environmental design factor.
PE 2406 and PE 3408 materials used for ASTM D 2513 for gas distribution applications must have a SCG cell 6.
4
Unless otherwise specified, the HDS is for water at 73F (23C), that is, HDS = HDB x 0.50.
3

page 22
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Performance Pipe Materials

Performance Pipe pressure-piping products are manufactured from either medium density or
high-density polyethylene materials that have been engineered to provide the balance of
properties required for the intended application. Medium density is usually produced in a yellow
color, and used in gas distribution service. High-density materials are provided in black and
various colors. Different pigments are used for co-extruded striped or color shell pipe; however,
the base resin is the same for pipe, shell and stripe.
Performance Pipe medium density polyethylene materials are listed by the Plastics Pipe
Institute in PPI TR-4 with minimum standard grade hydrostatic design basis ratings of 1250
psi (8.62 MPa) at 73 F (23 C) and 1000 psi (6.89 MPa) at 140 F (60 C) and meeting or
exceeding an ASTM D 3350 cell classification of 234363E.
Performance Pipe high density polyethylene materials are listed by the Plastics Pipe
Institute in PPI TR-4 with minimum standard grade hydrostatic design basis ratings of 1600
psi (11.03 MPa) at 73 F (23 C) and 800 psi (5.52 MPa) at 140 F (60 C) and meeting or
exceeding an ASTM D 3350 cell classification of 345464C for black.
DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE high density polyethylene material meets or exceeds

ASTM D 3350 type and grade specification PE33, with a minimum ASTM D 3350 cell
classification of 335444C
Performance Pipe HDPE conduit is manufactured from utility-grade HDPE material that is
engineered for the requirements of conduit applications including pull strength, stiffness,
ESCR, density, melt index, chemical resistance and toughness.
Go to Chapter 5

page 23
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5. Environmental Effects
Resistance to Corrosion
Polyethylene is non-conductive and immune to galvanic and electrochemical effects. Thus
polyethylene will not corrode in the manner of metal and concrete piping. Both inside and out,
Performance Pipe polyethylene pipe does not rust, rot, corrode or tuberculate.
Resistance to Stress Cracking

Some polyethylene materials may fail from environmental stress cracking that results from the
combined actions of stress and the environment. Stress cracking is the slow growth and
propagation of cracks through the material by the action of sensitizing agents on minute surface
flaws in stressed or strained materials.
Polymer structure, molecular weight, and molecular weight distribution will affect the stress
crack resistance of polyethylene. Performance Pipe polyethylenes show excellent resistance to
environmental stress cracking. Please see the discussion below on Resistance to Slow Crack
Growth.
Biological Effects
Performance Pipe polyethylene pipe will not degrade due to biological effects. Polyethylene
piping materials are not digestible and do not contain ingredients that would attract burrowing
insects, animals, or worms. The exceptionally smooth surface of polyethylene pipe is not
conducive to the growth of algae or other marine life on the pipe walls, especially under
moderate and higher flow conditions.
Sunlight (Ultraviolet) Effects

Without chemical or physical protection, polyethylene is degraded by ultraviolet (UV) light.
Because ultraviolet light is present in sunlight, protective chemical systems are compounded
into polyethylene pipe to prevent or delay the onset of UV degradation and allow use or storage
in direct sunlight. UV protection systems are either blocking systems that are used in black
products, or sacrificial absorber systems that are used for color products.
Long term UV protection is provided by compounding 2% to 3% carbon black in the material.
Very fine carbon black particles prevent UV degradation by blocking UV energy penetration.
Black products are suitable for applications where there is long-term, direct exposure to
ultraviolet light. This includes all surface, suspended, and above grade applications.
Sacrificial UV absorbers temporarily protect colored products by absorbing UV energy, but are
used up in the process. Sacrificial absorber systems provide protection for uncovered outdoor
storage of several months to several years depending upon protection level and exposure level.
If left exposed, material degradation will eventually occur as the absorbers in the pipe are used
and the protection level drops. Covering the pipe will stop any further UV degradation effects,
but will not reverse any prior exposure effects.
Book 1: Chapter 5: Environmental Effects

page 24
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The sacrificial UV absorber systems in colored products are designed only to allow a
reasonable period of unprotected outdoor storage prior to installation. Color products are
intended for underground service not for surface or above grade service where there will be
long-term exposure to UV light in sunlight.
Recommendations for unprotected outdoor storage of colored products vary by product. Consult
your Performance Pipe Distributor, Performance Pipe Sales Representative, or Performance
Pipe for information.
Thermal Effects
DRISCOPLEX PE 2406 and PE 3408 polyethylene pipe can be applied over a wide
temperature range. These materials perform well from 50 F (-45 C) and below, to 140 F (60
C) for pressure service, or to up to 180 F (82 C) for gravity flow (non-pressure) service.
Pressurized fluids must be in a flowable liquid or gaseous state.
Gravity flow service above 180 F (82 C) is not recommended. Pressure service above 140 F
(60 C) is not recommended. For higher temperature applications, pressure ratings are lower.
Black polyethylene pipe that is on the surface or above grade is usually subject to sunlight
heating that will raise the pipe service temperature. Temperature rise and fall will cause pipe
length changes as it expands and contracts. See the Performance Pipe Engineering Manual
Book 2: System Design for additional information.
Temperatures near or below freezing will affect polyethylene pipe by increasing stiffness and
vulnerability to damage from suddenly applied stress or impact. Significant impact or shock
loads against a polyethylene pipe that is at freezing or lower temperatures can fracture the pipe.
Polyethylene pipe will be more difficult to uncoil or field bend in cold weather.
Chemical Effects
Performance Pipe polyethylene pipes have outstanding resistance to a wide range of chemicals
and environmental conditions, making them ideal candidates for use with corrosive fluids and
chemicals, and under harsh environmental conditions. If a chemical has an effect on
polyethylene, the effect may or may not be detrimental depending upon application or service
requirements.
In some cases, a chemical may have little or no detrimental effect on polyethylenes long term
or mechanical properties, but its presence may affect a piping application.
For example, a surfactant may have little if any chemical effect, but it may coat the pipe bore,
and change the pipes resistance to flow. Where water would normally bead up on the surface
and flow with little resistance, it may stick to the surfactant, resulting in higher flow resistance
in the pipe.
Some chemicals may affect polyethylene pipe joining. See Solvents and Surface Cleaning and
Chemical Solvation (Permeation), below.
Resistance to Chemical Attack

Where there is chemical effect or attack on polyethylene, environmental conditions and
combinations of conditions such as higher temperature, higher chemical concentration, higher
applied stress, fatigue or combinations of chemicals may accelerate the effect. Chemicals that
affect the physical properties or long term performance of polyethylene typically act on the

page 25
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material by either chemical solvation, which causes the plastic to weaken, soften, or swell or by
direct chemical attack, which breaks down or alters the molecular structure. Chemical solvation
effects may be reversible, but direct chemical attack is usually is not.
Solvents and Surface Cleaning

There are no commercially available solvents that will dissolve solid polyethylene.
Polyethylene cannot be solvent cemented.
When joining polyethylene pipe, pipe surfaces must be clean and dry. Wiping with a clean dry
cloth is usually sufficient. Cleaning with a mild soap and water solution followed by a rinse with
clean water is also acceptable. Chemical cleaning solvents are usually not required.
Cleaning solvents may have a chemical effect on the pipe, may leave a residue on the pipe
surface, or may be chemically hazardous substances that require personal protective equipment
and special handling. The Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for the chemical solvent should
be consulted for safety information.
Caution Before using chemical solvents, the potential risks and hazards should be known,
and appropriate safety precautions taken.
Chemical Solvation (Permeation)

Chemicals that solvate polyethylene typically do so by diffusing (permeating) into the material.
Permeation does not usually degrade or dissolve the material, but it may weaken the material,
cause swelling, or have other effects on the piping or the application. Higher temperatures
usually increase permeation effects. In some circumstances such as where a liquefied
hydrocarbon gas (liquid condensate) has permeated the material, removing the solvating
chemicals may allow the polyethylene to dry out and revert back to its original state.
Continuous exposure to some common chemicals and solvents such as liquid hydrocarbons
(crude and fuel oils, gasoline, diesel fuel, kerosene, etc.) can allow these chemicals to diffuse or
permeate into the piping. Permeation can cause swelling, especially at elevated temperatures.
Permeation reduces strength long-term pressure service ratings are significantly reduced.
Permeating chemicals such as liquid hydrocarbons typically cause little if any injury to the
material; however hydrocarbons can contaminate and weaken heat fusion or electrofusion
joints. When the pipe surface is melted, liquid hydrocarbons in the pipe will bubble out of the
surface causing porosity and contamination.
Caution Where hydrocarbon contamination is indicated, heat fusion and electrofusion joining
are not reliable. Use mechanical joining methods such as compression couplings with internal
stiffeners, mechanical saddle fittings, etc., to join hydrocarbon permeated piping.
When the heating iron is removed from the pipe surface during heat fusion, contamination from
liquid hydrocarbon permeation is indicated by a rough, or sandpaper-like, or bubbly, or pockmarked surface appearance.
At low temperatures and higher pressures in fuel gas applications, heavier hydrocarbon gasses
such as propane or butane may condense and liquefy in the pipe. Such liquefied fuel gasses
are known to permeate polyethylene pipe, and result in unreliable heat fusion or electrofusion
joints.
In potable water applications, permeating chemicals could affect the pipe or water in the pipe.
ANSI/AWWA standards provide the following guidance for potable water applications:
page 26
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The selection of materials is critical for water service and distribution piping
where there is likelihood the pipe will be exposed to significant concentrations of
pollutants comprised of low molecular weight petroleum products or organic
solvents or their vapors. Research has documented that pipe materials such as
polyethylene, polybutylene, polyvinyl chloride, and asbestos cement, and
elastomers, such as used in jointing gaskets and packing glands, may be subject
to permeation by lower molecular weight organic solvents or petroleum products.
If water pipe must pass through such a contaminated area or an area subject to
contamination, consult with the manufacturer regarding permeation of pipe walls,
jointing materials, and so forth, before selecting materials for use in that area.1
Chemical Attack
A direct chemical attack on the polymer will result in permanent, irreversible polymer damage or
chemical change by chain scission, cross-linking, oxidation, or substitution reactions. Removing
the chemical cannot reverse direct chemical attack damage or change.
Chemical Resistance Information

The data in Table 5-1 is representative of short-term chemical immersion tests of unstressed
specimens. Typical chemical immersion testing involves submerging a material test specimen
in the chemical for several days; then testing some physical properties of the specimen after
removal. Unless stated otherwise, tests were conducted in the relatively pure or concentrated
chemical.
DISCLAIMER
Because the particular conditions of an application may vary, Table 5-1 information
should be used only as a preliminary guide for Performance Pipe polyethylene pipe
materials. This information is offered in good faith, and is believed to be accurate at the
time of publication, but it is offered without any warranty, express or implied, and
specifically excluding implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular
purpose. Additional information may be required, particularly with regard to unusual or
special applications. Determinations of suitability for use in particular chemical or
environmental conditions may require specialized laboratory testing.
In general, dilute chemical solutions, lower temperatures, and the absence of stress reduce the
potential to affect the material. Higher concentrations, higher temperature, applied stress and
combinations of chemicals may reduce resistance or may affect the material where more benign
conditions may not. The apparent absence of effect in a short-term immersion test does
not imply that there will be no effect where there is long-term exposure or applied stress
or combinations chemicals or elevated temperature either individually or in any
combination.
Where information about the suitability of polyethylene piping for use with chemicals or chemical
combinations for a particular application or environment is not available, tests should be
conducted to determine suitability. Performance Pipe cannot provide chemical testing services.
Additional information on chemical compatibility may be found in PPI TR-19, Thermoplastic
Piping for the Transport of Chemicals.
Quoted text from ANSI/AWWA C901 and ANSI/AWWA C906.

page 27
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Chemical Resistance Key for Table 5-1

Key
Meaning
Resistant (swelling <3%; weight loss <0.5%; elongation at break not substantially changed.)
Limited resistance (swelling 3-8%; weight loss 0.5-5%; elongation at break reduced by <50%.)
Not resistant (swelling >8%; weight loss >5%; elongation at break reduced by >50%.)
Discoloration
Aqueous solutions in all concentrations.
**
Only under low mechanical stress.
Where a key is not printed in the table, data is not available.
Caution: See Chemical Resistance Information above.

Table 5-1 Chemical Resistance
Medium
73F
140F
Acetaldehyde, gaseous
Acetic acid (10%)
Acetic acid (100%) (Glacial acetic acid)
LD
Acetic anhydride
LD
Acetone
Acetylene tetrabromide
**L to N
Acids, aromatic
Acrylonitrile
Adipic acid
Allyl alcohol
Aluminum chloride, anhydrous
Aluminum sulphate
*R
Alums
Ammonia, liquid (100%)
Ammonium chloride
*R
Ammonium fluoride, aqueous (up to 20%
*R
Ammonium nitrate
*R
Ammonium sulphate
*R
Ammonium sulfide
*R
Amyl acetate
Aniline, pure
Anisole
Antimony trichloride
Aqua regia
Barium chloride
*R
Barium hydroxide
*R
Beeswax
**L to N
Benzene
Benzenesulphonic acid

page 28
Return to TOC
Medium
73F
140F
Benzoic acid
*R
Benzyl alcohol
R to L
Borax, all concentrations
Boric acid
*R
Brine, saturated
Bromine
Bromine vapor
Butanetriol
Butanol
Butoxyl
*R
Butyl acetate
Butyl glycol
Butyric acid
Calcium chloride
*R
Calcium hypochlorite
*R
Camphor
Carbon dioxide
Carbon disulphide
Carbon tetrachloride
**L to N
Caustic potash
Caustic soda
Chlorine, liquid
Chlorine bleaching solution (12% active chlorine)
Chlorine gas, dry
Chlorine gas, moist
Chlorine water (disinfection of mains)
Chloroacetic acid (mono)
Chlorobenzene
Chloroethanol
RD
**L to N
Chloroform
Chlorosulphonic acid
Chromic acid (80%)
ND
Citric acid
Coconut oil
Copper salts
*R
Corn oil
Creosote
RD
Creosol
RD
Cyclohexane
Cyclohexanol
Cyclohexanone
Decahydronapthalene
Dessicator grease

page 29
Return to TOC
Medium
73F
140F
Detergents, synthetic
Dextrin, aqueous (18% saturated)
R to L
Dibutyl ether
Dibutyl phthalate
Dichloroacetic acid (100%)
LD
Dichloroacetic acid (50%)
Dichloroacetic acid methyl ester
Dichlorobenzene
Dichloroethane
Dichloroethylene
Diesel oil
R to L
Diethyl ether
Diisobutyl ketone
L to N
Dimethyl formamide (100%)
R to L
Dioxane
Emulsifiers
Esters, aliphatic
R to L
R to L
Ethyl acetate
Ethyl alcohol
Ethyl glycol
Ethyl hexanol
Ethylene chloride (dichlorothene)
Ethylene diamine
Ether
Fatty acids (>C )
Ferric chloride*
Fluorine
Fluorocarbons
Fluorosilic acid, aqueous (up to 32%)
Formaldehyde (40%)
Formamide
Formic acid
Fruit juices
Fruit pulp
Furfuryl alcohol
RD
Gelatine
Glucose
*R
Glycerol
Glycerol chlorohydrin
Glycol (conc.)
Glycolic acid (50%)
Glycolic acid (70%)
Halothane

page 30
Return to TOC
Medium
73F
140F
Hydrazine hydrate
Hydrobromic acid
Hydrochloric acid (all concentrations)
Hydrocyanic acid
Hydrofluoric acid (40%)
Hydrofluoric acid (70%)
Hydrogen
Hydrogen chloride gas, moist and dry
Hydrogen peroxide (30%)
Hydrogen peroxide (100%)
Hydrogen sulfide
Iodine, tincture of, DAB 7 (German Pharmacopeia)
LD
Isooctane
Isopropanol
R to L
Isopropyl ether
Jam
Ketones
R to L
Lactic acid
Lead acetate
*R
Linseed oil
Magnesium chloride
*R
Magnesium sulphate
*R
Maleic acid
Malic acid
Menthol
Mercuric chloride (sublimate)
Mercury
Methanol
Methyl butanol
Methyl ethyl ketone
L to N
Methyl glycol
Methylene chloride
Mineral oils
R to L
Molasses
Monochloroacetic acid
Monochloroacetic ethyl ester
Monochloroacetic methyl ester
Morpholine
Naptha
Napthalene
Nickel salts
*R
Nitric acid (25%)
Nitric acid (50%)

page 31
Return to TOC
Medium
73F
140F
Nitrobenzene
o-Nitrotolulene
Octyl creosol
Oils, ethereal
Oils, vegetable and animal
R to L
Oleic acid (conc.)
Oxalic acid (50%)
Ozone
Ozone, aqueous solution (Drinking water purification)
Paraffin oil
Perchloric acid (20%)
ND
Petrol
R to L
Petroleum
Petroleum ether
Petroleum jelly
**R to L
Phenol
RD
Phosphates
*R
Phosphoric acid (25%)
LD
Phosphorus oxychloride
LD
Phosphorus pentoxide
Phosphorus trichloride
Photographic developers, commercial
Phthalic acid (50%)
Polyglycols
Potassium bichromate (40%)
Potassium borate, aqueous (1%)
Potassium bromate, aqueous (up to 10%)
Potassium bromide
*R
Potassium chloride
*R
Potassium chromate, aqueous (40%)
Potassium cyanide
*R
Potassium hydroxide (30% solution)
Potassium nitrate
*R
Potassium permanganate
RD
Propanol
Propionic acid (50%)
Propionic acid (100%)
Propylene glycol
Pseudocumene

page 32
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Medium
73F
140F
Pyridine
Seawater
Silicic acid
Silicone oil
Silver nitrate
Sodium benzoate
Sodium bisulphate, weak aqueous solutions
Sodium Carbonate
*R
Sodium Chloride
*R
Sodium chlorite (50%)
Sodium hydroxide (30% solution)
Sodium hypochlorite (12% solution)
Sodium nitrate
*R
Sodium silicate
*R
Sodium sulfide
*R
Sodium thiosulphate
Spermaceti
Spindle oil
R to L
Starch
Steric acid
Succinic acid (50%)
Sugar syrup
Sulfates
*R
Sulfur
Sulfur dioxide, dry
Sulfur dioxide, moist
Sulfur trioxide
Sulfuric acid (10%)
Sulfuric acid (50%)
Sulfuric acid (98%)
Sulfuric acid, fuming
Sulfurous acid
Sulfuryl chloride
Tallow
Tannic acid (10%)
Tartaric acid
Tetrachloroethane
**R to L
Tetrahydrofuran
**R to L
Tetrahydronapthalene
Thionyl chloride
Thiophene
Toluene
Transformer oil

page 33
Return to TOC
Medium
73F
140F
Tributyl phosphate
Trichloroacetic acid (50%)
Trichloroacetic acid (100%)
L to N
Trichloroethylene
**R to L
Triethanolamine
Turpentine, oil of
R to L
Tween 20 and 90 (Atlas Chemical)
Urea
*R
Vinegar (commercial conc.)
Viscose spinning solutions
Waste gases containing carbon dioxide
Waste gases containing carbon monoxide
Waste gases containing hydrochloric acid (all conc.)
Waste gases containing hydrogen fluoride (traces)
Waste gases containing nitrous vitrinol (traces)
Waste gases containing sulfur dioxide (low conc.)
Waste gases containing sulphuric acid, moist (all conc.)
Water gas
Xylene
Yeast, aqueous preparations
Zinc chloride
*R
Go to Chapter 6

page 34
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6. Organizations, Standards & Publications

Organizations
AASHTO American Association of State Highway & Transportation Officials, 444 North Capitol
Street N.W., Suite 249, Washington, DC 20001; www.aashto.org.
AGA - American Gas Association, 1515 Wilson Boulevard, Arlington, VA 22209; www.AGA.org.
ANSI - American National Standards Institute, 11 West 42nd Street, New York, NY 10036;
www.ANSI.org.
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers, 1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Reston, Virginia
20191-4400; www.asce.org.
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers International, 22 Law Drive, Fairfield, NJ
07007-2900; www.asme.org
ASQC - American Society for Quality Control, 611 East Wisconsin Avenue, Milwaukee, WI
53202
ASTM - American Society for Testing and Materials, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West
Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959; www.ASTM.org
AWWA - American Water Works Association, 666 West Quincy Avenue, Denver, CO 80235;
www.AWWA.org.
IAPMO International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials, 20001 East Walnut
Drive South, Walnut, CA 91789-2825; www.iapmo.com
ISO - International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland; http://www.iso.ch/
NSF NSF International, 789 Dixboro Road, P.O. Box 130140, Ann Arbor, MI 48113-0140;
www.nsf.org.
PPI - Plastics Pipe Institute, 1801 K Street NW, Suite 600K, Washington, DC 2006-1301;
www.plasticpipe.org
Standards
AASHTO Standard Wheel Loadings For Standard H And HS Trucks - Standard Specifications
For Highway Bridges
AASHTO T-99 (ASTM D 698) - Test Method for Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of Soil
Using Standard Effort
ANSI/ASQC Q9002 Quality SystemsModel for Quality Assurance in Production, Installation
and Servicing
ANSI/AWWA C651 Disinfecting Water Mains
ANSI/AWWA C901 Polyethylene (PE) Pressure Pipe and Tubing, 1/2 in. (13 mm) through 3 in.
(76 mm) for Water Service
ANSI/AWWA C906 Polyethylene (PE) Pressure Pipe and Fittings, 4 in., through 63 in., for
Water Distribution
ASCE Manuals And Reports On Engineering Practice - No. 60 Gravity Sanitary Sewer Design
and Construction
Book 1: Chapter 6: Organizations, Standards &Publications
page 35
Return to TOC
ASTM D 638 Test Method for Tensile Properties of Plastics

ASTM D 698 Test Method for Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of Soil Using Standard
Effort
ASTM D 1238 Test Method for Flow Rates of Thermoplastics by Extrusion Plastometer
ASTM D 1505 Test Method for Density of Plastics by the Density-Gradient Technique
ASTM D 1598 Test Method for Time To Failure of Plastic Pipe Under Constant Internal
Pressure
ASTM D 1599 Test Method for Short-Term Hydraulic Failure Pressure of Plastic Pipe, Tubing,
and Fittings
ASTM D 2239 Specification for Polyethylene (PE) Plastic Pipe (SIDR-PR) Based on Controlled
Inside Diameter
ASTM D 2321 Standard Practice for Underground Installation of Thermoplastic Pipe for Sewers
and Other Gravity Flow Applications
ASTM D 2487 Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes (Unified Soil Classification
System)
ASTM D 2513 Specification for Thermoplastic Gas Pressure Pipe, Tubing, and Fittings
ASTM D 2657 Standard Practice for Heat-Joining Polyolefin Pipe and Fittings
ASTM D 2683 Socket-Type Polyethylene Fittings for Outside Diameter-Controlled Polyethylene
Pipe and Tubing
ASTM D 2774 Standard Practice for Underground Installation of Thermoplastic Pressure Piping
ASTM D 2837 Test Method for Obtaining Hydrostatic Design Basis for Thermoplastic Pipe
Materials
ASTM D 3212 Specification for Joints for Drain and Sewer Plastic Pipes Using Flexible
Elastomeric Seals
ASTM D 3261 Specification for Butt Heat Fusion Polyethylene (PE) Plastic Fittings for
Polyethylene (PE) Plastic Pipe and Tubing
ASTM D 3350 Specification for Polyethylene Plastics Pipe and Fittings Materials
ASTM F 585 Practice for Insertion of Flexible Polyethylene Pipe into Existing Sewers
ASTM F 894 Standard Specification for Polyethylene (PE) Large Diameter Profile Wall Sewer
and Drain Pipe
ASTM F 905 Standard Practice for Qualification of Saddle Fusion Joints
ASTM F 1041 Standard Guide for Squeeze-Off of Polyolefin Pressure Pipe and Tubing
ASTM F 1056 Standard Specification for Socket Fusion Tools For Use in Socket Fusion Joining
Polyethylene Pipe or Tubing and Fittings
ASTM F 1962 Guide for use of Maxi-Horizontal Directional Drilling for Placement of
Polyethylene Pipe or Conduit Under Obstacles, Including River Crossings
AWWA C207 Steel Pipe Flanges For Waterworks Service Sizes 4 in. Through 144 in. (100
mm Through 3,600 mm)
NSF Standard No. 61 Drinking Water System ComponentsHealth Effects
page 36
Return to TOC
USBR (United States Bureau of Reclamation) Designation E-3 (ASTM D 2487) Classification of
Soils for Engineering Purposes (Unified Soil Classification System)
USBR (United States Bureau of Reclamation) Designation E-11 (ASTM D 698) Test Method for
Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of Soil Using Standard Effort
Other Publications
PPI TR-4 Recommended Hydrostatic Strengths and Design Stresses for Thermoplastic Pipe
and Fittings Compounds
PPI TR-19 Thermoplastics Piping for the Transport of Chemicals
Go to Book 2: Chapter 1
page 37
Return to TOC
CPChem
PERFORMANCE PIPE
TM
a di
vision of Che
vr
y LP
division
Chevr
vron
Company

Engineering Manual
TM
Book 2: System Design


Return to TOC
1. Introduction
Performance Pipe DRISCOPLEX polyethylene piping systems are used to transport gasses,
liquids and slurries. These systems may operate under internal or external pressure, or both,
and may be designed for buried, surface, above grade, underwater, or floating applications.
Each system requires attention to the piping design characteristics of materials and products in
accordance with application and installation requirements.
There are many different piping, materials available to the piping system designer - wood,
concrete, steel, ductile iron, polyethylene, fiberglass, etc. Each material has its own advantages
and disadvantages when considered for a particular application or installation.
Piping systems are best designed when the appropriate material and product characteristics are
accommodated. Applying design methods for other piping materials to polyethylene piping
systems may lead to unsatisfactory system performance. Polyethylene will behave just like
polyethylene not like steel, not like concrete, not like other commercial piping materials.
A piping system is an assembly of piping components - pipe, fittings, valves, pumps, and other
appurtenances all joined together to perform a particular function. So, component joining
methods are crucial to the performance of the system as a whole.
DRISCOPLEX polyethylene pipes are produced under two distinctly different

manufacturing processes. These processes define the product and the applicable joining
methods.
DRISCOPLEX polyethylene piping products are designed for high performance, and easy,
efficient joining both to themselves and to other piping system components.
DRISCOPLEX polyethylene piping products have many characteristics that are common
to polyethylene, and in some cases, specific to Performance Pipe products.
The second book of the Performance Pipe Engineering Manual, System Design, is intended as
a guide for the piping system designer in the application of Performance Pipe DRISCOPLEX
polyethylene piping products.
Performance Pipe Distributors, Sales, Customer Service and Technical personnel are available
for guidance with specific design concerns.
DRISCOPLEX Outside Diameter (OD) Controlled Polyethylene Pipe

DRISCOPLEX OD Controlled polyethylene pipe is extruded using a process and
specifications that control the pipe outside diameter and wall thickness.
The controlled outside diameter manufacturing process lends itself well to joining by heat fusion,
which melts the joining surfaces and joins them, then cools them under pressure. When
properly made, heat fusion joints are as strong and permanent as the pipe.
DRISCOPLEX polyethylene pipe and fittings for OD controlled PE pipe are primarily designed
for internal pressure service, but provide excellent performance in non-pressure applications as
well. Pipe joints for pressure service are fully restrained, so the system retains polyethylene's
outstanding elasticity, ductility, and flexibility. When joined, systems can withstand unstable
soils, frost heave, tidal flows and wave action, pressure surges, and wide temperature swings.
DRISCOPLEX OD Controlled PE pipe is available in standard CTS tubing outside diameters
from 1/2 in. through 2 in.; standard IPS outside diameters from 1/2 in. through 54 in.; standard
Ductile Iron Pipe Sizes (DIPS) from 3 in. through 48 in., and standard metric sizes from 16 mm
Book 2: Chapter 1: Introduction
page 38
Return to TOC
through 1400 mm. Custom outside diameters are also available.

Standard wall thicknesses cover pressure ranges from 40 psi (2.8 bar; 0.28 MPa) through 267
psi (18.41 bar, 1.84 MPa). However, Performance Pipe has developed proprietary technology
for heavy wall, high pressure pipes for specialized applications such as mine tailing slurries, and
dewatering lines. Custom manufactured polyethylene pipes for internal pressures over 600 psi
can be manufactured using this technology. Thin wall pipes for custom applications are also
available.
DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE Inside Diameter Controlled

Polyethylene Pipe
DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipe is produced using proprietary technology developed by
Performance Pipe for inside diameter controlled, polyethylene pipe. This process extrudes
polyethylene over a mandrel. Various extrusion shapes are employed for efficient material
usage, and to provide resistance to deflection from external pressure.
DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE polyethylene pipes are intended for large diameter, gravity
flow, non-pressure, and low pressure applications such as sanitary and storm sewers, culverts,
drains, and odor control. Pipes are produced from 18" (457 mm) inside diameter through 120"
(3048 mm) inside diameter in accordance with ASTM F 894 Polyethylene (PE) Large Diameter
Profile Wall Sewer and Drain Pipe.
Available wall profiles produce ribbed exterior pipes with a smooth interior, and smooth exterior
pipes with a smooth interior. Standard pipes are produced in 20 ft. laying lengths with integral,
gasketed spigot and bell joints. The deep bell joints are designed to prevent infiltration, and will
meet or exceed ASTM D 3212 deflected joint performance requirements. Shorter, 13 ft., laying
lengths and custom wall profiles are available on special order. DRISCOPLEX 2000
SPIROLITE pipe is also fabricated into custom fittings, horizontal and vertical tanks, and
manholes.
Go to Chapter 2
Book 2: Chapter 1: Introduction
page 39
Return to TOC
2. Stress Rated Materials

DRISCOPLEX polyethylene pipes are manufactured using polyethylene materials that have
been evaluated for long-term performance under mechanical stress. This is because pipes are
durable goods that are expected to perform for many, many years.
In North America, the recognized method for determining the long-term performance of
thermoplastic materials is ASTM D 2837 Obtaining Hydrostatic Design Basis for Thermoplastic
Pipe Materials.
The hydrostatic design basis, HDB, for a thermoplastic materials is the long-term tensile stress
at a specific temperature, that the material can be expected to withstand for 100,000 hours.
For polyethylene materials, ASTM D 2837 requires supplemental validation testing against
failure by cracking. This is a critical requirement because when polyethylene is placed under
long term mechanical stress, it fails by cracks growing slowly through the material, a process
called slow crack growth. The supplemental validation requirement in D 2837 verifies that
long-term performance can be expected when continuous mechanical stress within the HDB
rating is applied.
Without long-term material evaluation, it is impossible to project how long a product may last.
Only materials that have been evaluated for long-term performance can be expected to provide
long-term service.
Table 2-1 Hydrostatic Design Basis Ratings and Service Temperatures
Property
ASTM
Standard
PE 3408
PE 2406
HDB at 73F (23C)

HDB at 140F (60C)
D 2837
D 2837
1600 psi (11.04 MPa)

800 psi (5.52 MPa)
1250 psi (8.62 MPa)

1000 psi (6.89 MPa)
Maximum recommended temperature

for Pressure Service
140F (60C)
140F (60C)
Maximum Recommended
Temperature for Non-Pressure Service
180F (82C)
180F (82C)
Go to Chapter 3
Book 2: Chapter 2: Stress Rated Materials
page 40
Return to TOC
3. Pressure Rating Design

Pressure rated DRISCOPLEX polyethylene pipe and fittings are manufactured from materials
that have been evaluated for long-term performance under mechanical stress.
Pipe Pressure Ratings

Pipe has a simple cylindrical shape. Formulas 3-1 and 3-2 relate the allowable long-term hoop
tensile stress to internal pressure. DRISCOPLEX OD controlled pressure pipes are pressure
rated using Formula 3-1. ID controlled pressure pipes are pressure rated using Formula 3-2.
P=
2 HDB f E fT
( DR 1 )
(3-1)
P=
2 HDB f E fT
( IDR + 1 )
(3-2)
Formula (3-1) and (3-2) terms are:

P
HDB
fE
fT
DR
=
=
=
=
=
Internal Pressure, psi

Hydrostatic Design Basis at 73F, psi
Environmental Design Factor, Table 3-1
Service Temperature Design Factor, Table 3-2
OD Controlled Pipe Dimension Ratio
DR =
OD =
t
=
IDR =
OD
t
OD-Controlled Pipe Outside Diameter, in.

Pipe Minimum Wall Thickness, in.
ID Controlled Pipe Dimension Ratio
IDR =
ID
(3-3)
ID
t
(3-4)
ID-Controlled Pipe Inside Diameter, in.
Thermoplastic pipes are commonly produced in accordance with a dimension ratio system. The
dimension ratio, DR or IDR, is the ratio of the wall thickness to the respective pipe diameter. As
diameters change, the pressure rating is the same for the same material, dimension ratio and
application.
The terms DR and IDR are used with outside diameter controlled and inside diameter
controlled pipe respectively. Certain dimension ratios that meet an ASTM-specified number
series are standardized dimension ratios that is SDR or SIDR. Standardized dimension ratios
are: 41, 32.5, 26, 21, 17, 13.5, 11, 9, and 7.3. From one SDR or SIDR to the next, there is
about a 25% difference in minimum wall thickness.
In Formulas 3-1 and 3-2, the HDB at 73F (23C) is always used. Materials that are suitable for
use at higher temperatures will also have elevated temperature HDBs. Two design factors, fE
and fT, relate environmental conditions and service temperature conditions to the product. See
Tables 3-1 and 3-2
Book 2: Chapter 3: Pressure Rating Design

page 41
Return to TOC
Occasionally, the HDS, the Hydrostatic Design Stress, may be used. The HDS is applicationspecific. It is the HDB times the appropriate environmental design factor (Formula 3-5).
HDS = HDB f E
(3-4)
The ASTM Standard Thermoplastic Material Designation Code uses the HDS for water service
as part of the code. See Material Designation Code in Book 1, Chapter 4.
Table 3-1 Environmental Design Factors, fE
Application
fE
Fluids such as potable and process water, benign chemicals, dry natural gas (non-federally
regulated), brine, CO2, H2S, wastewater, sewage, glycol/anti-freeze solutions
0.50
Dry natural gas (Federally regulated under CFR Title 49, Part 192),
0.32
Fluids such as solvating/permeating chemicals in pipe or soil (typically hydrocarbons) in 2%

or greater concentrations, natural or other fuel-gas liquid condensates, crude oil, fuel oil,
gasoline, diesel, kerosene, hydrocarbon fuels
0.25
Table 3-2 Service Temperature Design Factors, fT

Service Temperature
fT for PE 3408
fT for PE 2406
40F (4C)
1.20
1.10
60F (16C)
1.08
1.04
73F (23C)
1.00
1.00
100F (38C)
0.78
0.92
120F (49C)
0.63
0.86
140F (60C)
0.50
0.80
Table 3-1 and 3-2 design factors are applicable to Performance Pipe polyethylene materials.
They may not be applicable to materials from other manufacturers.
Fitting Pressure Ratings

Like pipe, fittings for pressure service are pressure-rated using long-term internal pressure
tests. Fittings however, have complicated geometries and are subject to additional stresses and
stress concentrations due to their shape and rigidity. The usual practice in fitting pressure rating
is to rate fittings as equivalent to system pipe of a particular DR.
Pressure-rated fittings must have added wall thickness where stresses are concentrated, and
around holes for directional outlets. Thus the fitting body wall must be thicker than the outlet
wall where it joins to system pipe. Saddle fittings have collars around the base to compensate
for the material that is removed by cutting the saddle outlet hole through the main pipe wall.
Molded fittings usually have an enlarged body that provides the necessary wall thickness. But
in fabricated fittings, heavier wall pipe sections must be used. This places the additional
material thickness inside the fitting. Fabricated fittings made from pipe segments that are the
same DR as the system pipe must be pressure-rated at least one SDR higher than system pipe
of the same DR. For example, a fabricated tee or elbow made from segments of DR 11 pipe is
pressure rated the same as DR 13.5 system pipe.
Go to Chapter 4
Book 2: Chapter 3: Pressure Rating Design
page 42
Return to TOC
4. Fluid Flow
Piping systems are specifically designed to transport a fluid from one location to another. Fluids
may be gaseous or liquid, or may be a slurry of solid particles in a liquid.
Application Limitations
Polyethylene pipes are suitable for many applications, but there are a few applications where
polyethylene should not be considered or may be applicable only with appropriate precautions.
Steam service is not recommended for obvious service temperature reasons.
Dry pneumatic transport of combustible materials such as coal or food grains is not
recommended, and can be extremely dangerous. Polyethylene is non-conductive. Dry, sliding
friction will cause a static electric charge to build on the pipe surface. Static electric discharge
can ignite combustible dust and cause an explosion, property damage, or possible
personal injury.
Pneumatic transport of non-combustible solids is not recommended. Particles sliding on the
surface will heat and may melt the surface, and will cause static electric charges to build. Static
electric discharge can be dangerous to property or persons.
Above grade compressed gas lines are a possible safety concern. When installed on or above
grade, polyethylene may be subject to external mechanical damage. Severe damage could
cause rupture and possible uncontrolled whipping. If used for compressed gas service,
polyethylene pipe should be completely restrained by burial, encased in shatter-resistant
materials, or otherwise protected against external mechanical damage.
Frozen Pipes
Water can be frozen solid in polyethylene pipe without damaging the pipe, but an ice plug in the
pipe will stop flow. Do not apply pressure to a frozen line that has an ice plug because it
can move the plug down the line at significant velocity. If the plug stops suddenly at an
obstruction, water hammer will result, which can burst or shatter the line.
Severe water hammer (such as from an ice plug stopping suddenly at an obstruction) in
a frozen, surface or above grade pipeline can shatter the pipeline and flying fragments
can cause death, injury or property damage. Allow an ice plug to thaw before applying
pressure to the line.
Pipe Internal Diameter

When a fluid is transported inside a pipe, the pipes inside diameter determines the flow rate.
DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipes are sized by the inside diameter, so the nominal
diameter is the diameter used for flow calculations.
DRISCOPLEX OD-controlled pipe is nominally sized by the outside diameter. Several sizing
systems are used including IPS, which is the same as IPS steel pipe, DIPS, which is the same
as ductile iron pipe, CTS, which is the same as copper tubing, and international metric sizes.
Pipe wall thickness determines the inside diameter. For OD-controlled pipe, the wall thickness
is increased as applied stress (internal pressure or external load) requirements increase, thus
the inside diameter of the pipe is reduced.
Book 2: Chapter 4: Fluid Flow

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For the purposes of fluid flow design1, Formula 4-1 provides an approximate inside diameter for
DRISCOPLEX OD-controlled polyethylene pipe.
OD
d = OD 2.12
DR
(4-1)
where:
d
OD
DR
=
=
=
pipe inside diameter for flow design, in

pipe outside diameter, in
OD controlled pipe dimension ratio (Formula 3-3)
Consult Performance Pipe product literature, and specifications published by ASTM, AWWA,
API, etc., for polyethylene pipe dimensions and tolerances.
Pressure Flow of Liquids

Darcy-Weisbach/Colebrook/Moody
Liquids in a pipe resist flowing due to viscous shear stresses within the liquid, and friction along
the pipe walls. Flow resistance in a pipe results in a pressure drop, or loss of head in the piping
system.
The Darcy-Weisbach or Fanning formula, Formula 4-2, and the Colebrook formula, Formula 4-5,
are generally accepted methods for calculating friction losses due to liquids flowing in full pipes.
These formulas recognize dependence on pipe bore and pipe surface characteristics, liquid
viscosity and flow velocity.
The Darcy-Weisbach formula is:
hf = f
LV2
D 2g
(4-2)
where:
hf
L
D
V
=
=
=
=
friction (head) loss, ft. of liquid

pipe length, ft.
pipe bore, ft.
flow velocity, ft./sec.
V =
g
Q
d
f
=
=
=
=
0.4085 Q
d2
(4-3)
gravitational constant (32.174 ft./sec2)

flow, gal/min
pipe bore, in
friction factor (dimensionless, but dependent upon pipe surface roughness and
Reynolds number
Liquid flow in pipes may be laminar or turbulent, or may be in transition between laminar and
turbulent. For laminar flow (Reynolds number, R, below 2000), the pipes surface roughness has
1
Formula 4-1 provides an approximate inside diameter for flow calculations. It should not be used to determine
diameters for devices that are to be fitted in the pipe bore. Consult Performance Pipe product literature and
applicable ASTM, AWWA, API, etc., pipe standards for information about actual pipe inside diameter.

page 44
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no effect, and the friction factor, f, is calculated using Formula 4-4.

64
R
f =
(4-4)
For turbulent flow (Reynolds number, R, above 4000), the friction factor, f, is dependent on both
the Reynolds number and the pipes surface roughness. The friction factor may be determined
from Figure 4-1, the Moody Diagram, which can be used for various pipe materials and sizes. In
the Moody Diagram, relative roughness, /D, is used. The friction factor may also be determined
from the Colebrook formula.
The Colebrook formula is:

2.51
= 2 log10
+
f
3.7 D R f
(4-5)
For Formulas 4-4 and 4-5, terms are as previously defined, and:
=
=
absolute roughness, ft.

Reynolds number, dimensionless
R=
VD
R=
=
=
=
=
=
(4-6)
(4-7)
(4-8)
z
s
(4-9)
kinematic viscosity, ft2/sec
fluid density, lb/ft2

dynamic viscosity, lb-sec/ft2
kinematic viscosity, centistokes
k=
z
s
VD
g
3126 Q
dk
dynamic viscosity, centipoises

liquid density, gm/cm3
When the friction loss through one size pipe is known, the friction loss through another pipe of
different diameter may be found by:
D
hf 1 = hf 2 1
D2
(4-10)
Both pipes must have the same surface roughness, and the fluid must be the same viscosity
and flowing at the same rate. Subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the known and unknown pipes.

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Table 4-1 Absolute Roughness for Commercial Pipe Materials

Pipe Type (New, clean condition)
Absolute Roughness (, ft.)
Polyethylene, drawn glass, brass tubing or pipe
0.00007
Steel pipe
0.00015
Cast or ductile iron pipe asphalt dipped
0.0004
Galvanized iron pipe
0.0005
Cast or ductile iron uncoated
0.00085
Wood stave pipe
0.0006 0.0003
Concrete pipe
0.001 0.01
Riveted steel pipe
0.003 0.03
Figure 4-1 Friction Factors for Pipe Flow
Fitting and Valve Friction Losses

Fluids flowing through a fitting or valve will experience a friction loss. The head loss can be
directly expressed using the applicable resistance coefficient, K, for the fitting. The DarcyWeisbach equation then becomes:

page 46
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V 2
hf = K
2g
(4-11)
where
K =f
L
D
(4-12)
Rearranging Formula 4-12 allows the fitting head loss to be expressed as feet of straight pipe
having the same head loss as the fitting.
L=
KD
f
where
K = K ' fT
so,
L=
K ' fT D
f
with fully turbulent flow,

fT f
yielding,
L = K' D
(4-13)
Table 4-2 presents K factors for various fittings.

Table 4-2 Fitting Coefficient K'
Fitting
Fitting
90 molded elbow
30
60 fabricated elbow
16
45 molded elbow
16
67.5 fabricated elbow
18
15 fabricated elbow
75 fabricated elbow
20
22.5 fabricated elbow
90 fabricated elbow
24
30 fabricated elbow
Equal outlet tee, run/branch
60
45 fabricated elbow
12
Equal outlet tee, run/run
20
Hazen-Williams
The Darcy-Weisbach/Colebrook/Moody method applies to non-plastic liquids, but it is complex.
For some applications, empirical formulas are available, and when used within their limitations,
reliable results can be obtained with greater convenience. Hazen and Williams developed an
empirical formula for water.
The Hazen-Williams formula for water at 60 F can be applied to liquids having the same
2
kinematic viscosity of 1.130 centistokes (0.00001211 ft /sec), or 31.5 SSU. Waters viscosity
page 47
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varies with temperature, so some error can occur at other temperatures.

Hazen-Williams formula for friction (head) loss in feet:
0.002083 L 100 Q
hf =
d 4.8655
C
1.85
(4-14)
Hazen-Williams formula for friction (head) loss in psi:

0.0009015 L 100 Q
d 4.8655
C
pf =
1.85
(4-15)
Terms are as previously defined, and:

C
pf
Hazen-Williams Friction Factor, dimensionless (not related to Darcy-Weisbach

friction factor, f)
friction (head) loss for water, psi
Table 4-3 Properties of Water

Temperature, F/C
Specific Weight, lb/ft3
Kinematic Viscosity, centistokes
32 / 0
62.414
1.79
60 / 15.6
62.37
1.13
75 / 23.9
62.27
0.90
100 / 37.8
62.00
0.69
120 / 48.9
61.71
0.57
140 / 60
61.38
0.47
Table 4-4 Hazen-Williams Friction Factor, C

Values for C
Pipe Material
Range
High / Low
Average Value
Typical Design
Value
Polyethylene pipe or tubing
160 / 150
150-155
150
Cement or mastic lined iron or steel pipe
160 / 130
148
140
Copper, brass, lead, tin or glass pipe or tubing
150 / 120
140
130
Wood stave
145 / 110
120
110
Welded and seamless steel
150 / 80
130
100
Cast and ductile iron
150 / 80
130
100
Concrete
152 / 85
120
100
Corrugated steel
60
60
Pipes of different materials and diameters may be compared using the following formula. The
subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the known pipe and the unknown pipe.

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d
% flow = 100 2
d1
C2

C1
0.3806
(4-16)
Losses Due to Elevation Change

Line pressure may be lost or gained by a change in elevation. For liquids, the pressure loss for
a given elevation change is given by:
hE = h2 h1
(4-17)
where
hE
h1
h2
=
=
=
Elevation head loss, ft of liquid

Pipeline elevation at point 1, ft
Pipeline elevation at point 2, ft
If a pipeline is subject to a uniform elevation change along its length, the two points may be the
elevations at each end of the line. However, some pipelines may have several elevation
changes as they traverse rolling or mountainous terrain. These pipelines may be evaluated by
choosing points where the pipeline slope changes, then summing the individual elevation heads
for an overall pipeline elevation head.
Air Binding and Vacuum Release

In rolling or mountainous country, additional drag due to air binding must be avoided. Air binding
occurs when air in the system accumulates at local high spots. This reduces the effective pipe
bore, and restricts flow. Vents such as standpipes or air release valves may be installed at high
points to avoid air binding. If the pipeline has a high point above that of either end, vacuum
venting may be required to prevent vacuum collapse, siphoning, or to allow drainage.
Water Hammer and Pressure Surge Considerations

Effects on Pressure Piping Systems
Water hammer in a liquid piping system is a high velocity pressure wave caused by a sudden
change in liquid flow velocity. A sudden valve opening or closing, a piping failure, or a pump
starting or stopping may cause an instantaneous flow change. The sudden liquid velocity
change causes a momentum change resulting in a pressure surge. Compressible fluids
(gasses) are not subject to water hammer.
The magnitude of the pressure change, P, and the wave velocity, S, of a pressure surge may be
determined by the following:
w
S ( V )
g
P =
144
S=

144 E E B
E D
w
144 E + B
g
t'

page 49
(4-18)
(4-19)
Return to TOC
where
P
w
g
S
V
E
EB
D
t
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
pressure change, psi

liquid weight, lb/ft3
acceleration of gravity, ft/sec2
wave velocity, ft/sec
liquid velocity change, ft/sec
short-term pipe elastic modulus, psi
liquid bulk modulus, lb/ft2
pipe inside diameter, ft
pipe wall thickness, ft
The pressure wave is superimposed on the system, and may be negative or positive. Water
hammer analysis of piping systems is complex and depends on pumping characteristics,
elevation changes, valve actuation, system geometry, dissolved gasses, and other factors. For
a detailed analysis of hydraulic surge in piping systems, a professional design engineer or
consultant who is experienced with hydraulic surge in piping systems should be consulted.
Equation 4-18 gives the maximum surge pressure for a given velocity change. Typically for a
rapid valve closure the velocity change equals the flow velocity in the line. However, events
such as cavitation or water column separation can occur during which the water velocity can
exceed the average flow velocity.
Surge Allowance
Flexibility and short-term mechanical strength in DRISCOPLEX polyethylene pressure pipe
provide exceptional surge tolerance. The low elastic modulus provides a quick dampening
mechanism for shock loads. These properties result in lower surge pressures compared to more
rigid systems such as steel, ductile iron, or PVC. For the same liquid and velocity change, surge
pressures in polyethylene pipe are about 86% less than in steel pipe, about 80% less than in
ductile iron pipe, and about 50% less than in PVC pipe.
Surges affect systems differently depending upon the system design, surge pressure magnitude
and surge frequency. Allowable surge pressures may be limited by the pressure ratings of
pumps, valves, fittings, partially restrained or non-restrained connections, or other
appurtenances.
Water systems may be subject to surge pressures when there is a sudden increase or decrease
in flow velocity. Recurrent pressure surges, PRS, are repetitive surge events that occur
frequently such as during pump start-stop operation. Occasional pressure surges, POS, are
irregularly occurring surges such as a sudden flow change due to firefighting or check valve
operation. Surge pressure corresponds directly to velocity change, that is, greater velocity
change produces greater surge pressure.
With its unique ductile elastic properties and superb fatigue resistance, DRISCOPLEX
polyethylene pipe is especially tolerant of pressure surges. Unlike other plastic and metal pipes,
the allowance for pressure surge is applied above the pressure rating of the pipe. In Table 4-5,
pressure rating, P, is determined using Formula 3-1.
Table 4-5 Pressure Surge Allowance
Type of Pressure Surge
Allowance for Surge
Recurrent Surge, PRS
PRS = 0.5 (P)
Occasional Surge, POS
POS = 1.0 (P)

page 50
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Working Pressure Rating (WPR)

Working pressure rating, WPR, combines the elements of pressure rating, P (Formula 3-1), and
surge pressure.
For recurrent pressure surge applications:
WPR = 1.5 (P ) PRS
(4-20)
For occasional pressure surge applications:

WPR = 2.0 (P ) POS
(4-21)
When flow velocity is at or below the value in Table 4-6 for the surge condition, pressure surge
will not exceed the surge pressure allowance. Under these flow conditions; the working
pressure rating, WPR, equals the pressure rating, P. Table 4-6 shows surge allowance and
corresponding sudden velocity change for DRs typically used for water distribution pipe.
Surge allowance is available only for surge events. Surge allowance is applied above the
working pressure; therefore, it cannot be used to increase continuous internal pressure capacity
above that permitted by the working pressure.
Table 4-6 Surge Allowance
DR
WPR,
psi
21
17
13.5
11
80
100
130
160
Recurring Surge Events
Occasional Surge Events
Surge Allowance
PRS, psi
Corresponding Sudden
Velocity Change, fps
Surge allowance
POS, psi
Corresponding Sudden
Velocity Change, fps
40.0
50.0
64.0
80.0
4.0
4.4
5.0
5.6
80
100
130
160
8.0
8.9
10.1
11.1
Pressure and velocity ratings are for water at 80F (27C) or less, and can vary for other fluids and temperatures.
When flow velocity exceeds the corresponding sudden velocity change in Table 4-6, the surge
allowance must increase, and to compensate, the Working Pressure Rating must be reduced.
Formulas 4-20 and 4-21 may be used to determine surge pressure allowance and WPR in these
cases.
Effects of Cyclic Stressing

When pressure surges are frequent or continuous, the fatigue endurance of the material must
be considered. As with all materials, repeated stressing and straining can result in a long-term
strength reduction. Although Performance Pipe polyethylene materials are typically more fatigue
resistant than other thermoplastic piping materials, they may eventually be affected by
continuous, long-term exposure to highly repetitive cyclical surges.
Controlling Water Hammer

Reducing the suddenness of a velocity change can help control water hammer effects. Velocity
change rate may be controlled with starting and stopping speed controls on pumps, valve
closure and opening speed controls, surge suppressors, and by controlling flow velocity, or flow
rate.
To prevent subsequent surges from superimposing on the prior surge, the second surge should
be delayed from the first by at least the surge delay interval in Table 4-8. Delay times are for
page 51
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1000 feet of uninterrupted pipeline upstream from a valve or pump. If surge pressures are within
allowable limits, the delay intervals will allow the first surge to die out before the next surge is
introduced.
Table 4-7 Surge Delay Interval
Pipe
DR
Time Delay Interval Between Surges for 1000

ft of Pipe, sec
Pipe
DR
Time Delay Interval Between Surges for 1000

ft of Pipe, sec
7.3
13.3
17.0
21.9
9.0
15.2
21.0
24.5
11.0
17.1
26.0
27.6
13.5
19.3
32.5
31.1
In hilly regions, a liquid flow may separate at high points, and cause surge pressures when the
flow rejoins. Reducing the downhill, downstream pipeline bore may help keep the pipeline full by
reducing the flow rate. Flow separation is more likely to occur with oversize pipelines. Vacuum
breakers and flow control valves can also be effective.
Recommended Flow Velocities

The limiting flow velocity in DRISCOPLEX polyethylene pipe depends on the specific details
of the system. For water systems operating at rated pressures, limiting velocities based on
surge capacities for some pipe sizes are indicated in Tables 4-7 and 4-8. Where surge effects
are not possible, velocities exceeding 25 feet per second may be acceptable.
Velocity may be limited by the capability of pumps or elevation head to overcome friction (head)
loss and deliver the flow and pressure through the pipeline required for the application.
Gravity Flow of Liquids

In a pressure pipeline, a prime mover, such as a pump, provides the energy required to move
the fluid through the pipeline. Such pipelines can transport fluids across a level surface, uphill,
or downhill. However, when the pipeline discharge is below the inlet, a gravity flow can be
established.
In operation, gravity flow pipelines require only that the discharge be below the inlet. Like
pressure flow pipelines, friction loss in a gravity flow pipeline is dependent upon viscous shear
stresses within the liquid, and friction along the pipe walls.
Some gravity flow piping systems may become very complex, especially if the pipeline grade
varies, because friction loss will vary along the run. With a varying grade, parts of the line may
develop internal pressure, or vacuum, and may have varying liquid levels in the bore.
Manning
For open channel water flow under conditions of constant grade, and uniform channel cross
section, the Manning equation may be used. Open channel flow exists in a pipe when it runs
partially full. Like the Hazen-Williams formula, the Manning equation is limited to water or liquids
with a kinematic viscosity equal to water.

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Manning Equation
V =
1.486 2 / 3 1 / 2
r
S
n
(4-22)
where
V
n
r
=
=
=
flow velocity, ft/sec

roughness coefficient, dimensionless
hydraulic radius, ft
A
P
(4-23)
h1 h2
h
= f
L
L
(4-24)
r =
A
P
S
=
=
=
channel cross section area, ft2

perimeter wetted by flow, ft
hydraulic slope, ft/ft
S=
h1
h2
hf
=
=
=
upstream pipe elevation, ft

downstream pipe elevation, ft
friction (head) loss, ft of liquid
It is convenient to combine the Manning equation with

Q = AV
(4-25)
to obtain
Q=
1.486 A 2 / 3 1/ 2
r
S
n
(4-26)
where terms are as defined above, and

Q
flow, ft3/sec
When a circular pipe is running full or half-full,

r =
D
d
=
4 48
(4-27)
where
D
d
=
=
pipe bore, ft
pipe bore, in
Full pipe flow in ft3 per second may be estimated using:
Q = 6.136 10 4

page 53
)d
8/3
S 1/ 2
n
(4-28)
Return to TOC
Full pipe flow in gallons per minute may be estimated using:

Q' = 0.275
d 8 / 3 S 1/ 2
n
(4-29)
Nearly full circular pipes will carry more liquid than a completely full pipe. When slightly less
than full, the hydraulic radius is significantly reduced, but the actual flow area is only slightly
lessened. Maximum flow is achieved at about 93% of full pipe flow, and maximum velocity at
about 78% of full pipe flow.
Table 4-8 Values of n for use with Manning Equation
Surface
n, range
n, typical design
Polyethylene pipe
0.008 0.011
0.009
Uncoated cast or ductile iron pipe
0.012 0.015
0.013
Corrugated steel pipe
0.021 0.030
0.024
Concrete pipe
0.012 0.016
0.015
Vitrified clay pipe
0.011 0.017
0.013
Brick and cement mortar sewers
0.012 0.017
0.015
Wood stave
0.010 0.013
0.011
Rubble masonry
0.017 0.030
0.021
Comparative Flows for Slipliners

Sliplining rehabilitation of deteriorated gravity flow sewers involves installing a polyethylene liner
inside of the original pipe. For conventional sliplining, clearance between the liner outside
diameter, and the existing pipe bore is required to install the liner. So after rehabilitation, the
flow channel is smaller than the original pipe. However, DRISCOPLEX polyethylene pipe has
a smooth surface that resists aging and deposition. It may be possible to slipline, and maintain
all or most of the original flow capacity. See Table 4-10.
Comparative flow capacities of circular pipes may be determined by the following:
d 18 / 3
n1
% flow = 100 1 = 100

Q2
d28 / 3
n2
(4-30)
Table 4-10 was developed using Formula 4-30 where d1 = the liner ID, and d2 = the existing
sewer ID.

page 54
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Table 4-9 Comparative Flows for Slipliners

Liner DR 32.5
Existing
%
Liner
% flow
Sewer
flow
OD, in. Liner
vs.
ID, in
ID, in.
vs.
concrete
clay
4
6
6
8
8
10
12
15
15
16
18
21
24
24
27
30
33
36
36
42
48
54
60
3.500
4.500
5.375
6.625
7.125
8.625
10.750
12.750
13.375
14.000
16.000
18.000
20.000
22.000
24.000
28.000
30.000
32.000
34.000
36.000
42.000
48.000
54.000
3.272
4.206
5.024
6.193
6.660
8.062
10.049
11.918
12.503
13.087
14.956
16.826
18.695
20.565
22.434
26.174
28.043
29.913
31.782
33.652
39.260
44.869
50.478
97.5%
64.6%
103.8%
84.2%
102.2%
93.8%
103.8%
90.3%
102.5%
97.5%
101.7%
92.3%
85.6%
110.4%
101.7%
115.8%
108.0%
101.7%
119.5%
92.3%
97.5%
101.7%
105.1%
84.5%
56.0%
90.0%
73.0%
88.6%
81.3%
90.0%
78.2%
88.9%
84.5%
88.1%
80.0%
74.2%
95.7%
88.1%
100.4%
93.6%
88.1%
103.6%
80.0%
84.5%
88.1%
91.1%
Liner DR 26
Liner DR 21
Liner DR 17
Liner
ID, in.
% flow % flow
% flow % flow
% flow % flow
Liner
Liner
vs.
vs.
vs.
vs.
vs.
vs.
ID, in.
ID, in.
concrete clay
concrete clay
concrete clay
3.215
4.133
4.937
6.085
6.544
7.922
9.873
11.710
12.284
12.858
14.695
16.532
18.369
20.206
22.043
25.717
27.554
29.391
31.228
33.065
38.575
44.086
49.597
93.0%
61.7%
99.1%
80.3%
97.5%
89.5%
99.1%
86.1%
97.8%
93.0%
97.0%
88.1%
81.7%
105.3%
97.0%
110.5%
103.0%
97.0%
114.1%
88.1%
93.0%
97.0%
100.3%
80.6%
53.5%
85.9%
69.6%
84.5%
77.6%
85.9%
74.6%
84.8%
80.6%
84.1%
76.3%
70.8%
91.3%
84.1%
95.8%
89.3%
84.1%
98.9%
76.3%
80.6%
84.1%
86.9%
3.147
4.046
4.832
5.956
6.406
7.754
9.665
11.463
12.025
12.587
14.385
16.183
17.981
19.779
21.577
25.173
26.971
28.770
30.568
32.366
37.760
43.154
48.549
87.9%
58.3%
93.6%
75.9%
92.1%
84.6%
93.6%
81.4%
92.4%
87.9%
91.7%
83.2%
77.2%
99.5%
91.7%
104.4%
97.3%
91.7%
107.7%
83.2%
87.9%
91.7%
94.8%
76.2%
50.5%
81.1%
65.8%
79.9%
73.3%
81.1%
70.5%
80.1%
76.2%
79.4%
72.1%
66.9%
86.2%
79.4%
90.5%
84.3%
79.4%
93.4%
72.1%
76.2%
79.4%
82.1%
3.064
3.939
4.705
5.799
6.236
7.549
9.409
11.160
11.707
12.254
14.005
15.755
17.506
19.256
21.007
24.508
26.259
28.009
29.760
31.511
36.762
42.014
47.266
81.8%
54.3%
87.1%
70.7%
85.8%
78.8%
87.1%
75.7%
86.1%
81.8%
85.3%
77.5%
71.9%
92.6%
85.3%
97.2%
90.6%
85.3%
100.3%
77.5%
81.8%
85.3%
88.2%
70.9%
47.0%
75.5%
61.2%
74.4%
68.3%
75.5%
65.6%
74.6%
70.9%
74.0%
67.1%
62.3%
80.3%
74.0%
84.2%
78.5%
74.0%
86.9%
67.1%
70.9%
74.0%
76.5%
Liner ID calculated per Formula 4-1.
Pipe Surface Condition, Aging

Aging acts to increase pipe surface roughness in most piping systems. This in turn increases
flow resistance.
DRISCOPLEX polyethylene pipe resists aging effects because polyethylene does not rust,
rot, corrode or tuberculate, does not support biological growth, and it resists the adherence of
scale and deposits. In some cases, moderate flow velocities are sufficient to prevent deposition,
and where low velocities predominate, occasional high velocity flows will help to remove
deposits.
DRISCOPLEX polyethylene pipes may be cleaned with high-pressure water or by running
soft (plastic foam) pigs through the pipe. Bucket, wire or finger type scraper pigs should not be
used.
Slurry Flow
This discussion is restricted to liquid slurries, and does not address pneumatic transport of
solids. Please see Application Limitations at the beginning of this chapter.

page 55
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Liquid slurry piping systems are designed to transport solids entrained in a liquid carrier. Of
primary concern in design are the solid material, particle size, and the carrier liquid.
DRISCOPLEX polyethylene pipes are produced from materials with high molecular weight,
and low elastic modulus. These materials are well suited for turbulent flow slurry applications.
Turbulent flow is recommended because particles suspended in the carrier liquid will bounce off
the pipe inside surface, using the pipes elasticity and high molecular weight toughness to
provide service life significantly greater than many metal piping materials. However, if flow
velocity is too low to maintain fully turbulent flow for a given particle size, solids can drift to the
bottom of the pipe and slide along the surface. Compared to metals, polyethylene is a softer
material, so under sliding solids conditions, polyethylene may wear appreciably.
Particle Size
As a general recommendation, particle size should not exceed about 0.2 in (5 mm); however,
larger particles are occasionally acceptable if they are a small percentage of the solids in the
slurry.
With relatively large, uniformly sized particles in the slurry, the viscosity of the mixture will be
approximately that of the carrying liquid. However, if particle size is very small, about 15 microns
or less, the slurry viscosity will increase above that of the carrying liquid alone. Fine particle
slurries should be analyzed in a laboratory for viscosity and specific gravity before determining
flow friction losses. Inaccurate assumptions of a fluids rheological properties can lead to
significant errors in flow resistance analysis. Examples of fine particle slurries are water slurries
of fine silt, clay, and kaolin clay.
Slurries frequently do not have uniform particle size. Some size non-uniformity can aid in
transporting larger particles. In a slurry having a proportion of fine particles, the fine particle
mixture will act as a more viscous carrying fluid, and help suspend larger particles in the slurry.
Flow analysis of non-uniform particle size slurries should include a rheological investigation of
the fine particle mixture.
Solids Concentration and Specific Gravity

The following formulas are useful in determining solids concentrations and mixture specific
gravity.
CV =
SM SL
SS SL
(4-31)
CV S S
SM
(4-32)
CW =
S M = CV ( S S S L ) + S L
SM =
1
CW
SL
( SS S L )
SS
where
SL
carrier liquid specific gravity

page 56
(4-33)
(4-34)
Return to TOC
SS
SM
CV
CW
=
=
=
=
solids specific gravity

slurry mixture specific gravity
percent solids concentration by volume
percent solids concentration by weight
Critical Velocity
As presented above, turbulent flow is recommended to keep particles in suspension. Turbulent
flow avoids the formation of a sliding bed of solids, excessive pipeline wear, and possible
clogging. Generally, Reynolds numbers above 4000 will insure turbulent flow. See Pressure
Flow of Liquids at the beginning of this chapter.
A general recommendation is to maintain flow velocity at about 30% above the critical
settlement velocity. A study performed by Durand on sand-water slurries provides the following
formula for determining critical velocity:
VC = FL 2gd (SS 1 )
(4-35)
where terms are as previously defined and

VC
FL
=
=
critical carrying velocity, ft/sec

coefficient dependent upon grain size and concentration. (Table 4-13 and
Table 4-14.)
A guideline minimum velocity recommendation for fine particle slurries (below 50 microns, 0.05
mm) is 4 to 7 ft/sec, so long as turbulent flow is maintained. A guideline minimum velocity for
larger particle slurries (over 150 microns, 0.15 mm) is
VM = 14 D
(4-36)
where
VM
approximate minimum velocity, ft/sec
Another useful relationship is that critical velocity changes with the pipe bore, that is, for the
same carrying liquid, particle size and solids concentration, critical velocity increases with
increasing pipe bore. Analysis of Formula 4-2, the Darcy-Weisbach formula shows the following
relationship:
V2 =
D2
D1
(4-37)
V1
where the subscripts 1 and 2 are for the two pipe diameters.

page 57
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Table 4-10 Scale of Particle Sizes

Tyler Screen Mesh
U.S. Standard Mesh
Inches
2.5
Microns
Class
1.3 2.5
33,000 63,500
Very coarse gravel
0.6 1.3
15,200 32,000
Coarse gravel
0.321
8,000
Medium gravel
0.157
4,000
Fine gravel
10
0.079
2,000
Very fine gravel
16
18
0.039
1,000
Very coarse sand
32
35
0.0197
500
Coarse sand
60
60
0.0098
250
Medium sand
115
120
0.0049
125
Fine sand
250
230
0.0024
62
Very fine sand
400
0.0015
37
Coarse silt
0.0006 0.0012
16 31
Medium silt
8 13
Fine silt
48
Very fine silt
24
Coarse clay
12
Medium clay
0.5 - 1
Fine clay
Table 4-11 Specific Gravity and Slurry Solids Concentration

Material
Specific Gravity
Gilsonite
Typical Solids Concentration

% by Weight
% by Volume
1.05
40 45
39 44
Coal
1.40
45 55
37 47
Sand
2.65
43 43
23 30
Limestone
2.70
60 65
36 41
Copper Concentrate
4.30
60 65
26 30
Iron Ore
4.90
Iron Sands
1.90
Magnetite
4.90
60 - 65
23 - 27

page 58
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Table 4-12 Water-Base Slurry Specific Gravities

Solid Specific Gravity, SS
CW
1.4
1.8
2.2
2.6
3.0
3.4
3.8
4.2
4.6
5.0
1.01
1.02
1.03
1.03
1.03
1.04
1.04
1.04
1.04
1.04
10
1.03
1.05
1.06
1.07
1.07
1.08
1.08
1.08
1.08
1.09
15
1.04
1.07
1.09
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.12
1.13
1.13
1.14
20
1.05
1.10
1.12
1.14
1.15
1.16
1.17
1.18
1.19
1.19
25
1.08
1.13
1.16
1.18
1.20
1.21
1.23
1.24
1.24
1.25
30
1.09
1.15
1.20
1.23
1.25
1.27
1.28
1.30
1.31
1.32
35
1.11
1.18
1.24
1.27
1.30
1.33
1.35
1.36
1.38
1.39
40
1.13
1.22
1.28
1.33
1.36
1.39
1.42
1.44
1.46
1.47
45
1.15
1.25
1.33
1.38
1.43
1.47
1.50
1.52
1.54
1.56
50
1.17
1.29
1.38
1.44
1.50
1.55
1.58
1.62
1.64
1.67
55
1.19
1.32
1.43
1.51
1.58
1.63
1.69
1.72
1.76
1.79
60
1.21
1.36
1.49
1.59
1.67
1.73
1.79
1.84
1.89
1.92
65
1.23
1.41
1.55
1.67
1.76
1.85
1.92
1.98
2.04
2.08
70
1.25
1.45
1.62
1.76
1.88
1.98
2.07
2.14
2.21
2.27
Table 4-13 Velocity Coefficient, FL (Uniform Particle Size)

Particle Size, mm
Velocity Coefficient, FL
CV = 2%
CV = 5%
CV = 10%
CV = 15%
.1
.76
0.92
0.94
0.96
.2
0.94
1.08
1.20
1.28
.4
1.08
1.26
1.41
1.46
.6
1.15
1.35
1.46
1.50
.8
1.21
1.39
1.45
1.48
1.0
1.24
1.04
1.42
1.44
1.2
1.27
1.38
1.40
1.40
1.4
1.29
1.36
1.67
1.37
1.6
1.30
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.8
1.32
1.34
1.34
1.34
2.0
1.33
1.34
1.34
1.34
2.2
1.34
1.34
1.34
1.34
2.4
1.34
1.34
1.34
1.34
2.6
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.35
2.8
1.36
1.36
1.36
1.36
3.0
1.36
1.36
1.36
1.36

page 59
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Table 4-14 Velocity Coefficient, FL (50% Passing Particle Size)

Particle Size, mm
Velocity Coefficient, FL
CV = 5%
CV = 10%
CV = 20%
CV = 30%
0.01
0.48
0.48
0.48
0.48
0.02
0.58
0.59
1.60
0.61
0.04
0.70
0.72
0.74
0.76
0.06
0.77
0.79
0.81
0.83
0.08
0.83
0.86
0.86
0.91
0.10
0.85
0.88
0.92
0.95
0.20
0.97
1.00
1.05
0.18
0.40
1.09
1.13
1.18
1.23
0.60
1.15
1.21
1.26
1.30
0.80
1.21
1.25
1.31
1.33
1.0
1.24
1.29
1.33
1.35
2.0
1.33
1.36
1.38
1.40
3.0
1.36
1.38
1.39
1.40
Head Loss
The same formulas used for pressure liquid flows, Darcy-Weisbach (Formula 4-2), and HazenWilliams (Formulas 4-14 and 4-15) may be used to determine head loss for slurry systems,
provided the viscosity limitations of the formulas, are taken into account.
Elevation head loss is increased by the mixture specific gravity.
hE = S M (h2 h1
(4-38)
Compressible Gas Flow

Flow formulas for smooth pipe may be used to estimate gas flow rates through DriscoPlex
polyethylene pipe.
High Pressure Formulas

For pressures greater than 1 psig, the equations presented below are used in the industry. Due
to assumptions made for each equation, there may be slight differences in the calculated result
for one equation compared to that from another.
Mueller Equation
2
2
2826 d 2.725 p1 p2
Qh =
0.425
L
Sg
0.575
Weymouth Equation

page 60
(4-39)
Return to TOC
2
2
2034 d 2.667 p1 p 2
Qh =
0.5
L
Sg
0.5
(4-40)
IGT Distribution Equation

2
2
2679 d 2.667 p1 p 2
Qh =
0.444
L
Sg
0.555
(4-41)
Spitzglass Equation
Qh =
3410
0.5
Sg
2
p1
p2
L
5
d
3.6
+ 0.03 d
1+
d
0.5
0 .5
(4-42)
where
Qh
Sg
p1
p2
L
d
=
=
=
=
=
=
flow, standard ft3/hour

gas specific gravity
inlet pressure, lb/in2 absolute
outlet pressure, lb/in2 absolute
length, ft
pipe bore, in
Low Pressure Formulas

For applications where less than 1 psig is encountered, such as landfill gas gathering or
wastewater odor control, the following equations may be used.
Mueller Equation
Qh =
2971d 2.725 h1 h2
0.425
Sg
L
0.575
(4-43)
Spitzglass Equation
Qh =
3350 h1 h2
0.5
Sg
L
3. 6
+ 0.03 d
1+
d
0 .5
0 .5

h1
h2
=
=
inlet pressure, in H2O

outlet pressure, in H2O

page 61
(4-44)
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Gas Permeation
Long distance pipelines carrying compressed gasses may deliver slightly less gas due to
permeation through the pipe wall. Usually, such losses are small, however, it may be necessary
to distinguish between permeation losses and possible leakage.
The volume of a gas that will permeate through polyethylene pipe of a given wall thickness is
determined by the following formula:
qP =
KAP PA
t'
(4-45)
where
qP
K
AP
PA
=
=
=
=
=
=
volume of gas permeated, cm3 (gas at standard temperature and pressure)

permeability constant (Table 4-16)
area of the outside wall of the pipe, 100 in2
pipe internal pressure, atmospheres (1 atmosphere = 14.7 lb/in2 )
elapsed time, days
wall thickness, mils
Table 4-15 Permeability Constants

Gas
Methane
85
Carbon Monoxide
80
Hydrogen
425

page 62
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Table 4-16 Physical Properties of Gases (Approximate Values at 14.7 psi and 68F)
Gas
Chemical
Formula
Molecular
Weight
3
Weight Density, lb/ft ,
Specific Gravity,
Sg
Acetylene (ethylene)
C2H2
26.0
0.0682
0.907
Air
29.0
0.0752
1.000
Ammonia
NH3
17.0
0.0448
0.596
Argon
39.9
0.1037
1.379
Butane
C4H10
58.1
0.1554
2.067
Carbon Dioxide
CO2
44.0
0.1150
1.529
Carbon Monoxide
CO
28.0
0.0727
0.967
Ethane
C2H6
30.0
0.0789
1.049
Ethylene
C2H4
28.0
0.0733
0.975
Helium
He
4.0
0.0104
0.138
Hydrogen Chloride
HCl
36.5
0.0954
1.286
Hydrogen
2.0
0.0052
0.070
Hydrogen Sulphide
H2 S
34.1
0.0895
1.190
Methane
CH4
16.0
0.0417
0.554
Methyl Chloride
CH3Cl
50.5
0.1342
1.785
Natural Gas
19.5
0.0502
0.667
Nitric Oxide
NO
30.0
0.0708
1.037
Nitrogen
N2
28.0
0.0727
0.967
Nitrous Oxide
N2O
44.0
0.1151
1.530
Oxygen
O2
32.0
0.0831
1.105
Propane
C3H8
44.1
0.1175
1.562
Propene (Propylene)
C3H6
42.1
0.1091
1.451
Sulfur Dioxide
SO2
64.1
0.1703
2.264
Landfill Gas (approx. value)
1.00
Carbureted Water Gas
0.63
Coal Gas
0.42
Coke-Oven Gas
0.44
Refinery Oil Gas
0.99
Oil Gas (Pacific Coast)
0.47
Wet Gas (approximate

value)
0.75
Go to Chapter 5
page 63
Return to TOC
5. Thermal Effects
Like most materials, polyethylene is affected by temperature change. However,
polyethylenes response to temperature change is significant and unique when
compared to other traditional piping materials. Polyethylene pipe design for thermal
change may be significantly different compared to other piping materials.
The effect of temperature on chemical resistance is discussed in the Performance Pipe
Engineering Manual, Book 1: Engineering Properties. In this book, Chapter 3, Pressure Rating
Design discusses pressure rating change for different service temperatures.
Polyethylene pipe can be installed and operated in sub-freezing conditions. Ice in the pipe will
restrict or stop flow, but not cause pipe breakage. Care must be taken during installation to
avoid impact and suddenly applied high stress, and temperature change will result in a
dimension change or a stress increase in the pipe wall depending on the installation.
In response to changing temperature, unrestrained polyethylene pipe will undergo a length
change. Anchored or end restrained pipe will develop longitudinal stresses instead of
undergoing a change in length. This stress will be tensile during temperature decrease, or
compressive during temperature increase. If the compressive stress level exceeds the column
buckling resistance of the restrained length, then lateral buckling (or snaking) will occur. While
thermal stresses are well tolerated by polyethylene pipe, anchored or restrained pipe may apply
stress to restraining structures. The resulting stress or thrust loads can be significant and the
restraining structures must be designed to resist the anticipated loads.
Unrestrained Thermal Effects

The theoretical change in length for an unrestrained pipe placed on a frictionless surface can be
determined from Formula 5-1.
L = L T
(5-1)
where:
L
L
=
=
=
=
length change, in
pipe length, in
thermal expansion coefficient, in/in/F
temperature change, F
The coefficient of thermal expansion for DRISCOPLEX PE 3408 polyethylene pipe material is
-5
about 9.0 x 10 in/in/F. This coefficient results in an approximate expansion for pipe of
1/10/100, that is, 1 in for each 10 F change for each 100 ft of pipe. This is a significant length
change compared to other piping materials and should be taken into account in piping system
design. A temperature rise results in a length increase while a temperature drop results in a
length decrease.
End Restrained Thermal Effects

A length of pipe that is restrained or anchored on both ends and placed on a frictionless surface
will exhibit a substantially different reaction to temperature change than an unrestrained pipe. If
the pipe is restrained in a straight line between two points and the temperature decreases, the
pipe will attempt to decrease in length. Because of the end restraints, a length change is not
possible, so a tensile stress is created in the longitudinal direction along the pipe. This stress
Book 2: Chapter 5: Thermal Effects
page 64
Return to TOC
can be determined using the Formula 5-2.

= E T
(5-2)
=
=
longitudinal stress in pipe, psi

elastic modulus, psi
The selection of the modulus can have a large impact on the calculated stress. As with all
thermoplastic materials, polyethylenes modulus and therefore its stiffness, is a function of
temperature and the duration of the applied load. To select the appropriate elastic modulus,
these two variables must be known. When determining the appropriate time interval, it is
important to consider that heat transfer occurs at relatively slow rates through the wall of
polyethylene pipe, therefore temperature changes do not occur rapidly. Because the
temperature change does not happen rapidly, the average temperature is often chosen for the
modulus selection.
As longitudinal stress builds in the pipe wall, a thrust load is created on the end structures. This
load can be significant and is determined by Formula 5-3.
F = A
(5-3)

F
A
=
=
end thrust, lb
cross section area of pipe, in2
Formulas 5-2 and 5-3 can also be used to determine the compressive stress and thrust
(respectively) that is created when a temperature increase occurs. However, if the compressive
thrust exceeds the critical longitudinal buckling force for the pipe segment, the pipe will deflect
laterally. The critical force for a slender column can be determined using Eulers equation,
assuming ends are free to rotate (which is conservative for restrained ends).
Eulers Equation
F' =
2 EI
(5-4)
( L ' )2

F
I
=
=
critical thrust force, lb

cross section moment of inertia, in4
I=
OD 4 ID 4
64
(5-5)
distance between end restraints, in
The modulus is selected using the same criteria used for determining the stress in the pipe wall
due to the thermal change.
While the amount of length change experienced by polyethylene pipe during thermal changes is
greater than many other materials, the amount of force required to restrain the movement is less
because of its lower modulus of elasticity.

page 65
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Table 5-1 Typical Elastic Modulus for DRISCOPLEX PE 3408

Load Duration
Elastic Modulus, 1000 psi (MPa), at Temperature, F (C)

-20 (-29)
0 (-18)
40 (4)
60 (16)
73 (23)
100 (38)
120 (49)
140 (60)
Short-Term
300.0
(2069)
260.0
(1793)
170.0
(1172)
130.0
(896)
110.0
(758)
100.0
(690)
65.0
(448)
50.0
(345)
10 h
140.8
(971)
122.0
(841)
79.8
(550)
61.0
(421)
57.5
(396)
46.9
(323)
30.5
(210)
23.5
(162)
100 h
125.4
(865)
108.7
(749)
71.0
(490)
54.3
(374)
51.2
(353)
41.8
(288)
27.2
(188)
20.9
(144)
1000 h
107.0
(738)
92.8
(640)
60.7
(419)
46.4
(320)
43.7
(301)
35.7
(246)
23.2
(160)
17.8
(123)
1y
93.0
(641)
80.6
(556)
52.7
(363)
40.3
(278)
38.0
(262)
31.0
(214)
20.2
(139)
15.5
(107)
10 y
77.4
(534)
67.1
(463)
43.9
(303)
33.5
(231)
31.6
(218)
25.8
(178)
16.8
(116)
12.9
(89)
50 y
69.1
(476)
59.9
(413)
39.1
(270)
29.9
(206)
28.2
(194)
23.0
(159)
15.0
(103)
11.5
(79)
Typical values based on ASTM D 638 testing of molded plaque material specimens.
Controlling Expansion and Contraction

Black polyethylene pipe on the surface or above grade and exposed to the sun can absorb solar
energy. The resulting pipe temperatures can be greater than the air temperature. To help
reduce temperature changes resulting solar heating of a piping system, the pipe may be shaded
or placed in a location that receives less direct sunlight.
The effects of thermal expansion and contraction on a piping system can be controlled in
several ways, including
Lateral deflection expansion loops (snaking the pipe)
Anchor and guide the pipe
Conventional Expansion loops
Expansion joints (non-pressures systems only)
Burying pipes
Lateral Deflection Expansion

Loops
The simplest installation involves stringing pipe
between end point anchor structures. If the pipe
is simply laid in a straight line between the end
anchors the pipeline anchoring structures must
be capable of handling potentially high thermal
contraction thrust loads during temperature
decrease, and during temperature increase, the
maximum compressive thrust is the force
required to cause lateral deflection at which time
the compressive stress and end thrust will then
page 66
Figure 5-1 Lateral Deflection
Return to TOC
decrease. To minimize these loads, pipe may be pre-snaked during installation.

Snaked piping installations are also referred to as lateral deflection expansion loops. These
loops can be used for DRISCOPLEX piping systems that are laid on the surface, supported or
suspended above grade on hangers or in racks, or installed underwater.
An effective flexible pipe expansion loop system employs the pipes natural tendency to deflect
laterally, and its high strain tolerance. Lateral deflection expansion loops are recurrent Scurves (snaking) along the piping runs that provide an initial lateral deflection, and allow pipe
temperature changes to result in greater or lesser lateral deflection.
Surface and rack supported pipe systems designed with lateral deflection expansion loops must
provide sufficient width allowance for lateral pipe deflection. The amount of lateral deflection is
related to the anchors or guides spacing.
An end restrained pipe that experiences a temperature rise will deflect laterally if the thrust force
exceeds the force given in Formula 5-4.
Lateral deflection may be approximated by
T
2
y =L
(5-6)
where
y
L
=
=
=
=
lateral deflection, in
distance between endpoints, in
thermal expansion coefficient, in/in/F
temperature change, F
A long, semi-restrained pipe run can snake to either side of the run centerline. Total deflection is
YT = 2 (y ) + D
(5-7)
where terms are as defined above and

YT
D
=
=
total deflection, in
pipe diameter, in
To minimize thrust loads on restraints or to control which side of the centerline the pipe snakes,
an initial deflection can be provided so the pipe does not contract to a straight line at minimum
expected temperature. Likewise, during thermal expansion, pipe that is pre-snaked requires less
force than predicted using Formula 5-4 to continue snaking. At the time of installation, the
anticipated temperature change from installation temperature to minimum temperature should
be determined. Using this temperature change and the distance between points, determine
lateral deflection, and install the pipe with this lateral deflection plus the minimum lateral
deflection specified by the designer.
The minimum allowable distance between restraining points is dependent upon pipe lateral
deflection or bending strain and may be determined from
L=
D 96 (T )
allow
where terms are as defined above and

allow =
allowable bending strain, in/in

page 67
(5-8)
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Published values for allowable field cold bend radii of pressure pipe can be used to determine
the allowable bending strain.
Table 5-2 Allowable Bending Strain
Pipe Dimension Ratio, DR
Allowable Bending strain, allow, in/in
13.5
0.025
>13.5 21
0.020
>21
0.017
Pipe with Fittings
0.005
Where pipe is connected to rigid devices,

fabricated directional fittings or where flanges or
other rigid connections are employed, the pipe
must be protected from shear, flexing and bending.
Flanges laid on the surface can become anchored
in the soil, and should be supported on sleepers.
Figure 5-2 illustrates a method for protecting
connections to directional fittings and flanged
connections to other appurtenances. Wrap
elastomer or rubber sheet material around the pipe
under the clamps.
Figure 5-2 Anchoring Flange

Connections
End points and mid points of pipe run lengths will

require anchoring or guiding. Endpoint anchors
must transfer loads and deflections to the pipe,
away from rigid joints, or fittings. Midpoint anchors
or guides must remain in location, but allow the pipe
to move or pivot with the lateral deflection of the
expansion loop. Figure 5-3 shows possible
anchoring methods. Wrap elastomer or rubber
Figure 5-3 Midpoint and End Anchoring

page 68
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sheeting around the pipe under clamps to protect the pipe from chafing.
Above grade piping may also be hung from support rods. Hangers must allow for lateral
deflection with sufficient support rod length, and with a clevis or ball type joint at the suspension
point. See Chapter 6 for additional information on above grade piping.
Example 5-1
24 SDR 11 pipe is conveying a liquid and lying on the ground with an installation temperature
of 60 F and operating conditions between 20 F and 120 F. The line is to be installed in a
straight line between guides. Installing a line straight between guides results in maximum end
thrust loads (tension and compression) on the anchors. Pre-snaking the line will reduce the
anchor thrust loads. (a) What is the minimum distance between guides? (b) How much lateral
deflection occurs? (c) How much thrust load is generated at the end structures/anchors?
Solution: (a) During thermal expansion, the minimum distance between guides can be
determined using Formula 5-8.
L=
24
96 9 10 5 (60 )
0.025
L = 691.2 in
(b) The resultant lateral deflection between points is found using Formula 5-6.
y = 691.2
( 9 10 )(60)
5
y = 35.9 in
The total deflection can now be determined using Formula 5-7.

YT = 2 (35.9 ) + (24 )
YT = 95.8 in
Formula 5-8 provides the minimum distance between guides based on the strain from lateral
deflection. Using the Formula 5-6 minimum distance (spacing) between pipeline guide points
provides the smallest theoretical lateral deflection. Increasing the spacing will increase the
lateral deflection (offset) and require a wider pipeline right-of-way, but will decrease the
compressive thrust load on end or guide points from thermal expansion.
(c) An estimate of the maximum longitudinal compressive thrust force based on the minimum
guide spacing of 691.2 inches, can be determined from Formula 5-4.
F =
(3.14)2 (50800 )(9369 )

(619.2)2
F = 9833 lb
Thermal contraction of the pipe results in a tensile stress in the pipe wall that can be determined
page 69
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from Formula 5-2, and then compared to the allowable tensile stress determined from Formula
5-9.
= (79800 ) 9 10 5 (40 )
= 287 psi
allow = (1600 )(0.50 )(1.2)
allow = 960 psi
The tensile load on the end anchors can be determined from Formula 5-3.
F = (287 )(157.57 )
F = 4527 lb
This example assumes a straight installation. If the line is pre-snaked, additional right-of-way
may be required, however the loads on the end anchors would be decreased because of the
pre-snaked condition.
Anchored and Guided Pipe

If the space required for lateral deflection expansion loops is not available, the pipe may be
anchored at the end points and guided frequently enough so that snaking (column buckling)
does not occur. This method results in longitudinal thrust and may require significant end
anchoring structures.
For this discussion, anchoring restrains the pipe
such that movement is not allowed in any
direction, that is, longitudinal, lateral or vertical.
Guides between the end anchors should allow the
pipe to slide freely through the guide. Fabricated
fittings and rigid connections such as flanges and
transition fittings must be protected from bending,
therefore if anchors are used to protect a fitting
from bending stresses, all of the fitting outlets must
be anchored.
Figure 5-4 Typical Guides
Anchored and guided piping systems require

analysis of both the temperature increase and
decrease.
As pipeline temperature decreases from weather or processing conditions, tensile stress
develops along the length of the pipe. The stress can be calculated using Formula 5-2, and
should not exceed the allowable tensile stress determined from Formula 5-9.
allow = HDB f e f t

page 70
(5-9)
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where
allow
HDB
fe
ft
=
=
=
=
allowable tensile stress, lb/in2

Hydrostatic Design Basis, lb/in2 (Table 2-1)
environmental design factor (Table 3-1)
service temperature design factor (Table 3-2
Tensile stress causes an end thrust at the anchors that can be calculated using Formula 5-3.
Anchors or end structures should be designed to withstand this thrust without allowing
movement of the pipe in any direction.
During temperature increase, the pipeline attempts to increase its length. The anchors prevent
length increase, creating longitudinal compressive stress in the pipe and a thrust load against
the anchors. Compressive stress can be determined using Formula 5-2 and should not exceed
the allowable stress per Formula 5-9. (For polyethylene materials, long-term tensile and
compressive strengths are about the same. For convenience, the HDB value is used as a
conservative value for allowable long-term compressive strength.) Guides must be placed at
intervals not exceeding the column buckling length of the pipe per Formula 5-4. Combining
Formulas 5-3 and 5-4 yields Formula 5-10 for guide spacing.
2I
N T A
Lguide =
(5-10)
where terms are as previously defined and

Lguide
I
N
A
=
=
=
=
distance between guides, in

cross section moment of inertia, in4 (Formula 5-5)
safety factor
pipe cross section area, in2
A=
OD 2 d 2
4
(5-11)
where
OD
d
=
=

pipe inside diameter, in (Formula 4-1)
Combining Formula 5-11 with Formula 3-3 yields:

1
1
A = OD 2
DR DR 2
(5-12)
An appropriate safety factor should be used when determining guide spacing. While the guides
allow for longitudinal movement of the pipe, they must resist lateral and vertical movement. The
following rule of thumb for steel columns may be considered. When designing steel columns, a
reaction load of 10% of the force that induces a longitudinal buckle of the column is used to
resist lateral movement of the column and therefore resist buckling.
Example 5-2
Determine the guide spacing and anchor loads for 8 SDR 11 installed at 70 F with a maximum
operating temperature of 130 F and a minimum operating temperature of 10 F. The minimum
time for a processing condition temperature is 10 hours.
page 71
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Solution: For thermal expansion, use Formula 5-2 to determine the longitudinal compressive
stress developed using a 10-hour modulus at 100 F (Table 5-1).
= ( 46900
) ( 9 10 5 )( 60 )
= 253 psi
allow = ( 1600 )( 0.50 )( 0.63 )
allow = 504 psi
The force generated on the end structures can be determined using Formula 5-3.
F = (253 )(20.35 )
F = 5149 lb
Use Formula 5-10 to determine spacing between guides.

Lguide =
( 314 )2 ( 156.28 )
( 2 ) ( 9 10 5 )( 60 )( 20.35 )
Lguide = 83.7 in
For thermal contraction, use Formula 5-2 to determine the longitudinal tensile stress using a 10hour modulus at 40 F.
= ( 79800
) ( 9 10 5 )( 60 )
= 431 psi
allow = ( 1600 )( 0.50 )( 1.2 )
allow = 960 psi
The force generated on the end structures can be determined using Formula 5-3.
F = ( 431 )( 20.35 )
F = 8771 lb

page 72
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Conventional Expansion Loops

Conventional expansion loops reduce end point
anchor structural requirements, but may require
more space. Typical expansion loop designs use
fittings to create an offset and return to the original
piping run. However, long runs of flexible
polyethylene pipe would rather deflect laterally
than push, so expansion loop designs should
utilize guides that permit longitudinal slippage, but
not lateral deflection to direct length change to the
expansion
loop.
Conventional
fitting-style
expansion loops are generally limited to piping
systems where molded fittings are available.
Large diameter fabricated fittings must be
protected against bending and flexure stresses
with cross bracing or other suitable means.
(See Book 3, Figure 3-16.)
Figure 5-5 Conventional Expansion

Loop
The following protocol is for suspended expansion loops only. When designing
conventional expansion loops, first determine the maximum length change from temperature
change for the pipe run. The maximum run length change run may occur during expansion or
contraction and can be determined using Formula 5-1.
Next, determine the required leg length A for the loop. The A-leg length is determined from
Formula 5-13 for a cantilever beam with a concentrated load.
LA =
3
D L
2
allow
(5-13)
where
LA
OD
L
allow
=
=
=
=
expansion loop leg A length, in

length change in pipe run, in
allowable bending strain for pipe with fittings, in/in (Table 5-2)
The length of the B-leg is typically one half the A-leg length.
LB =
LA
2
(5-14)
Once the dimensions of the loop have been determined, the next step is to determine the
frequency at which the runs must be guided so that the activation force required for the loop is
not greater than the column buckling resistance strength of the run. Combining Eulers equation
(Formula 5-4) with Formula 5-13 yields
2 (L A )
3 L
Lguide =
where

page 73
(5-15)
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Lguide
OD
L
allow
=
=
=
=
pipe run guide spacing, in

length change in pipe run, in
allowable bending strain for pipe with fittings, in/in (Table 5-2)
Guides should allow for longitudinal pipe slippage. For above grade piping, the guide spacing is
the smaller of the result from Formula 5-14 or from Formula 6-1. Where the pipe is to be
anchored or terminated, the end or anchor structure must be designed to withstand the force
necessary to activate the expansion loop. This force can be theoretically determined by from
Formula 5-16.
FL =
L 3 E I
LA
(5-16)
where
FL
force required to active expansion loop, lb
Two guides may be required on each side of the expansion loop to restrict bending of the
pipeline run. The guide closest to the loop should be placed far enough back from the 90 elbow
so that the fitting does not contact the guide. The second guide should be placed about ten (10)
pipe diameters back from the first guide.
Expansion loops that are on the surface must take the frictional resistance between the pipe
and surface into account in determining guide spacing. See Chapter 6, Above Grade
Supporting, for more information.
Example 5-3
Determine the A and B leg lengths, and the activation force for a suspended 4 SDR 17 pipeline
installed with conventional expansion loops every 200 feet (2400 in). The minimum operating
temperature is 40 F with an installation temperature of 80 F and a maximum temperature of
100 F.
Solution: First determine the maximum length change, using Formula 5-1. In this case, the
maximum length change results from the greater temperature difference during contraction
(80F - 40F = 40F) rather than during expansion (100F 80F = 20F).
L = ( 2400 ) 9 10 5
)( 60 )
L = 12.96 in
Next, determine leg length A of the expansion loop using equation (5-13).
LA =
3
( 4.5 )( 12.96 )
2
0.005
L A = 132.3 in
From Formula 5-14, leg length B is half of length A.

page 74
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LB =
132.3
= 66.2 in
2
Now determine the guide spacing from Formula 5-15.

Lguide =
(3.14 )2 ( 132.3 )3
( 3 )( 12.96 )
Lguide = 766 in
While the guides allow for longitudinal movement, end structures/anchors are designed to
withstand the activation force determined from Formula 5-16. A short-term modulus provides
conservative results.
FL =
(12.96 )(3)(110000 )(8.31)

(132.3)3
FL = 15.3 lb
Expansion Joints
If used, expansion joints must be specifically intended for use with HDPE pipe. These joints
activate at very low longitudinal forces and permit large movements. Expansion joints intended
for use with other piping materials are not recommended for several reasons. (1) Expansion
allowance is frequently insufficient for polyethylene. (2) The force required to activate the joint
may exceed the column buckling strength or tensile strength of the polyethylene pipe. (3)
Expansion joints for pressure service may include internal components that when exposed to
internal pressure, result in a longitudinal thrust which may exceed the column buckling
resistance of polyethylene pipe. Contact the expansion joint manufacturer prior to use.
Buried Piping Systems

A buried pipe is generally well restrained
by soil friction along its length, and with
moderate or low temperature change, soil
friction alone is usually sufficient to
prevent
dimensional
change
and
expansion movement. Therefore, a buried
polyethylene pipe will usually experience
a change in internal stress rather than
dimensional change and movement. A
very significant temperature decrease
may exceed soil friction restraint, and
apply contraction thrust loads to pipeline
appurtenances.
Thrust
blocks
for
underground pipelines are usually not
required unless great temperature change
is anticipated.
Figure 5-6 Longitudinal Force Thrust Block
page 75
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DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE profile wall pipe is well restrained against thermal movement
by the backfill soil captured between the profile ribs. Further, the bell and spigot joints are
designed to accommodate possible thermal length change when the pipe is properly installed,
and operated within its temperature design capabilities. DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE
pipe is most often buried, however, above grade applications may be acceptable. Contact
Performance Pipe before designing above grade applications of DRISCOPLEX 2000
SPIROLITE pipe.
DRISCOPLEX OD controlled pipe has a smooth exterior surface, and if temperature change
is extreme, low thrust capacity (unrestrained) connections to manholes or other piping systems
may require longitudinal force thrust block (in-line anchor) protection. See Figure 5-6.
The longitudinal stress from temperature change may be estimated using Formula 5-2. Soil load
bearing capacity will require appropriate soils testing. Temperature changes below grade
usually are not instantaneous, so an appropriate long-term elastic modulus from Table 5-1
should be selected. Figure 5-6 illustrates a typical thrust block design.
Where DRISCOPLEX OD controlled polyethylene pipe is connected to unrestrained bell and
spigot joined pressure piping systems such as ductile iron or PVC, at a minimum, the two bell
and spigot joints closest to the connection should be restrained, or a longitudinal force thrust
block (in-line anchor) should be installed near the transition connection.
Heat Transfer
Polyethylene pipe may be heat traced, insulated, or both. Temperature limited (120F
maximum) heat tracing tape should be used, and the tape should be installed over a pressuresensitive metallic tape installed on the pipe. The metallic tape helps distribute heat over the pipe
surface.
Thermal conductivity terms:
k
C
=
=
thermal conductivity, Btu/(h-ft2-F-/in)

thermal conductance, BTU/(hr-ft2-F)
C=
t
R
=
=
k
t
(5-17)
thickness, in
thermal resistance, (hr-ft2-F)/Btu
R=
1
C
(5-18)
R=
t
k
(5-19)
Table 5-3Thermal Properties

Property
ASTM Reference
Nominal Value
Thermal Conductivity, k
C 177
3.5
Thermal Resistance, R
(1 thickness)
0.3
Go to Chapter 6
page 76
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6. Above Grade Supporting

Above grade applications frequently require non-continuous support for DRISCOPLEX OD
controlled polyethylene pipe. Such applications usually involve piping in a rack or trestle, on
sleepers, or suspended from an overhead structure. In such cases, structures must provide
Figure 6-1 Pipeline Supports
proper pipeline support, accommodate thermal expansion and contraction movement, and
provide support spacing that limits vertical deflection between supports.
Supports for DRISCOPLEX OD controlled pipe must cradle at least the bottom 120 of the
Figure 6-2 Pipeline Hanger
pipe, and be at least 1/2 pipe diameter wide. Edges should be rounded or rolled to prevent
cutting into the pipe. Commercial pipe supports such as u-bolts, narrow strap-type hangers, and
roller type supports are unsuitable unless modified for width and cradling. The weight of the pipe
and its contents must be distributed over a broad surface. Narrow support surfaces can produce
Book 2: Chapter 6: Above Grade Supporting
page 77
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Figure 6-3 Deflection Between

Supports
high concentrated stress, and possibly lead to pipeline failure.
Support Spacing
Support spacing depends upon the allowable deflection between supports, which in turn
depends upon the pipeline, the fluid within it, and the service temperature. Performance Pipe
recommends that the allowable long-term deflection between supports should not exceed 1".
Recommended support spacing may be determined from Formula 6-1.
LS = 4
384 E I y S
5 (WP + WF )
(6-1)
where:
LS
E
I
yS
WP
WF
=
=
=
=
=
=
distance between supports, in

long-term modulus for the service temperature, lb/in2 (Table 5-1)
moment of inertia, in4 (Formula 5-5)
deflection between supports, in
weight of pipe, lb/in
weight of fluid in pipe, lb/in
Each support along a piping run is loaded from both sides. When run supports are equally
spaced, the load on supports along the run is:
W RUN = L ( W P + W F )
(6-2)
where:
WRUN =
load on supports along the run, lb
The supports at the beginning and the end of the run are loaded from only one side, thus the
load on end supports is:
W END =
L ( WP + W F )
2
where:
WEND =
load on end supports, lb

page 78
(6-3)
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Figure 6-5 Pipe Rack - Center Anchored
Figure 6-4 Pipe Rack - Side Anchored
Pipe Rack Support

Pipes supported in an overhead rack require design consideration for both support spacing and
thermal length change. Support beams are spaced according to vertical deflection limits, and
the rack width accommodates the total thermal expansion offset plus the diameter of the pipe.
Pipe supports should be allowed to move along support beams, or otherwise accommodate
horizontal movement as the pipe deflects laterally with changing temperature. See Chapter 5,
Thermal Effects, for more information.
Center anchored pipes must be allowed to pivot at the anchor point. Side anchored pipes may
be rigidly fixed to the side of the rack.
Several parallel DRISCOPLEX OD controlled pipes may be accommodated in racks by
spacing supports as required for the smallest diameter pipe, and providing a rack wide enough
for all of the pipes. Thermal length change is independent of the pipe diameter, so for the same
temperature variation, length change and lateral deflection will be the same for DRISCOPLEX
OD controlled pipes regardless of pipe diameter.
DRISCOPLEX OD controlled pipes may be placed in racks parallel to pipes such as steel or
fiberglass by using the side anchoring approach. The rack should be widened to accommodate
total horizontal deflection, and additional support beams added as required. Non-polyethylene
pipes should be located on the anchored side to allow the DRISCOPLEX OD controlled pipe
to deflect horizontally to the opposite side of the rack.
Consult Performance Pipe for all above grade applications for DRISCOPLEX 2000
SPIROLITE pipe.

page 79
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Table 6-1 Support Spacing at 73F (23C)

Support Spacing, ft
IPS size
OD, in
DR 7.3
DR 9
DR 11
2.375
5.3
5.1
4.9
3.500
6.4
6.2
4.500
7.3
5.563
6
8
DR 13.5
DR 17
DR 21
DR 26
DR 32.5
6.0
5.8
5.5
5.3
7.0
6.8
6.5
6.3
8.1
7.8
7.6
7.3
6.625
8.8
8.5
8.3
8.625
10.1
9.7
9.4
10
10.750
11.2
10.9
12
12.750
12.2
14
14.000
16
18
DR 41
6.0
5.7
5.4
7.0
6.7
6.4
6.0
7.9
7.6
7.3
6.9
6.6
9.1
8.7
8.3
7.9
7.5
10.5
10.1
9.7
9.2
8.8
8.4
11.9
11.5
11.0
10.5
10.1
9.6
9.1
12.8
12.4
12.0
11.5
11.0
10.6
10.1
9.6
16.000
13.7
13.3
12.8
12.3
11.8
11.3
10.8
10.2
18.000
14.5
14.1
13.6
13.1
12.5
12.0
11.4
10.9
20
20.000
15.3
14.8
14.3
13.8
13.2
12.6
12.0
11.5
22
22.000
16.1
15.6
15.0
14.5
13.8
13.2
12.8
12.0
24
24.000
16.8
16.3
15.7
15.1
14.4
13.8
13.2
12.5
26
26.000
17.5
16.9
16.3
15.7
15.0
14.4
13.7
13.1
28
28.000
17.6
17.0
16.3
15.6
14.9
14.2
13.5
30
30.000
18.2
17.6
16.9
16.1
15.4
14.7
14.0
13.3
32
32.000
18.8
18.1
17.5
16.7
15.9
15.2
14.5
13.7
34
34.000
18.7
18.0
17.2
16.4
15.7
14.9
14.2
36
36.000
19.2
18.5
17.7
16.9
16.2
15.4
14.6
42
42.000
20.0
19.1
18.3
17.4
16.6
15.7
48
48.000
21.4
20.4
19.5
18.6
17.7
16.8
54
54.000
21.7
20.7
19.8
18.8
17.8
Support spacing for pipe at 73F (23C) filled with 73F (23C) water. Spacing will vary for different temperature
and for different fluids in the pipe.
Go to Chapter 7
page 80
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7. Buried Pipe Design

The design of a subsurface pipe installation is based on principles of soil-structure interaction,
that is, the pipe and the surrounding soil act together to control pipe performance. The role each
plays in controlling performance depends on their stiffness relative to each other.
Pipes that are stiffer than the surrounding soil are typically called rigid. With rigid pipes, soil and
surcharge loads are transmitted around the pipe ring from crown (top) to invert (bottom) by
virtue of the pipes internal bending and compressive strength. Rigid pipes undergo little
deflection. In some circumstances, polyethylene pipes may behave as a rigid pipe, such as the
installation of low DR pipe in marsh soils. Here the pipe has greater stiffness than the
surrounding soil, so pipe properties become the major determinant of burial strength.
Pipes that are less stiff than the surrounding soil are called flexible. With weak soil support;
relatively small earth loads may cause flexible pipe deflection. However, when properly buried,
the surrounding soil greatly increases pipe load-carrying capability as well as reducing earth
loads that reach the pipe.
Earth load and surcharge pressures applied to the soil backfill cause vertical and horizontal pipe
deflection. Horizontal deflection, usually extension, results in the pipe wall pushing out into the
embedment soil. This action mobilizes passive resistance forces, which in turn limits horizontal
deflection and balances the vertical load. Greater passive resistance is mobilized with stiffer
surrounding soil, so less deflection occurs. Most polyethylene pipe should be considered flexible
because the pipes contribution to resisting deflection is usually less than that of the surrounding
soil.
Therefore, with polyethylene pipe it is important to check each application to ensure the
adequacy of the installed design, including both pipe and embedment soils. The design
procedures in this section may be applied to both rigid and flexible pipes.
General Design Procedure

Once pipe diameter is determined, a pipe is selected by its wall construction. Lower DR
DRISCOPLEX OD controlled pipe, and higher RSC DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipe
have greater external load capacity. However, greater load capacity is also more costly, so the
optimum design is the balance of pipe strength and embedment quality that is capable of
handling the imposed loads. The completed buried pipe design should specify the pipe size (OD
or ID), wall construction (DR or RSC Class), required embedment materials, and placement
(installation) requirements for that embedment.
The initial design step is to determine dead loads and surcharge loads. Following this, the pipe
selection is checked for its ability to carry the imposed loads relative to the quality of the
embedment that surrounds the pipe.
Usually, this is an iterative process. Several pipe selections may need to be tried before settling
on the optimum design. The pipe selection may need to be changed if loads or embedment are
changed, or where an initially selected pipe is insufficient or excessive for the anticipated loads.
Typically, only the loads around the pipe ring (circumferential direction) are checked. The
designer usually assumes that there are no significant loads acting in the longitudinal (axial)
direction along the pipe. This assumption is reasonable for buried pipe that is supported
uniformly along its length.
Book 2: Chapter 7: Buried Pipe Design

page 81
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In this chapter, the methods for calculating loads and the pipes response are based on
analytical and empirical equations that are appropriate for polyethylene pipe. Generally, these
equations are sufficient for most designs, but they are not exact due to the non-homogeneous
nature of soil, the difficulty in characterizing soil as an engineering material, the complexity of
soil-pipe interaction, and the variability of construction. Other satisfactory methods for design
may be available.
The design guidelines in this manual are contingent upon the pipe being installed according to
recognized principles and standards for flexible pipe installation such as ASTM D-2321
Standard Practice for underground Installation of Thermoplastic Pipe for Sewers and Other
Gravity-Flow applications, ASTM D-2774 Standard Practice for Underground Installation of
Thermoplastic Pressure Pipe, Performance Pipe Bulletin PP 517 SPIROLITE Installation
Guide, and PPI Handbook of Polyethylene Pipe Underground Installation of Polyethylene
Piping. Because of complexities in soil-pipe interaction, this chapter should not be substituted
for the judgment of a professional engineer for achieving specific project requirements. Some
cases may require more exact solutions than can be obtained from the equations and methods
in this chapter.
Loads on Buried Pipe

The load applied to a buried pipe consists of dead load and surcharge load. The dead load is
the permanent load from the weight of soil and pavement above the pipe. Surcharge loads are
loads applied at the surface and may or may not be permanent. Surcharge loads include the
loads from vehicles and structures. Vehicular loads are called live loads.
Dead Loads
In designing polyethylene pipes, it is commonplace to
assume that the overburden load applied to the pipe
crown is equal to the weight of the soil column (or
prismatic element) projecting above the pipe. Often, this
is referred to as the prism load. See Figure 7-1.
Figure 7-1 Soil Prism
The prism load is a handy convention for calculating the

earth pressure on the pipe when estimating vertical
deflection, but the actual load transmitted to a pipe from
the soil mass depends on the relative soil stiffness and
pipe stiffness. The dead load applied to a flexible plastic
pipe may be considerably less than the prism load
because soil shear resistance transfers part of the soil
load that is directly above the pipe into trench sidewalls
and embedment. This transfer is called arching. To
account for arching, pipe designers often calculate loads
using the Marston method.
Design methods for both prism and arching loads follow. The designer may use both methods
for a buried pipe design.
Prism Load
The simplest case for determining the vertical earth load on a horizontal surface in a mass of
soil occurs when the soil has uniform stiffness and weight throughout, with no large voids or
page 82
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buried structures present. Under these conditions, the vertical earth pressure acting on a
horizontal surface at a depth is equal to the prism load per unit area.
PE = w H
(7-1)
Where:
PE
w
H
=
=
=
vertical soil pressure, lb/ft2

unit weight of soil, lb/ft3
soil height above pipe crown, ft
Soil Arching
Theoretically, the prism load occurs on a buried pipe only when the pipe has stiffness equivalent
to that of the surrounding soil. More commonly, the pipe and soil are not the same stiffness, so
the pipe either sees more or less than the prism load, depending on the relative pipe stiffness
and soil stiffness.
When the pipe is less stiff than the soil, as is the case with most flexible pipe, the soil above the
pipe distributes load away from the pipe and into the soil beside the pipe.
Arching may be defined as the difference between the applied load and the prism load. The
term arching is usually taken to imply a reduction in vertical load. When the pipe takes on more
vertical load than the prism load, reverse arching is said to occur.
Downward backfill movement mobilizes arching in
the backfill above a buried pipe. This may be
initiated by pipe deflection, compression of the
deeper layers of the backfill, or settlement beneath
the pipe.
Figure 7-2 Soil Arching Development
For a flexible pipe, arching is usually initiated by

vertical deflection of the pipe crown. The soil tries
to follow the pipe downward, but soil movement is
restrained by shear resistance (frictional forces and
cohesion) along shear planes in the backfill. This
action causes part of the weight of the backfill soil
to be transferred into the adjacent soil. Therefore,
the amount of force exerted on the pipe by the
backfill is less than the weight of the backfill soil
mass, that is, less than the prism load.
In most cases, arching is permanent and it occurs in most stable applications. However, arching
is maintained by soil shear stresses and may not occur when pipe is located beneath large
vibrating machines, in shallow cover locations subjected to vehicular traffic, or in soft, unstable
soil backfills.
Marston Load
When calculating the earth load on a flexible pipe, the Marston load generally gives a more
realistic value than the prism load. Based on experiments and field measurements, Marston
published a buried pipe design method in 1930 that accounts for arching. His method is widely
accepted and can be found in ASCE Manual No. 60.

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Marston considered pipe buried in a trench and pipe buried in an embankment to be different
cases. The backfill soil in a trench is considered to be supported through shear stresses by the
undisturbed trench wall soil. This is the most common case for polyethylene pipe arching.
Marstons formula gives the equation for finding the loads on a flexible pipe buried in a trench.
This equation can be modified to obtain the vertical soil pressure applied to a pipe installed in a
trench as given in Formula 7-2.
PM = C D w BD
(7-2)
Where terms are previously defined1 and:

PM
BD
CD
=
=
=
vertical soil pressure, lb/ft2

trench width at pipe crown, ft
load coefficient
2Ku '
CD =
e
K
=
=
1 e
2Ku '
H
BD
(7-3)
natural log base number, 2.71828

Rankine earth pressure coefficient
K = tan 2 45
2
=
=
(7-4)
internal soil friction angle, deg

friction coefficient between backfill and trench sides
Ku values may be characterized as follows:

Table 7-1 Typical Values for Ku'
Soil
Typical Value for Ku
Saturated clay
0.110
Ordinary clay
0.130
Saturated top soil
0.150
Sand and gravel
0.165
Clean granular soil
0.192
The load applied to a pipe in an embankment is typically higher than that for a pipe in a trench.
The actual load depends on the relative stiffness between the embankment soil and the pipe.
For an embankment condition, the prism load is typically used for calculating vertical pressure
on flexible pipe.
Soil Creep
When analytical methods are not available for precise calculations, pipe designers frequently
ignore soil creep, especially when the backfill is cohesionless. This is a conservative design
1
All terms for Chapter 7 formulas are defined in Chapter 7. Where previously defined terms are referenced, it refers
to previously defined terms in Chapter 7. Terms from other chapters in the Manual do not apply.
page 84
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approach for plastic pipe, which tends to creep at a faster rate than cohesionless soils. When
subjected to 50% or more of their peak shear load strength, clayey soils exhibit considerable
creep and show significantly more creep than cohesionless soils, especially when saturated.
When a clay backfill is placed over a pipe, shear resistance mobilization occurs and, initially,
arching may be high. However, where backfill stress concentrations exist such as along the
shearing surfaces, the stress level in the clay may approach significant levels. Along these
stress concentrations, creep occurs, allowing backfill soil movement toward the pipe and a
corresponding load increase on the pipe. With the passage of time more creep occurs.
Because most clayey soils have some frictional resistance, the prism load is usually never
reached. However, a conservative design approach should be taken. A low friction angle is
usually assumed for clays when using Marstons equation. Typical values are 11 for ordinary
clay, and 8 for saturated clay. the typical values for Ku in Table 7-1 reflect these friction
angles.
Example 7-1
(a) Find the Marston Load vertical soil pressure acting on a 36" OD pipe under 18 ft of 120 lb/ft3
ordinary clay cover in a 6 ft wide trench. (b) Compare the vertical soil pressures by the Marston
and prism methods.
Solution: (a) First, the load coefficient, CD is found using Formula 7-3 and Table 7-1. Then the
Marston load soil pressure is determined using Formula 7-2.
To find the load coefficient, CD, calculate the ratio of H/BD:
18
H
=
=3
6
BD
From Table 7-1, the Ku value for ordinary clay is 0.130. Solving Formula 7-3 yields:
CD =
1 e 2 ( 0.130 )( 3 )
= 2 .1
2 ( 0.130 )
Solving Formula 7-2 for PM yields:

PM = 2.1( 120 )( 6 ) = 1512 lb / ft 3
(b) The prism load soil pressure is determined from Formula 7-1.
PE = ( 120 )( 18 ) = 2160 lb / ft 3
Modified Arching Load

For flexible pipe, a more conservative approach is to use a soil pressure load between the prism
load and the Marston load. One approach is to add 40 percent of the difference between the
prism load and the Marston load to the Marston load. Formula 7-5 may be used to obtain the
modified arching load vertical soil pressure.
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PC = 0.6 PM + 0.4 PE
(7-5)
Where terms are previously defined and:

PC
modified arching vertical soil pressure, lb/ft2
In example 7-1, the modified arching vertical soil pressure from Formula 7-5 is:
PC = 0.6 ( 1512 ) + 0.4 ( 2160 ) = 1771 lb / ft 2
A value for the modified arching vertical soil pressure suitable for most soils may be determined
from formula 7-6.
PC = F w H
(7-6)
Where terms are previously defined and

F
arching coefficient
F =
PM + 0.4 ( PE PM )
PE
(7-7)
Figure 7-3 is a graphical solution for the arching coefficient, F, based on the Marston load
obtained with Ku = 0.130 for ordinary clay soil. Thus the Figure 7-3 arching coefficient is
conservative for soils having a Ku value greater than 0.130. The arching coefficient should be
used only where the trench width does not exceed 3 ft plus pipe OD for 42" and smaller pipe,
and 4 ft plus pipe OD for 48" and larger pipe.
Figure 7-3 Arching Coefficient for Modified Arching Load
Based on clay soil, Ku = 0.130, and trench widths of 3 ft plus pipe OD for 42 diameter
and smaller pipe, and trench widths of 4 ft plus pipe OD for 48 diameter and larger pipe.
In Example 7-1, the arching coefficient, F, from Figure 7-3 is 0.82. Solving Formula 7-6 yields:
PC = 0.82 ( 120 )( 18 ) = 1771 lb / ft 2

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Surcharge Load
The design methods that follow may be used to determine vertical pressures on the pipe from
surface loads. The formulas are accurate only to the extent that they are appropriate for a given
application. Therefore, it is recommended that a professional engineer review the final design.
Surcharge loads may be distributed loads, such as a footing, a foundation or an ash pile, or may
be point loads, such as vehicle wheels. The load is distributed through the soil such that there is
a reduction in pressure with increasing depth or horizontal distance from the surcharge load
area. The pressure at a point beneath the surcharge load depends on the magnitude of the load
and on the surface area over which the surcharge is applied. Usual design practice is to equate
the surcharge load on a buried pipe with downward pressure acting on a plane at the pipe
crown. Once the surcharge load is determined, the total load acting on the pipe is the sum of the
earth load and the surcharge load.
Distributed Load Over Pipe

This design method may be used to find a rectangular area, distributed surcharge load on a
buried pipe beneath structures such as footings, floors or other stationary loads such as coal or
ash piles.
The method assumes the Boussinesq equation for pressure, and finds the soil pressure acting
at a point below the surcharge, and located at the same depth as the crown of the pipe. This
pressure is considered to be equal to the vertical pressure acting on the pipe.
Figure 7-4 Distributed Surcharge Load Over Pipe
In Figure 7-4A, the point pressure is found by dividing the rectangular surcharge area (ABCD)
into four sub-area rectangles (a, b, c, and d), which have a common corner, E, in the surcharge
area, and over the pipe. The surcharge load is the sum of the four sub-area loads at the
subsurface point. Each sub-area load, is calculated by multiplying the surcharge pressure by an
influence coefficient, IC, from Table 7-2.
PL = Pa + Pb + Pc + Pd
Where
page 87
(7-8)
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PL
Pa
Pb
Pc
Pd
surcharge load pressure at point, lb/ft2

sub-area a surcharge load, lb/ft2
sub-area b surcharge load, lb/ft2
sub-area c surcharge load, lb/ft2
sub-area d surcharge load, lb/ft2
=
=
=
=
=
Px = I C w S
Px
IC
WS
(7-9)
sub-area (a, b, c or d) surcharge load, lb/ft2

influence coefficient from Table 7-2
distributed surcharge pressure acting over ground surface, lb/ft2
=
=
=
When the four sub-areas are equivalent, Formula 7-8 may be simplified to
PL = 4 I C w S
(7-10)
The influence factor is dependent on the dimensions of the rectangular area and the depth to
the pipe crown. Table 7-2 Influence Coefficient terms are shown in Figure 7-4 and defined as
H
M
=
=
vertical distance from surface to pipe crown, ft

horizontal distance, normal to the pipe centerline, from the center of the
surcharge load to the load edge, ft
horizontal distance, parallel to the pipe centerline, from the center of the
surcharge load to the load edge, ft
The influence factor gives the portion (or influence) of the load that reaches a given depth
beneath the corner of the loaded area. Interpolation may be used to find values not shown in
Table 7-2.
Example 7-2
Find the vertical surcharge load for the 4 x 6, 2000 lb/ft2 footing in Figure 7-5.
Solution: Use Equations (7-7) and (7-8), Table 7-2, and Figure 7-4. The 4 x 6 footing is
divided into four sub-areas, such that the common corner is over the pipe. Determine sub-area
dimensions M, N, and H for each sub-area; calculate M/H and N/H for each sub-area. Find the
Influence Coefficient, IC, from Table 7-2; solve Formula 7-9 for each sub-area, and solve
Formula 7-8 for PL.
Figure 7-5 Illustration for Example
7-2
Sub-Area
a
2.5
2.5
1.5
1.5
M/H
0.5
0.5
0.3
0.3
N/H
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
IC
0.095
0.095
0.063
0.063
Px
190
190
126
126
PL = 632 lb/ft

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Table 7-2 Influence Coefficient, IC, for Distributed Loads Over Pipe
M/H
N/H
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.2
1.5
2.0
0.1
0.005
0.009
0.013
0.017
0.020
0.022
0.024
0.026
0.027
0.028
0.029
0.030
0.031
0.032
0.2
0.009
0.018
0.026
0.033
0.039
0.043
0.047
0.050
0.053
0.055
0.057
0.060
0.061
0.062
0.3
0.013
0.026
0.037
0.047
0.056
0.063
0.069
0.073
0.077
0.079
0.083
0.086
0.089
0.090
0.4
0.017
0.033
0.047
0.060
0.071
0.080
0.087
0.093
0.098
0.101
0.106
0.110
0.113
0.115
0.5
0.020
0.039
0.056
0.071
0.084
0.095
0.103
0.110
0.116
0.120
0.126
0.131
0.135
0.137
0.6
0.022
0.043
0.063
0.080
0.095
0.107
0.117
0.125
0.131
0.136
0.143
0.149
0.153
0.156
0.7
0.024
0.047
0.069
0.087
0.103
0.117
0.128
0.137
0.144
0.149
0.157
0.164
0.169
0.172
0.8
0.026
0.050
0.073
0.093
0.110
0.125
0.137
0.146
0.154
0.160
0.168
0.176
0.181
0.185
0.9
0.027
0.053
0.077
0.098
0.116
0.131
0.144
0.154
0.162
0.168
0.176
0.186
0.192
0.196
1.0
0.028
0.055
0.079
0.101
0.120
0.136
0.149
0.160
0.168
0.175
0.185
0.194
0.200
0.205
1.2
0.029
0.057
0.083
0.106
0.126
0.143
0.157
0.168
0.178
0.185
0.196
0.205
0.209
0.212
1.5
0.030
0.060
0.086
0.110
0.131
0.149
0.164
0.176
0.186
0.194
0.205
0.211
0.216
0.223
2.0
0.031
0.061
0.089
0.113
0.135
0.153
0.169
0.181
0.192
0.200
0.209
0.216
0.232
0.240
0.032
0.062
0.090
0.115
0.137
0.156
0.172
0.185
0.196
0.205
0.212
0.223
0.240
0.250
Distributed Load Not Over Pipe

This design method may be used to determine the surcharge load on buried pipes that are near,
but not directly below uniformly distributed loads such as concrete slabs, footings and floors, or
other stationary rectangular area loads.
The method is similar to the method for determining the surcharge load when the surcharge is
directly above the pipe, except that the area directly above the pipe that is not covered by the
surcharge load must be deducted from the overall load on the pipe.
Refer to Figure 7-4B. Since there is no surcharge directly above the pipe centerline, an
imaginary surcharge load of the same pressure per unit area as the actual load, is applied to
sub-areas c and d. The surcharge loads for sub-areas a + d and b + c, are determined, then the
surcharge loads from the imaginary areas c and d are deducted to find the surcharge pressure
on the pipe.
PL = Pa +d + Pb +c Pc Pd
(7-11)

Pa+d =
Pb+c =
surcharge load of combined sub-areas a and d, lb/ft2

surcharge load of combined sub-areas b and c, lb/ft2
Example 7-3
Find the vertical surcharge pressure for the 6 x 10, 2000 lb/ft2 slab shown in Figure 7-6.
Solution: The surcharge area includes the non-loaded area between the pipe and the slab.
Divide the surcharge area into four sub-areas, a, b, c, and d. See Figure 7-4B. Using Formulas
7-9 and 7-11, and Table 7-2, determine the surcharge pressures for the combined sub-areas a
+ d and b + c, and then for sub-areas c and d. The surcharge pressure is the sum of the
surcharge sub-areas a + d and b + c, less the imaginary sub-areas c and d.
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Figure 7-6 Illustration for Example

7-3
Sub-area
a+d
b+c
10
10
M/H
2.0
2.0
0.8
0.8
N/H
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
IC
0.200
0.200
0.160
0.160
Px
400
400
(320)
(320)
PL = 160 lb/ft
Vehicular Loads
Wheel loads from trucks, trains, or other vehicles are significant for pipe buried at shallow
depths. The pressure on the pipe due to a surface vehicular live load depends on vehicle
weight, the tire pressure and size, vehicle speed, surface smoothness, the amount and type of
paving, the soil, and the distance from the pipe to the point of loading.
Minimum Cover Depth
Where pipe is to be subjected to vehicular loads, it
is recommended to install it under at least one pipe
diameter or eighteen inches of cover, whichever is
greater. However, for pipe 36" in diameter or larger,
this cover depth may not always be available. For
these shallow cover cases, special design
considerations are required.
Figure 7-7 AASHTO Standard H20

Static Loading
Highway Loads
The most common loading used for design is the
H20 highway loading. The American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO) publishes wheel loadings for standard H
and HS trucks as illustrated in Figures 7-7 and 7-8.
A standard H20 truck has a front axle load of 8,000
pounds, and a rear axle load of 32,000 pounds, for
a total weight of 40,000 pounds or 20 tons. At the
rear axle(s), each wheel load is 0.4 W, where W is
the total weight of the truck. The 0.4 W wheel load
may be used to represent the load applied by either
a single axle or tandem axles. The heaviest tandem
axle loads normally encountered on highways are
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Figure 7-8 AASHTO Standard HS20 Static Loading
around 40,000 pounds. Occasionally, vehicles may be permitted with loads up to 50 percent
higher.
The standard AASHTO wheel loading is a static load. However, a vehicle in motion will strike
bumps and increase the downward force. For vehicles on paved roads, impact loading is
addressed by multiplying the static load by an impact factor of 1.5. For unpaved roads, higher
impact factors may be required.
Pavement rigidity is an important variable affecting the live load surcharge pressure transmitted
to the pipe. Pavement is usually considered to be rigid (concrete) or flexible (asphalt). Rigid
pavement distributes the load, and tends to transmit a reduced load directly onto the pipe.
Rigid Pavement Highway Loads
For common highway surcharge loading applications, the pressure acting on the pipe can be
obtained from a table developed by the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) that provides
H20 and HS20 highway surcharge loading on rigid pavement.
AISI H20 and HS20 highway loading assumes that the axle load is equally distributed over two,
18 by 20 inch areas, spaced 72 inches apart, and applied through a 12-inch thick, rigid
pavement. To account for vehicle speed, an impact factor of 1.5 is incorporated in Table 7-3
values. For other loadings, such as heavier trucks, or trucks on unpaved surfaces the AISI
values in Table 7-3 cannot be used and one of the methods discussed below should be
considered.
Table 7-3 H20 and HS20 Highway Loading (AISI)
Cover, ft
Transferred Load, lb/ft
10
1800
800
600
400
250
200
175
100
Simulates 20-ton truck traffic plus impact. Negligible live load influence.

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Off-Highway and Unpaved Road Loads

Off-highway vehicles may be considerably heavier than H20 or HS20 trucks, and these vehicles
frequently operate on unpaved roads that may have uneven surfaces. Thus impact factors
higher than 1.5 may be reached depending on the vehicle speed. Except for slow traffic, an
impact factor of 2.0 to 3.0 should be considered.
During construction, both permanent and temporary underground pipelines may be subjected to
heavy vehicle loading from construction equipment. A designated vehicle crossing with special
design measures such as temporary pavement or structural sheeting may be prudent, as well
as vehicle speed controls to limit impact loading.
Vehicular Loads As Point Loads

There are generally two approaches for calculating vehicle live load surcharge pressure. The
more conservative approach is to treat the wheel load as a concentrated (point) load. The other
is to treat it as a distributed load spread over the contact area of the tire with the ground (imprint
area). The pressure due to a distributed load and the pressure due to a concentrated load begin
to approach the same value at a depth of about twice the square root of the loaded area.
The distributed load method gives more realistic values where the depth equals less than twice
the square root of the loaded area, whereas for deeper depths concentrated loads are preferred
because the calculations are simpler and typically more conservative.
The pressure distribution under a concentrated load varies with depth as illustrated in Figure 79. When the live load is calculated using the point
load methods in the following sections, a Figure 7-9 Concentrated Vehicular
conservative approach is to assume that the Load Pressure Distribution at Various
maximum pressure at the pipe crown is distributed
across the entire pipe.
A key consideration in determining live load pressure
on the pipe is the location of vehicle wheels relative
to the pipe. A higher pressure may occur below a
point between two vehicles passing in adjacent lanes
than directly under a single vehicle wheel. This
depends on the depth of cover.
When depths are greater than four or five feet, the
combined H20 load for two separate wheels
straddling the pipe is greater than that for a single
wheel directly over the pipe. Deeper than five feet, H20 loads are not usually significant
because the load is attenuated significantly compared loads under one or two feet of cover.
However, greater live loads may produce design significant effects at depths greater than five
feet. Therefore, the designer should check load conditions for a single wheel directly over the
pipe, and for two wheels spaced six feet apart and centered over the pipe.
Single Wheel Load Centered On Pipe
To check a single wheel load centered directly over the pipe, a method based on Holls
integration of Boussinesqs equation assumes that the wheel load is a concentrated (point) load.
Holls integration finds the pressure at the depth of the pipe crown that is distributed over a
surface three feet long and the width of the pipe outside diameter.

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Holls Integration
Holls equation for the average vertical pressure acting on a pipe due to a concentrated surface
load is:
Holls Equation
PL = C H
II WL
LD
(7-12)

II
CH
WL
L
D
=
=
=
=
=
impact factor
load coefficient, Table 7-4
wheel load, lb
pipe length, ft
pipe outside diameter, ft
If the pipe is longer than 3 ft, the usual practice is to assume a length of 3 ft. Values for CH are
found in Table 7-4 as a function of D/2H and L/2H where H is the depth of cover.
Example 7-4
Find the single H20 rear wheel live load surcharge pressure on a 30" OD pipe buried 4 feet
deep. Assume an impact factor of 1.5.
Solution: Use Formula 7-12, Table 7-4, and Figure 7-7. To solve Formula 7-12, the load
coefficient, CH, from Table 7-4 is required. For 4 ft of cover, D/2H = 0.31, and L/2H = 0.38.
Interpolating Table 7-4 for CH yields 0.189. From Figure 7-7, the H20 rear wheel live load is 0.4
x 40,000 = 16,000 lb. Solving Formula 7-12 yields:
PL = ( 0.189 )
(1.5 )( 16,000 )
30
3
12
PL = 598 lb / ft 2
Multiple Wheel Loads Along Pipe Length

In many cases, the maximum load on the pipe occurs when a single (or dual) wheel is located
directly over the pipe. However, at some depths the combined load due to more than one wheel
may be larger than the single wheel load. This usually occurs at a location along the pipe that is
not directly beneath a wheel load. This point (Figure 7-10, Case I, Point 2) will usually be
centered between two wheel loads.
Point Load on Pipe Crown
The Boussinesq point load equation may be used to find the wheel load pressure on the pipe,
neglecting any pavement effects. Pavement effects are covered later using a modified form of
Boussinesqs equation, Formula 7-13.

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Table 7-4 Load Coefficient, CH, for Holl's Integration of Boussinesq's Equation
L/2H
D/2H
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.2
1.5
2.0
20.0
0.1
0.019
0.037
0.053
0.067
0.079
0.089
0.097
0.103
0.108
0.112
0.117
0.121
0.124
0.127
0.2
0.037
0.072
0.103
0.131
0.155
0.174
0.189
0.202
0.211
0.219
0.229
0.238
0.244
0.248
0.3
0.053
0.103
0.149
0.190
0.224
0.252
0.274
0.292
0.306
0.318
0.333
0.346
0.355
0.361
0.4
0.067
0.131
0.190
0.241
0.284
0.320
0.349
0.373
0.391
0.405
0.425
0.442
0.454
0.462
0.5
0.079
0.155
0.224
0.284
0.336
0.379
0.414
0.441
0.463
0.481
0.505
0.525
0.540
0.550
0.6
0.089
0.174
0.252
0.320
0.379
0.428
0.467
0.499
0.524
0.544
0.572
0.596
0.613
0.625
0.7
0.097
0.189
0.274
0.349
0.414
0.467
0.511
0.546
0.574
0.597
0.628
0.655
0.674
0.688
0.8
0.103
0.202
0.292
0.373
0.441
0.499
0.546
0.584
0.615
0.639
0.674
0.703
0.725
0.740
0.9
0.108
0.211
0.306
0.391
0.463
0.524
0.574
0.615
0.647
0.673
0.711
0.743
0.766
0.783
1.0
0.112
0.219
0.318
0.405
0.481
0.544
0.597
0.639
0.673
0.701
0.740
0.775
0.800
0.818
1.2
0.117
0.229
0.333
0.425
0.505
0.572
0.628
0.674
0.711
0.740
0.783
0.821
0.849
0.871
1.5
0.121
0.238
0.346
0.422
0.525
0.596
0.655
0.703
0.743
0.775
0.821
0.863
0.895
0.920
2.0
0.124
0.244
0.355
0.454
0.540
0.613
0.674
0.725
0.766
0.800
0.849
0.895
0.930
0.960
20.0
0.127
0.248
0.361
0.462
0.550
0.625
0.688
0.740
0.783
0.818
0.871
0.920
0.960
1.000
Boussinesqs Equation
PL =
3 I I WL H 3
2 r 5
(7-13)

H
r
=
=
vertical depth to point on pipe crown, ft

distance from the point of load application to the pipe crown, ft
r =
X2 + H2
(7-14)
Where:
X
horizontal distance from the point of load application to the pipe crown, ft

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Figure 7-10 Concentrated Point Load
Using the Boussinesq point load equation in this way

is conservative, as the pressure applied to the point
on the pipe crown is taken as the pressure applied
across the pipes diameter.
Equation (7-12) applies only where the axle is
located directly over the pipe, and when seeking the
pipe crown load at some point between the wheels.
This is depicted in Figure 7-10, Case I.
Example 7-5
Determine the vertical soil pressure exerted on a 12"
pipe buried 2 ft deep when two 16,000 lb wheel loads
cross simultaneously over the pipe. Assume the
loads are 6 feet apart. (Six feet is the typical wheel
spacing on an axle, and the normal separation for
wheel loads traveling in adjacent lanes.)
Solution: Use Formulas 7-13 and 7-14. Assuming
the vehicle is traveling, a 1.5 impact factor is applied.
The maximum load will be at the center between the
two wheels, thus X = 3 ft. Determine r from Formula
7-14.
r = 2 2 + 3 2 = 3.61 ft
Then,
3 ( 1.5 )( 16,000 )( 2 )
PL =
2 ( 3.61 )
= 149.5 lb / ft 2
This is the load from each wheel; however, the load on the pipe crown is from both wheels, thus
2 PL = 299 lb / ft 2
Point Load Not On Pipe Crown

With some modification of equation terms, the pressure at a point other than at the pipe crown
may be determined. A pipe buried along a road shoulder is such an application. Pictorially, this
is Figure 7-10, Case II. For this application, H and r are determined using the following formulas:
= tan 1
D
H '+
2

page 95
(7-15)
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D
( 1 cos
2
(7-16)
D
D
X 2 + H '+
2
2
(7-17)
H = H '+
r =

H
depth of cover, ft
Multiple Wheel Loads on Rigid Pavement

The Portland Cement Association method may be used to find the load on a pipe from multiple
wheel loads on rigid pavement. The solution accounts for pavement rigidity, and the stiffness of
the pipe embedment soil. To determine the maximum load when two vehicles pass each other,
two common cases are checked. The first calculates the load directly under a wheel, and the
other calculates the combined load of two passing vehicles. Usually the later case gives the
highest load.
The pressure at a point beneath a single wheel is given by:
PL =
CH I I WL
RS
(7-18)

RS
radius of stiffness, ft
RS =
E h3
12 1 2 E '
(7-19)
12
Where
E
h
=
=
=
=
pavement modulus, lb/in2 (4,000,000 lb/in2 for concrete)

pavement thickness, in
Poissons ratio (0.15 for concrete)
embedment soil modulus, lb/in2 (Table 7-7)
Example 7-6
Find the pressure at the crown of the pipe illustrated in Figure 7-11, using an impact factor of
1.5. Pavement is 12" thick and the pipe is 4 feet below the pavement surface. Assume E = 700
lb/in2.
Solution: Using Formula 7-19, solve for RS; then determine CH from Table 7-5. Using Formula
7-18, solve for each wheel load. The total pressure on the pipe is the sum of the four wheel
loads.
4
RS =
( 4,000,000 )(12) 3
12(1 0.15 2 )(700 )
12
page 96
= 2.52 ft
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Figure 7-11 Illustration for Example 7-6
Outer
Inner
X/RS
8/2.52 = 3.2
2/2.52 = 0.8
H/RS
4/2.52 = 1.6
4/2.52 = 1.6
CH
0.011
0.054
The loads are cumulative, thus it is convenient to add the load coefficients together; then solve
for the pressure on the pipe in one calculation.
C H ( total ) = 2 ( 0.011 + 0.054 ) = 0.13
PL =
(0.13 )(1.5)(16,000 )
2.52 2
= 492 lb / ft 2
Vehicular Loads As Distributed Loads

The concentrated load methods presented above typically provide conservative results
compared to distributed load methods and should be satisfactory for most applications.
However, with shallow cover and heavy load conditions, concentrated load methods may yield
results that are unrealistically conservative. In this event or where a more precise answer is
sought, the surcharge load pressure on the pipe may be evaluated using distributed load
methods.
Distributed Wheel Loads
The methods presented above for determining surcharge pressure on the pipe from a stationary
distributed load can be applied to a wheel load as well, provided that the dimensions of the area
loaded by the wheel are known. Allowing for traveling vehicle impact and wheel load over a
known area, Formula 7-10 becomes
I W
PL = 4 I C I L
AC
(7-20)

AC
contact area, ft2
Load Areas
AISI and AASHTO provide guidelines for wheel load areas. AISI gives dual wheel contact area
for rear axle on an H20 or HS20 vehicle, as an 18 in by 20 in rectangle. For a single tire,
AASHTO assumes that the tire imprint area is a rectangle with an area in square inches equal
page 97
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to 0.01WL where WL is the wheel load in lbs. The AASHTO area has a 1 to 2.5 ratio of directionof-traffic length to tire width. The contact area may also be found by dividing the wheel load by
the tire pressure. For off road and heavy trucks, the tire contact area should be obtained from
the vehicle manufacturer.
Example 7-7
(a) Using the distributed load method, find the pressure at the crown of a 24" O.D. polyethylene
pipe with 2 ft of cover under an HS20 vehicle with a 16,000 lb wheel load and an impact factor
of 1.5. Assume the AISI contact area for a dual tire rear wheel.
(b) Compare this value with that obtained using the Boussinesq point load equation.
Solution: (a) The vertical pressure at the crown of the pipe may be found using Formula 7-20,
and Table 7-2. The live load is divided into four equal areas, with the common corner centered
over the pipe as shown in Figure 7-12.
M 9 / 12
=
= 0.375
H
2
N 10 / 12
=
= 0.420
2
H
By interpolation of Table 7-2, the influence coefficient, IC, is 0.059, thus

PL = 4 (0.059 )
( 1.5 )( 16,000 )
= 2265 lb / ft 2
18
20

12 12
(b) To determine the point load, Equations (7-12) and (7-13) apply. Since the load is directly
above the pipe, r = H = 2 ft, and
PL =
3 (1.5)(16,000 )(2) 3
2 ( 2 )5
page 98
= 2865 lb / ft 2
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Timoshenkos Method
The Timoshenko method is a conservative approach that finds the stress at a point in the soil
under a distributed wheel load. The pressure acting at the crown of a buried pipe may be
calculated using the following:
Timoshenkos Equation
I W
PL = I L
AC
H3
1
r + H 2
1.5
(7-21)

r
equivalent radius, ft
For standard H20 and HS20 highway vehicle loading, the contact area is normally taken for dual
wheels, that is, 16,000 lb over an 18 in by 20 in area. The equivalent radius is given by:
r =
AC
(7-22)
Example 7-8
Find the vertical pressure on a 24" polyethylene pipe buried 3 ft beneath an unpaved road when
an R-50 truck is over the pipe. The manufacturer lists the truck with a gross weight of 183,540
lbs on 21X35 E3 tires, each having a 30,590 lb load over an imprint area of 370 in2.
Solution: Use Formulas 7-21 and 7-22. For a vehicle is operating on an unpaved road, an
impact factor of 2.0 is appropriate.
r =
PL =
370 / 144
= 0.90 ft
(2.0)(30,590 )
32
1
2
2
(370 / 144 )
(0.90 + 3 )
PL = 2890 lb / ft 2
Railroad Loads
Figure 7-13 and Table 7-6 illustrate Cooper E80 live loading based on AISI published
information for three, 80,000 lb loads over three 2 ft x 8 ft areas spaced 5 ft apart. At sufficient
depth, smaller diameter pipes and pipes carrying non-hazardous fluids may safely withstand
design loads without encasement. Based upon design and permitting requirements, the design
engineer should determine if a casing is required. Commercial railroads frequently require
casings for plastic pipes if they are within 25 feet of the tracks.

page 99
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Figure 7-13 Cooper E80 Live Loading
Table 7-5 Cooper E80 Live Loading

Height of Cover, ft.
Load,lb/ft2
3800
2400
1600
10
1100
12
800
15
600
20
300
30
100
Designing Polyethylene Pipes to Withstand Loads

Polyethylene pipes are subjected to stress from the combination of internal and external forces
applied to the pipe. The most common internal force is fluid pressure. For buried pipes, the most
common external forces are earth and surcharge loads. This section discusses pipe stresses
and deformations due to external forces. Internal pressure stress may increase or decrease
stresses or deformations from external forces.
External Forces On Pipe

Buried pipe is subjected to radial compressive loads and circumferential shear loads from the
surrounding soil and surcharge loads. Radial loads are loads that are applied to the pipe wall
and have a line of action that passes through the center of the pipe. These loads will produce
stresses and deformations in the pipe. Radial loads will cause a minute decrease in the pipe
diameter.
A radially directed load is not normally uniform and this causes the pipe to undergo ring
deflection. The amount of ring deflection will depend on the load, pipe stiffness and soil
stiffness. When buried in very weak, viscous soils that offer little or no stiffness compared to the
pipe, the ring deflection of the pipe will be governed almost entirely by pipe properties. On the
other hand, when buried in compacted granular embedment, the ring deflection is governed by
the interaction between the pipe and the surrounding soil.
In buried applications, polyethylene pipe is usually characterized by measures of ring stiffness
such as RSC (Ring Stiffness Constant) or PS (pipe stiffness), ductility (which governs
permissible deflection limits) and compressive strength. Soil stiffness is usually characterized by
the modulus of passive resistance, a measure of the combined stiffness of the pipe and the soil,
and related to the soils compressibility and density.
Radial compressive loads and ring deflection or ring bending that occur in a flexible pipe, cause
deformations and stresses in the pipe wall. Some of the more common design concerns for
buried flexible pipe are presented below. An engineer should review all designs to determine
suitability for a particular application.

page 100
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Constrained Pipe Wall Compressive Stress

When a non-pressurized pipe that is confined in a dense embedment is subjected to a radially
directed soil pressure, a circumferential, compressive thrust occurs in its wall. This is similar to
the thrust force that occurs within the wall of a ring when it is squeezed. This thrust creates a
ring (or hoop) compressive stress within the pipe wall. This is similar to a hoop tensile stress
from internal pressure, but compressive stress acts in the opposite direction.
As is often the case, the radial soil pressure that causes compressive stress is not uniform.
However, for convenience in calculating wall compressive stress, radial soil pressure is
assumed to be uniform and equal to the vertical soil pressure at the crown of the pipe.
With buried pressure pipe, internal pressure may be greater than the radial external pressure
applied by the soil. This results in a tensile stress rather than a compressive stress in the pipe
wall. Thus for pressure pipe, compressive wall stresses are normally not considered. This can
be verified by comparing internal pressure hoop stress to wall compressive stress.
When subjected to a uniform radial soil pressure, the compressive stress in the pipe wall is:
DRISCOPLEX OD controlled pipe:
S=
PT DO
288 t
(7-23)
S=
PT DO
288 A
(7-24)
DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipe:
Where
PT
S
DO
t
A
=
=
=
=
=
vertical load applied to pipe, lb/ft2

pipe wall compressive stress, lb/in2
pipe wall thickness, in
pipe wall profile average cross-sectional area, in2/in
Because arching commonly occurs for entrenched pipe, the modified arching load rather than
the prism load is used to determine the vertical soil pressure at the pipe crown.
The pipe wall compressive stress should be compared to an allowable material stress value that
should be determined by testing. The recommended, long-term compressive strength design
value for DRISCOPLEX polyethylene pipe is 800 lb/in2.
Example 7-9
Find the pipe wall compressive ring (or hoop) stress in a DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE 36"
Class 100 pipe buried under 18 ft of cover. The ground water level is at the surface, the
saturated weight of the insitu silty-clay soil is 120 lbs/ft3 and the trench width equals the pipe
diameter plus 3 ft.
Solution: Determine the modified arching load using Formula 7-5. The arching coefficient from
Formula 7-7 or from Figure 7-3 is
F = 0.83

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Although net soil pressure is equal to the buoyant weight of the soil, ground water pressure is
also acting on the pipe. Therefore the total pressure (water and earth load) can be found using
the saturated unit weight of the soil.
PC = (0.83 )(120 )(18 ) = 1793 lb / in 2
Next, solve Formula 7-24 for the compressive stress. For DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE
36" Class 100 pipe, the wall cross-sectional area, A, and outside diameter, DO are found in
DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE product literature. A is 0.470 in2/in, and DO is 36 plus twice
the 2.02" wall height, or 40.04 in.
S=
(1793 )( 40.04 )
= 530 lb / in 2
(288 )(0.470 )
The application is within the 800 lb/in2 allowable stress guideline.
Unconstrained Pipe Wall Buckling

Flexible pipe may be viewed as having the cross section of a long, slender column rolled into a
cylinder. Compressive thrust, in combination with radially directed forces, may cause instability
or buckling, that is, a large wrinkle or dimple in the pipe wall. This type of deflection can be
compared to the Euler buckling of a column.
Unconstrained pipe wall buckling can be a consideration for low pressure and non-pressure
pipes where the pipe is not externally supported by embedment, or when embedment provides
little or no support. Compared to the capacity for tensile wall stress from internal pressure,
unconstrained flexible pipe has less resistance to external, radially directed pressure. Some
examples of external pressures on unconstrained pipe include: external atmospheric pressure
from vacuum within the pipe; external hydrostatic load such as groundwater above a slipliner, or
water above partially full underwater pipeline; a column separation in a liquid flow in a downhill
pipeline; siphoning or a reduced internal pressure where a flow liquid in a pipeline crests a rise;
and cavitation due to pump shut-off or start-up. If an unconstrained pipe will be subjected to an
external pressure during service, the unconstrained buckling resistance should be checked.
For unconstrained pipe, the critical external pressure or negative pressure above which buckling
can occur may be estimated by:
For DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipe:
PCR =
24 E I P
(1 2 ) DM
Where
PCR
E
IP
DM
=
=
=
=
=
vertical load applied to pipe, lb/ft2

elastic modulus, lb/in2 (Table 5-1)
profile wall moment of inertia, in4/in
Poissons ratio
pipe mean diameter, in

page 102
(7-25)
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For DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipe:

D M = DI + 2 Z
(7-26)
DM = DO 1.06 t
(7-27)
For DRISCOPLEX OD controlled pipe:
Where
DI
Z
DO
t
=
=
=
=
pipe inside diameter, in

profile wall centroid, in
pipe outside diameter
pipe minimum wall thickness
Poissons ratio, , for polyethylene pipe is 0.45 for long-term loading and 0.35 for short-term
loading. Expressing critical external buckling pressure in terms of DR for OD controlled pipe,
Formula 7-25 becomes
PCR =
2
(1 ) DR 1
2E
(7-28)
Where
DR
pipe dimension ratio

DR =
DO
t
(7-29)
Ovality Effects
Ovality or deflection of the pipe diameter reduces buckling resistance because the bending
moment in the pipe wall increases.
P = fO PCR
(7-30)
Where
P
fO
=
=
buckling pressure, lb/in2

ovality compensation factor, Figure 7-14
Initially deflected unconstrained pipe generally assumes an oval shape. The percent deflection
(ovality) of pipe is determined by
D DO
% Deflection = 100
D
(7-31)
Where
D
DO
=
=
pipe average diameter, in

pipe minimum diameter, in
See Table 5-1 for elastic modulus values for determining critical buckling pressure in Formulas
7-25 and 7-28. The modulus selected should account for the temperature of the pipe and the
duration of the applied load. When unconstrained pipes are installed on or above the surface,
sunlight heating can increase pipe temperature and reduce buckling resistance.

page 103
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Figure 7-14 Ovality Compensation

Factor for Unconstrained Buckling
The designer should compare the critical buckling pressure to the actual anticipated pressure,
and apply a safety factor commensurate with his assessment of the application. Safety factors
in the range of 2 to 1 are common, but specific circumstances may warrant a higher or lower
safety factor. An alternative to a direct safety factor may be to apply a long-term elastic modulus
to a short-term stress event.
The resilience and toughness of DRISCOPLEX OD controlled and DRISCOPLEX 2000
SPIROLITE pipe may allow the pipe to recover from a short-term or one-time buckling or
flattening event. For example, a high DR, unconstrained OD controlled pipe may be pressed flat
by a short duration vacuum inside the pipe, but relieving the vacuum can allow the pipe to
recover most of its original round shape. When such events are rare or one-time, a loss of
serviceability or permanent damage is not anticipated. However, repetitive unconstrained
buckling events can cause permanent damage. If temporary buckling events are possible with
DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipe, bell and spigot joints should be extrusion-welded to
enhance joint sealing capability.
Example 7-10
Find the allowable ground water level above a 24" Class 160 DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE
pipe installed in a casing without grout in the annular space. Consider cases where the pipe is
below the normal water table, and where the water table rises during a flood.
Solution: Use Formulas 7-26, 7-28 and 7-30; Bulletin PP-401 ASTM F 894 High Density
Polyethylene Pipe Product Data; Figure 7-14 and Table 5-1 for elastic modulus values. The
critical external collapse pressure depends upon the how long the water level is above the pipe.
If the water level is constant, a long-term elastic modulus should be used, but if the water level
rises only occasionally, an elastic modulus for lesser duration may be applied.
Bulletin PP-401 supplies pipe dimensions and I values. For 24" Class 160 pipe, I is 0.124 in4/in
and Z, the wall centroid, is 0.50 in. Solving Formula 7-26
DM = 24 + 2 (0.50) = 25.0 in

page 104
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For a constant water table above the pipe, Table 5-1 indicates a 50-year, 73 F modulus of
28,200 lb/in2, thus Formula 7-28 yields
PCR =
(24)(28,200)(0.124)
2
(1 0.45 )(25 )
= 6.79 lb / in 2
Assuming 5% ovality and a 2 to 1 safety factor, fO from Figure 7-14 is 0.64. Formula 7-30 yields
P=
(0.64)(6.79)
= 2.17 lb / in 2 = 5.0 ft H 2O
2
Flooding conditions are occasional happenings, usually lasting a few days to a week or so.
From Table 5-1, 1000 hours (41.6 days) is about twice the expected flood duration, so a value
of 43,700 lb/in2 provides about a 2 to 1 safety margin. Solving as above,
PCR =
(24)( 43,700)(0.124 )
(1 0.45 2 )(25 3 )
= 10.44 lb / in 2
P = (0.64 )(10.44 ) = 6.68 lb / in 2 = 15.4 ft H 2O
Constrained Pipe Wall Buckling

Buckling resistance is increased when flexible pipe is embedded in soil. The soil and pipe
couple together to resist buckling forces. A vertically applied thrust force causes the pipe to
widen horizontally, but horizontal pipe deflection is restrained by the embedment soil, thus the
pipes critical buckling pressure increases. A pipe/soil interaction occurs when the depth of cover
is sufficient to mobilize soil support. A publication by the American Water Works Association,
AWWA C-950, indicates that at least four feet of cover is needed to mobilize soil support.
AWWA C-950 provides a design equation for buckling of a buried plastic pipe. The following
constrained pipe buckling equation is applicable to DRISCOPLEX OD controlled and
DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipe.
For OD Controlled Pipe
PWC =
5.65
EI
R B' E '
N
12 (DR 1)3
(7-32)
For DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE Pipe

PWC =
EI
5.65
R B' E '
3
N
DM
(7-33)

PWC =
N =
R =
allowable constrained buckling pressure, lb/in2

safety factor
buoyancy reduction factor
R = 1 0.33
H
H
=
=
H'
H
groundwater height above pipe, ft

cover above pipe, ft

page 105
(7-34)
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elastic support factor

B' =
1
1+ 4e
( 0.065 H )
(7-35)
soil reaction modulus, lb/in2 (Table 7-7)
The designer should apply a safety factor appropriate to the application. A safety factor of 2.0
has been used for thermoplastic pipe.
The allowable constrained buckling pressure should be compared to the total vertical stress
acting on the pipe crown from the combined load of soil and groundwater or floodwater. It is
prudent to check buckling resistance against a groundwater level for a 100-year-flood. In this
calculation the total vertical stress is typically taken as the prism load pressure for saturated soil,
plus the fluid pressure of any floodwater above the ground surface.
Example 7-11
Find the allowable buckling pressure for a DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE 36" Class 100 36"
pipe, installed in compacted soil embedment having an E of 2000 lb/in2. Determine if Class 100
pipe is sufficient for an applied load from 18 feet of cover and ground water to the surface.
Solution: Solve Formula 7-33 using Formulas 7-26, 7-35, 7-34 and Table 5-1. DRISCOPLEX
2000 SPIROLITE pipe dimensions and properties are published in Bulletin PP-401. For
DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE 36" Class 100 pipe, I is 0.171 in4/in, and Z is 0.58 in. Solve
for terms DM, B, and R.
DM = 36 + 2 (0.58) = 37.16 in
B' =
1
1+ 4 e
( 0.065(18 ))
R = 1 0.33
= 0.446
18
= 0.67
18
Under a 100-year-flood condition, soil cover, H, and floodwater height, H, are both 18 feet.
From Table 5-1, E is 28,200 lb/in2 for 50 years at 73 F. A common practice is a safety factor of
2. Solving Formula 7-32,
PWC =
5.65
2
(0.67)(0.446 )(2000 )(28,800 )(0.171)

(37.16) 3
PWC = 21.17 lb / in 2 = 3051 lb / ft 2
The load applied to the pipe is found using the prism load, Formula 7-1.
(In this example, the specified soil reaction modulus, E, is an empirical value that was
developed using prism load rather than arching load methods. Therefore, the prism soil load
must be used. If a soil reaction modulus value is developed using arching or modified arching
methods, then soil loads should be calculated using the appropriate method. See discussions
on Soil Reaction Modulus and Vertical Soil Pressure.)
PE = (120 )(18 ) = 2160 lb / ft 2

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The allowable buckling stress, PWC, is greater than the applied load pressure, PE, therefore,
Class 100 pipe is satisfactory for this installation.
Ring Deflection
Some vertical pipe deflection is desirable to promote arching and to mobilize the passive soil
resistance forces that support the pipe. However, deflection may affect other pipe or system
performance areas, such as pipe material long-term strain capability, pipeline hydraulic capacity
and compatibility with cleaning equipment. In DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipe, bell-andspigot joint sealing capability may be affected by excessive deflection.
The two components of buried pipe deflection are construction deflection and service load
deflection. Construction deflection occurs during shipping and handling and placing embedment
around the pipe up to the pipe crown. Construction deflection incorporates all forces acting on
the pipe up to the point where backfill is placed above the pipe. Service load deflection occurs
from backfill placement above the pipe and from applied surcharge loads. The deflection
observed in a buried pipe after the completing an installation is the sum of construction
deflection and service load deflection.
Several methods are available for determining flexible pipe deflection from earth loads and
surcharge loads. Historically, Spanglers Modified Iowa formula has been used to find the
deflection of plastic pipes. Other methods include closed form solutions, and numerical methods
such as finite element solutions. Alternatives to Spanglers formula may give more accurate
values, but they usually require more precise information on soil and pipe properties. Therefore,
these methods are not as commonly used as Spanglers Modified Iowa formula.
Spanglers Modified Iowa Formula can be written for DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipe
as:
X
PT
KL
144 1.24 (RSC )

DI
+ 0.061 E '
DI
(7-36)
And for DRISCOPLEX OD controlled pipe as:
PT
KL
X
=
3
144 2 E 1
DI
+
0
.
061
'
E
3 DR 1
Where
X
DI
PT
K
L
E
E
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
horizontal deflection, in
inside diameter, in
pipe crown vertical pressure, lb/ft2
bedding factor, typically 0.1
deflection lag factor
soil reaction modulus, lb/in2

page 107
(7-37)
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% Deflection =
DM
X
X
(100) =
(100)
DI
DM
(7-38)
mean diameter, in (Formula 7-26 or 7-27)
Soil Reaction Modulus, E

The soil reaction modulus, E, is an interactive modulus representing the support or stiffness of
the embedment soil in reaction to lateral pipe deflection under load. It is dependent on both soil
and pipe properties, so there are no convenient laboratory tests to determine the soil reaction
modulus for a given soil.
For the most part the modulus must be determined empirically, that is, it must be found by
measuring the deflection of a buried pipe, then substituting that value into Spanglers formula
and back-calculating.
Table 7-7 presents soil reaction modulus values from an extensive field study for the Bureau of
Reclamation performed by A. Howard. These values for soil reaction modulus are commonly
used in flexible pipe design.
Howard noted deflection variability along the length of a typical pipeline. To determine maximum
deflection, variability should be accommodated by reducing the Table 7-7 E value by 25%, or
by adding the deflection percentage given in Table 7-7.
As cover depth increases, so does the earth pressure on the embedment material. Both
horizontal and vertical pressures exist in a soil mass, but unlike water, these pressures are not
normally equal to each other. As the enveloping or confining pressure is increased on a granular
material, soil grains are held together more tightly, and the entire system stiffens. J. Hartley and
J. Duncan published a study of soil reaction modulus variation with depth. Their recommended
soil reaction modulus values are presented in Table 7-8, and should be considered when cover
depth is less than 20 feet.
The vertical soil pressure exerted on a buried flexible pipe is typically equal to the Marston load.
However, Howards Bureau of Reclamation E values assumed that the pipe was subjected to a
prism load, which means that soil arching is incorporated in Howards E values. When using
Table 7-7 or Table 7-8, the prism load should be used.
The soil reaction modulus represents the stiffness of the soil surrounding the pipe. In Tables 7-7
and 7-8, E values are given for the embedment material. However, when the insitu trench soil
is highly compressible (marsh clay, peat, saturated organic soils, etc.) compared to the
embedment around the pipe, the embedment soil may not develop the E values presented in
the tables, resulting in pipe deflection greater than the design prediction. Increasing trench
width, thereby increasing the width of embedment soil around the pipe, can minimize the effect
of highly plastic insitu trench soil.
Janson recommends the use of the short-term pipe elastic modulus value in Spanglers
equation. The concept is that soil settlement around the buried pipe occurs in discrete events as
soil grains shift or fracture. Once movement occurs, soil arching redistributes the load, and no
further deflection occurs for that event. Since these load increments are felt like impulse loads,
the pipe resists them with its short-term elastic modulus.

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Table 7-7 Bureau of Reclamation Average E Values for Iowa Formula (Initial Deflection)
E for Degree of Bedding Compaction, lb/in2
Soil type pipe bedding material (Unified
Classification)
Fine-grained soils (LL>50)

Soils with medium to high plasticity
CH, MH, CH-MH
Dumped
Slight
(<85% Proctor
<40% relative
density)
Moderate
(48%-95%
Proctor
40%-70%
relative
density)
High
(>95% Proctor
>70% relative
density)
No data available; consult a competent soils engineer; otherwise, use

E = 0.
Fine-grained soils (LL<50)

Soils with medium to no plasticity
CL, ML, CL-ML, with <25% coarse grained
particles
50
200
400
1000
Fine-grained soils (LL<50)

Soils with medium to no plasticity
CL, ML, CL-ML, with >25% coarse grained
particles
Coarse-grained soils with fines
GM, GC, SM, SC
contains >12% fines
100
400
1000
2000
Coarse-grained soils with little or no fines

GW, GP, SW, SP
contains <12% fines
200
1000
2000
3000
Crushed rock
1000
3000
3000
3000
Accuracy in terms of percentage

deflection
2%
2%
1%
0.5%
ASTM D 2487; USBR Designation E-3. LL = Liquid limit. Or any borderline soil beginning with one of these
symbols, i.e., GM-GC, GC-SC. For 1% accuracy and predicted deflection of 3%, actual deflection would be
between 2% and 4%.
Note Values applicable only for fills less than 50 ft (15 m). No safety factor included in table values. For use in
predicting initial deflections only; appropriate Deflection Lag Factor must be applied for long-term deflections. If
bedding falls on the borderline between two compaction categories, select the lower E value or average the two
values. Percentage Proctor based on laboratory maximum dry density from test standards using 12,500 ft-lb/ft3
2
2
(598,000 J/m ) (ASTM D 698, AASHTO T-99, USBR Designation E-11). 1 lb/in = 6.895 kPa.
Table 7-8 Duncan-Hartley Soil Reaction Modulus

Type of Soil
Fine-grained soils
with <25% sand
content
(CL, ML, CL-ML)
Coarse-grained soils
with fines
(SM, SC)
Coarse-grained soils
with little or no fines
(SP, SW, GP, GW)
E for Standard AASHTO Relative Compaction, lb.in2
Depth of
Cover, ft
85%
90%
95%
100%
0-5
500
700
1000
1500
5-10
600
1000
1400
2000
10-15
700
1200
1600
2300
15-20
800
1300
1800
2600
0-5
600
1000
1200
1900
5-10
900
1400
1800
2700
10-15
1000
1500
2100
3200
15-20
1100
1600
1400
3700
0-5
700
1000
1600
2500
5-10
1000
1500
2200
3300
10-15
1050
1600
2400
3600
15-20
1100
1700
2500
3800

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Lag Factor and Long Term Deflection

Long-term buried pipe deflection is determined by both pipe and soil properties, because both
pipe and soil are subjected to visco-elastic deformations. For a properly installed pipe, soil
properties generally prevail.
Visco-elastic deformation can continue forever, but total deformation is typically small. For
example, most buildings settle after construction due to soil creep, but rarely does this cause
distress. The same is true for most flexible pipe, whether plastic or metal. Visco-elastic
deformation typically accounts for only a small percentage of the total deflection of the pipe, and
a large portion of this deflection normally occurs within a few weeks after installation.
Research conducted by R. Lytton at Texas A&M University, has shown that for properly
installed plastic pipe, long-term deflection is controlled principally by the embedment soil.
Spangler recommended addressing visco-elastic effects by using a deflection lag factor in the
Iowa Formula. Recommended values range from 1.0 to 1.5.
Lytton and Brown published time factors based on a visco-elastic solution for long-term
deflection of pipe installed in saturated clay. The ratio of the 50-year deflection to the 30-day (or
short term) deflection gave a lag factor of 1.5. Field measurements of HDPE pipe have
confirmed values in the same range.
Example 7-12
Estimate the vertical deflection of a DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE 36" Class 100 installed
under 18 feet of cover. The embedment material is well-graded sandy gravel, compacted to at
least 90 percent of Standard Proctor density.
Solution: Use the prism load, Formula 7-1, Table 7-7 and Formulas 7-37 and 7-39. From Table
7-7 the E value for compacted sandy gravel or GW-SW soil is 2000 lb/in2. For an estimate of
maximum long-term deflection, the value is reduced by 25% to 1500 lb/in2. (The Duncan-Hartley
value in Table 7-8 for this material with 18 ft of cover is 1700 lb/in2.)
From Formula 7-1, the prism load on the pipe is:
PE = (120 )(18 ) = 2160 lb / ft 2
Solving Formulas 7-37 and 7-39 yields:
2160
(0.1)(1.5)
X
= 0.0237
=
DI
144 (1.24 )(100
+ (0.61)(1500 )
36 + 2 (0.58 )
% Deflection = (0.0237 )(100 ) = 2.37 %
Deflection Limits
Flexible pipe deflection is a natural, essential, response to soil loading. Deflection mobilizes
passive resistance in the surrounding soil, and promotes arching. Small deflections are
desirable, but large deflections should be limited.

page 110
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DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipe is manufactured to ASTM F 894, which states that
profile pipe designed for 7.5% deflection will perform satisfactorily when installed in accordance
with ASTM D 2321. Deflection is measured at least 30 days after installation.
Manufacturing processes for DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE and DRISCOPLEX OD
controlled pipe differ. Deflection limitations for OD controlled pipe are controlled by long-term
material strain.
Ring Bending Strain
As pipe deflects, bending strains occur in the pipe wall. For an elliptically deformed pipe, the
pipe wall ring bending strain, , can be related to deflection:
= fD
X 2 C
DM DM
(7-39)
Where
fD
X
DM
C
=
=
=
=
=
wall strain, %
deformation shape factor
deflection, in
mean diameter, in
distance from outer fiber to wall centroid, in
For DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipe

C =hz
(7-40)
C = 0.5 (1.06 t )
(7-41)
For DRISCOPLEX OD Controlled pipe
Where
h
z
t
=
=
=
pipe wall height, in

pipe wall centroid, in
pipe minimum wall thickness, in
For elliptical deformation, fD = 4.28. However, buried pipe rarely has a perfectly elliptical shape.
Irregular deformation can occur from installation forces such as compaction variation alongside
the pipe. To account for the non-elliptical shape many designers use fD = 6.0.
Lytton and Chua report that for high performance polyethylene materials such as those used by
Performance Pipe, 4.2% ring bending strain is a conservative value for non-pressure pipe.
Jansen reports that high performance polyethylene material at an 8% strain level has a life
expectancy of at least 50 years.
When designing non-pressure heavy wall OD controlled pipe (DR less than 17), and high RSC
(above 200) DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipe, the ring bending strain at the predicted
deflection should be calculated and compared to the allowable strain.
In pressure pipe, the combined stress from deflection and internal pressure should not exceed
the materials long-term design stress rating. Combined stresses are incorporated into Table 79 values, which presumes deflected pipe at full pressure. At reduced pressure, greater
deflection is allowable.

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Table 7-9 Safe Pressure Pipe Deflection

DR
Safe Deflection as
% of Diameter
32.5
8.5
26
7.0
21
6.0
17
5.0
13.5
4.0
11
3.0
2.5
Example 7-13
Find the ring bending strain in the wall of the DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE 36" Class 100
pipe in Example 7-12.
Solution: Use Formula 7-40 and fD = 6.0. From Bulletin PP-401, h = 2.02 in., and z = 0.58 in.
= 6(0.0237 )
2.02 0.58
= 0.0055 = 0.55%
36 + 2(0.58 )
The strain is well below the permissible strain for ASTM F 894 profile pipe.
Design Considerations For Shallow Cover Pipe

Pipe installed under shallow cover does not completely develop a the interaction between pipe
and soil structure interaction; therefore, design methods must be modified. The designer should
consider the following three cases: (1) flotation due to insufficient soil cover, (2) ring bending
due to live load, and (3) upward buckling due to flooding or high groundwater levels.
The exact depth of cover required to fully develop pipe-soil structure interaction depends on the
particular installation conditions.
Shallow Cover Surcharge Load
The preceding design methods assume that the pipe behaves primarily as a membrane
structure, that is, the pipe is almost perfectly flexible with little ability to resist bending.
At depths of cover less than one pipe diameter, this membrane action may not develop fully,
thus a surcharge load or live load places a bending load on the pipe crown. For this reason,
flexible pipe manufacturers often recommend that pipe be buried at least one pipe diameter
below a live load. If this cannot be accomplished, the designer should perform a special analysis
to determine if the pipe has adequate beam bending strength.
R. Watkins in Minimum Soil Cover Required Over Buried Flexible Cylinders provides a design
equation for determining the pipe cross section for shallow cover live load applications. Watkins
method presumes that a combination of pipe flexural strength and the ring resistance of the soil
surrounding the pipe resist the live load at shallow cover. The maximum bending stress
page 112
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occurring in the pipe wall can be found by considering the top half of the pipe as a pinned-end
arch.
For polyethylene pipe, Watkins analysis should be used only where the minimum depth of
cover is the greater of one-half of the pipe diameter or 18 inches. For lesser cover depths, a
reinforced concrete cap should be considered.
Based on Watkins analysis, the live load pressure on the pipe, PL, should not exceed the
Formula 7-43 upper limit
PL
12 w (K H )2 7387 .2 (I )
w DO H
S
+
2
288 A
N DO
N DO C
(7-43)
Where
w
K
=
=
unit weight of soil, lb/ft2

passive earth pressure coefficient
K =
H
N
DO
I
C
S
A
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
1 + sin
1 sin
(7-44)
angle of internal soil friction, deg

cover height, ft
safety factor
pipe wall moment of inertia, in4/in
distance from outer fiber to wall centroid, in
material yield strength, lb/in2
pipe wall area, in2/in
In developing Formula 7-43, Watkins applied a load to a part of the pipe crown. Therefore, any
surcharge load should be calculated a point load method, rather than a distributed load method.
A design safety factor of at least 2 should be applied.
In addition to the pipe bending check with Watkins formula, the designer should check pipe wall
compressive stress, and pipe wall buckling from live load stress. When a pipe is installed with
shallow cover below an unpaved surface, rutting can occur, which will not only reduce cover
depth, but also increase the impact factor. State highway authorities commonly set a minimum
cover depth under below pavement. This cover depth varies by State, but is usually 2.5 to 5 ft.
Shallow Cover Buckling
The buckling resistance of a buried pipe increases with increasing cover depth because the
surrounding soil is stiffened by the increase in overburden pressure. However, a different
buckling mechanism may occur when pipe is located near the surface.
Groundwater or flooding may apply an external pressure to the pipe that may result in upward
buckling, that is the sides of the pipe deflect inward (negative horizontal deflection) and the
crown deflects upward. This mechanism is possible when cover depth is insufficient to restrain
upward crown movement and when the pipe is empty or partially full.
Shallow cover may not be sufficient for complete development of soil support. AWWA C-950
suggests that a minimum cover of four feet is required, however, larger diameter pipe may
require as much as a diameter and a half to develop full support.

page 113
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Shallow cover buckling may also occur if the pipe can float slightly upward and lose contact with
the embedment material below its springline.
Shallow cover deserves special design attention. A conservative design alternative is to assume
no soil support, and design using unconstrained pipe wall buckling methods. A concrete cap,
sufficient to resist upward deflection, may also be placed over the pipe.
Go to Chapter 8
page 114
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8. Groundwater Flotation
A buried pipe or manhole may be subject to flotation from high groundwater levels around the
pipe. While lightweight polyethylene is easily handled and installed, its lesser weight compared
to that of metal or concrete pipe, compels design evaluation of groundwater flotation effects.
Flotation may occur when the groundwater around the pipe produces a buoyant force greater
than the downward force of the soil prism above the pipe plus the weight of the pipe and its
contents. When flooded some soils may lose cohesiveness, which may allow the pipe to float
out of the ground. Groundwater saturation may also cause significant reduction of soil support
around the pipe, and allow the pipe to buckle from the external hydrostatic pressure.
Table 8-1 Typical soil Densities
Density, lb/ft3
Soil Type
Saturated
Dry
Sands and Gravels
118-150
93-114
Silts and Clays
87-131
37-112
Glacial Tills
131-150
106-144
Crushed rock
119-137
94-125
Organic Silts and Clays
81-112
31-94
Several design checks are available to see if groundwater flotation may be a concern.
Obviously, if the pipeline typically runs full or nearly full of liquid, or if groundwater is always
below the pipe, flotation may not be a significant concern. A quick rule of thumb is that when
buried in common saturated soil (about 120 lb/ft3) with at least one and one half pipe diameters
of cover, pipe is generally not subject to groundwater flotation. However, groundwater flotation
should be checked if the pipe is buried in lighter soils, or with lesser cover, or the pipe frequently
has little liquid flow during high groundwater conditions.
Figure 8-1 Groundwater Flotation

(Empty Pipe)
Book 2: Chapter 8: Groundwater Flotation Effects

page 115
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Groundwater Flotation of Pipe

For 1 foot of an empty pipe, flotation will occur if
Fb > W p + W f + W d
(8-1)
Where
Fb
buoyant force, lb/ft

Fb = G
DO
Wp
=
=
2
DO
4
specific weight of groundwater, lb/ft3

(fresh water = 62.4 lb/ft3)
(seawater = 64.0 lb/ft3)
pipe outside diameter, ft
empty pipe weight, lb/ft
D 2 (4 )
W f = ( d G ) O
+ DO H s
Wf
d
Hs
Wd
=
=
=
=
=
=
(8-3)
weight of flooded soil, lb/ft

specific weight of dry soil, lb/ft3
level of groundwater saturation above pipe, ft
weight of dry soil, lb/ft
W d = d (H H s ) DO
H
Hs
(8-2)
(8-4)
height of cover above pipe, ft

level of groundwater saturation above pipe, ft
When an area is flooded, the soil particles are buoyed by their immersion in the liquid. The
effective weight of flooded soil is the soils dry density less the density of the flooding liquid. For
example, a soil of 120 lb/ft3 dry density has an effective density of 57.6 lb/ft3 when completely
immersed in fresh water (120 - 62.4 = 57.6 lb/ft3).
If the pipe contains a liquid, then the weight of the liquid will reduce the possibility of
groundwater flotation. For 1 foot of pipe containing a liquid
Fb > W p + W f + W d + W L
(8-5)
Where
WL
weight of the liquid in the pipe, lb/ft
When a pipe is 100% full of liquid, the liquid weight is

W L,100% = L
DI
4
(8-6)
W L, 50% = L
DI
8
(8-7)
And if 50% full, the liquid weight is
Where
L
specific weight of the liquid in the pipe, lb/ft3

page 116
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DI
pipe inside diameter, ft
For pipe liquid levels between empty and half-full (0% to 50%) or between half-full and full (50%
to 100%) as illustrated in Figure 8-2, Formulas 8-8 and 8-9 provide an approximate liquid weight
with an accuracy of about 10%.
Figure 8-2 Pipe Liquid Level
For a liquid level between empty and half-full, the weight of the liquid in the pipe is
approximately
WL = L
4 h3
3
DI h
+ 0.392
h
(8-8)
Where
h
liquid level in the pipe, ft
For a liquid level between half-full and full, the weight of the liquid in the pipe is approximately
DI 2
WL = L
1.573 he
4
(8-9)
Where
he
height above liquid in pipe, ft

h e = DI h
(8-10)
Groundwater Flotation of Manholes

Compared to pipe, manholes are less resistant to groundwater flotation because the manhole
riser eliminates the soil prism load that exists above buried pipe. Under some groundwater
conditions, the frictional resistance of the soil surrounding the manhole riser, and the soil prism
load over the manhole stub-outs may not be adequate to prevent flotation; so anti-flotation
anchors may be required.
Anti-flotation anchors are reinforced concrete slabs that are placed above the manhole stubouts. The anchors provide additional weight to counteract buoyant forces against the manhole
base.
Anti-flotation anchors are installed beside the manhole shaft above the manhole stub-outs.

page 117
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Figure 8-4 Anti-Flotation Anchor

Installation
Table 8-2 Anti-Flotation Anchor Weights

Size
Effective Weight
(based on 140 lb/ft3 concrete)
4 x 6
4 x 8
Dry
4200 lb
5600 lb
Submerged in seawater
2280 lb
3040 lb
Submerged in freshwater
2328 lb
3104 lb
To determine if anti-flotation anchors are required, the following condition must be checked:
UTB + UTR DFS + FR R
(8-11)
Where
UTB
UTR
DFS
FRR
=
=
=
=
upward thrust of base, lb

upward thrust of riser, lb
downward force of soil over stub-outs, lb
frictional resistance of soil surrounding riser, lb
When the downward force over the stub-outs, and the frictional resistance against the riser are
equal to or greater than the upward thrusts, anti-flotation anchors are not required.
Standard Manholes and Manhole Tees are constructed with two stub-outs of the same diameter
on opposite sides of the riser as shown in the tables. If the manhole is a custom design with
different stub-out sizes, or more than two stub-outs, contact Performance Pipe Technical
Services for assistance.
If the check using Formula 8-11 indicates that anti-flotation anchors are needed, the following
check completes the manhole flotation evaluation:
page 118
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UTBA + UTR DFA
(8-12)
Where
UTBA =
DFA =
upward thrust of anchored base, lb

downward force of anti-flotation anchors, lb
Tables 8-3 through 8-9 have been developed for use with Formulas 8-11 and 8-12. Safety
factors are included in table values and the default soil weight is 120 lb/ft3. Soil weight
multipliers in Table 8-5 may be used to convert table values for lighter or heavier soils.
Table 8-3 Upward Thrust of Base, UTB
Stub-out Nominal
Inside Diameter, in
Standard Manhole,
48 Diameter Riser, lb
Manhole Tee, 48
Diameter Riser, lb
Standard Manhole,
60 Diameter Riser, lb
Manhole Tee, 60
Diameter Riser, lb
18
1,475
1,793
21
1,839
2,194
24
2,240
2,630
27
2,678
3,099
30
3,153
3,601
33
3,668
4,142
36
4,279
4,777
42
5,494
6,026
48
7,303
7,441
54
8,986
8,997
60
10,910
11,505
66
13,053
13,539
72
15,406
15,829
78
17,951
18,329
84
20,739
21,082

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Table 8-4 Riser Upward Thrust per Vertical

Foot of Cover, UTB
% of Water to
Surface
48 Diameter
Riser, lb
60 Diameter
Riser, lb
10
85
132
20
170
30
40
Table 8-6 Soil Downward Force over Two

Anti-Flotation Anchors, DFA
264
Cover
Height
Over
Stubout, ft
Below
Water,
lb
Above
Water,
lb
Below
Water,
lb
Above
Water,
lb
256
396
2,304
4,800
3,072
6,400
341
528
4,608
9,600
6,144
12,800
50
426
660
6,912
14,400
9,216
19,200
60
511
793
9,216
19,200
12,288
25,600
70
597
925
11,520
24,000
15,360
32,000
80
682
1057
13,824
28,800
18,432
38,400
90
767
1189
16,128
33,600
21,504
44,800
100
852
1321
18,432
38,400
24,576
51,200
10
20,736
43,700
27,648
57,600
12
25,344
52,800
33,792
70,400
14
29,952
62,400
39,936
83,200
34,560
72,000
46,080
96,000
Table 8-5 Soil Weight Multipliers
4 x 6 Anchor
4 x 8 Anchor
Soil Weight, lb/ft
Multiplier
16
140
1.17
18
39,168
81,600
52,224
108,800
130
1.08
20
43,776
91,200
58,368
121,600
110
0.92
22
48,384
100,800
64,512
134,400
100
0.83
24
52,992
110,400
70,656
147,200
0.75
26
67,600
120,000
76,800
160,000
90
Safety factor - 1.2; soil weight 120 lb/ft

page 120
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Table 8-7 Soil Downward Force Per Vertical

Foot of Cover over Two stub-outs, DFS
48 Riser, lb/ft
60 Riser, lb/ft
Table 8-8 Upward Thrust of Anchored

Base, UTBA
Stub-out Inside
Diameter, in
48 Diameter
Riser, lb
60 Diameter
Riser, lb
18
1,996
2,314
489
21
2,532
2,887
271
564
24
3,130
3,519
307
639
27
3,789
4,209
952
343
714
30
4,509
4,957
505
1052
379
798
33
5,296
5,769
33
553
1153
415
865
36
6,235
6,733
36
607
1264
455
948
42
8,119
8,651
42
703
1464
527
1098
48
10,712
10,850
48
946
1970
600
1251
54
13,281
13,293
54
1142
2379
674
1404
60
16,194
16,788
60
1338
2788
977
2036
66
19,428
19,914
66
1534
3196
1174
2445
72
22,972
23,395
72
1730
3604
1369
2853
78
26,801
27,180
78
1925
4010
1564
3258
84
30,993
31,336
84
2122
4420
1761
3669
Stubout ID,
in
Below
Water
Above
Water
Below
water
Above
Water
18
313
652
235
21
361
752
24
409
852
27
457
30
Safety factor 1.2; soil weight 120 lb/ft

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Table 8-9 Frictional Resistance of soil Surrounding Riser for selected Cover Depths, FRS
Manhole with 48 Diameter Riser (for Manhole Tee, FRS = 0 lb)
Stubout ID,
in
5 Cover
10 Cover
15 Cover
20 Cover
25 Cover
Below
Water,
lb
Above
Water,
lb
Below
Water,
lb
Above
Water,
lb
Below
Water,
lb
Above
Water,
lb
Below
Water,
lb
Above
Water,
lb
Below
Water,
lb
Above
Water,
lb
18
421
878
1,685
3,510
3,791
7,898
6,740
14,042
10,531
21,940
21
397
828
1,590
3,312
3,577
7,452
6,359
13,248
9,936
20,700
24
373
777
1,491
3,107
3,355
6,990
5,965
12,426
9,320
19,416
27
347
723
1,388
2,892
3,124
6,508
5,554
11,570
8,677
18,078
30
320
667
1,280
2,667
2,881
6,001
5,121
10,669
8,002
16,670
33
291
606
1,164
2,456
2,620
5,457
4,657
9,702
7,277
15,159
36
256
534
1,025
2,135
2,306
4,804
4,100
8,541
6,406
13,345
42
180
375
721
1,502
1,622
3,379
2,883
6,007
4,505
9,386
Manhole with 60 Diameter Riser (for Manhole Tee, FRS = 0 lb)

Stubout ID,
in
5 Cover
10 Cover
15 Cover
20 Cover
25 Cover
Below
Water,
lb
Above
Water,
lb
Below
Water,
lb
Above
Water,
lb
Below
Water,
lb
Above
Water,
lb
Below
Water,
lb
Above
Water,
lb
Below
Water,
lb
Above
Water,
lb
18
561
1,169
2,245
4,678
5,052
10,525
8,981
18,711
14,034
29,237
21
538
1,122
2,154
4,487
4,845
10,095
8,614
17,946
13,460
28,041
24
515
1,073
2,060
4,291
4,635
9,656
8,239
17,166
12,874
26,821
27
491
1,023
1,964
4,092
4,419
9,206
7,865
16,366
12,275
25,572
30
466
971
1,865
3,886
4,197
8,743
7,461
15,544
11,658
24,287
33
441
918
1,763
3,672
3,966
8,262
7,050
14,688
11,016
22,951
36
411
857
1,645
3,426
3,700
7,709
6,579
13,705
10,279
21,414
42
354
737
1,415
2,948
3,184
6,633
5,660
11,792
8,844
18,424
48
286
596
1,145
2,385
2,576
5,367
4,580
9,541
7,156
14,908
54
201
418
803
1,672
1,806
3,762
3,210
6,688
5,016
10,451
safety factor 2.0; soil weight 120 lb/ft3
Go to Chapter 9
page 122
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9. Water Environment Design Considerations

Water environment applications include any installation in a predominantly water environment,
such as outfalls and intakes, river, lake, and stream crossings, floating and submerged
pipelines, and wetland and marsh area installations. Further, applications such as sliplining may
require design consideration for external hydrostatic loads if the water table rises above the
liner. Water environment design considerations include external hydraulic pressure,
submergence weighting, and flotation at or above the surface.
External Hydraulic Pressure

For the purposes of this discussion, unrestrained DRISCOPLEX OD controlled polyethylene
pipes are freestanding pipes that are not encapsulated in backfill or encased in grout. When
installed where continuous or occasional submergence may occur, such pipes may be caused
to collapse if the external hydraulic pressure exceeds the flattening resistance of the pipe.
Flattening resistance should be considered for applications such as pipes carrying gases, pipes
partially full of liquids, and any application where the internal pressure is less than the static
external hydraulic load.
Flattening resistance usually is not a consideration for outfall and intake lines where the end of
the pipe is open to the external water environment, or for water or wastewater lines crossing
under rivers, streams or lakes. Open ended lines will be pressure balanced, and the static head
in a full pipe crossing a water body will usually be the same or higher than the water height
above the pipeline.

Excessive external pressure will cause flattening. The maximum external load is determined not
by material strength, but by stiffness. The pipe will flatten if the bending moment due to the load
exceeds the resisting moment due to elastic stresses in the pipe. The critical external pressure
above which round pipe will flatten can be estimated with Loves Equation:
Pcr =
2E 1
1 2 DR 1
(9-1)
Where
PCR =
E =
=
DR
critical flattening pressure, lb/in2

Poissons ratio
(0.45 for polyethylene under long-term stress)
(0.35 for polyethylene under short-term stress)
pipe dimension ratio
Pipe Ovality Effects

Pipe deflection will reduce flattening resistance, and lower the critical flattening pressure. The
designer should apply an appropriate safety factor (2.0 or greater is typical).
P=
fO
Pcr
N
(9-2)
Where
Book 2: Chapter 9: Water Environment Design
page 123
Return to TOC
P
fO
N
=
=
=
flattening pressure, lb/in2

ovality compensation factor from Figure 9-1
safety factor
Figure 9-1 Ovality Compensation Factor for Unconstrained Buckling
Pipe deflection is determined by

D DM
% Deflection = 100
D
(9-3)
Where
D
DM
=
=
pipe average diameter, in

pipe minimum diameter, in
Values for external pressure resistance against flattening for selected sizes of Performance
Pipe OD controlled PE 3408 pipe at selected service temperatures are presented in Table 9-2.
The table values were developed using Table 5-1, Table 7-9, Figure 9-1 and a safety factor of
2.0.
Table 9-1 Selected Conversion Factors
Multiply
by
To Obtain
lb/in
2.307
ft H2O
lb/in
2.036
in Hg
lb/in
0.006895
MPa
lb/in
0.06895
bar
lb/in
0.7032
m H2O

page 124
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Table 9-2 Approximate External Pressure Resistance for OD Controlled Pipe, lb/in2
Values are for 3% oval pipe and include a 2.0 safety factor.
Service Temperature, F
40
60
73
100
120
Pipe DR
50 Years
10 Years
1 Year
1000 Hours
100 Hours
10 Hours
72.8
81.7
98.1
113.0
132.2
148.5
11
37.3
41.8
50.2
57.8
67.7
76.0
13.5
19.1
21.4
25.7
29.6
34.6
38.9
17
9.1
10.2
12.3
14.4
16.5
18.6
21
4.7
5.2
6.3
7.2
8.5
9.5
26
2.4
2.7
3.2
3.7
4.3
4.9
32.5
1.2
1.3
1.6
1.9
2.2
2.4
41
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.1
1.2
55.7
62.4
75.0
86.4
101.1
113.5
11
28.5
31.9
38.4
44.2
51.7
58.1
13.5
14.6
16.3
19.7
22.6
26.5
29.8
17
7.0
7.8
9.4
10.8
12.6
14.2
21
3.6
4.0
4.8
5.5
6.5
7.3
26
1.8
2.0
2.5
2.8
3.3
3.7
32.5
0.9
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.7
1.9
41
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
52.6
58.8
70.7
81.3
95.3
107.0
11
26.9
30.1
36.2
41.6
48.8
54.8
13.5
13.8
15.4
18.5
21.3
25.0
28.1
17
6.6
7.4
8.8
10.2
11.9
13.4
21
3.4
3.8
4.5
5.2
6.1
6.8
26
1.7
1.9
2.3
2.7
3.1
3.5
32.5
0.9
1.0
1.2
1.3
1.6
1.8
41
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
42.8
48.0
57.7
66.4
77.8
87.3
11
21.9
24.6
29.5
34.0
39.8
44.7
13.5
11.2
12.6
15.1
17.4
20.4
22.9
17
5.4
6.0
7.2
8.3
9.7
10.9
21
2.7
3.1
3.7
4.3
5.0
5.6
26
1.4
1.6
1.9
2.2
2.5
2.9
32.5
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.1
1.3
1.4
41
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.7
27.9
31.3
37.6
43.2
50.6
56.8
11
14.3
16.0
19.3
22.1
25.9
29.1
13.5
7.3
8.2
9.9
11.3
13.3
14.9
17
3.5
3.9
4.7
5.4
6.3
7.1
21
1.8
2.0
2.4
2.8
3.2
3.6
26
0.9
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.7
1.9
32.5
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
41
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.5

page 125
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Submergence Weighting
A body submerged in a liquid displaces liquid equal to its volume. If the body weighs more than
the weight of the liquid volume displaced, it will sink. If it weighs less, it will float.
DRISCOPLEX polyethylene materials are lighter than water and pipe will float slightly above
the surface when filled with water. Submerged pipe must be ballasted to keep it submerged.
Ballast weight design considers the fluids outside and inside the pipe, the liquid volume
displaced, the weight of that displaced liquid volume, the weights of the submerged bodies
(pipe, pipe contents, and ballast) and the environmental conditions.
Ballast Design for DRISCOPLEX OD Controlled Pipe

See Performance Pipe product literature for pipe dimensions and weights. The following is a
step-by-step procedure for determining ballast weight for DRISCOPLEX OD controlled pipe.
Step 1
Determine volume of liquid displaced and buoyancy for one foot of pipe:
VP =
D2
576
(9-4)
BP = VP K LO
(9-5)
Where
VP
D
BP
K
LO
=
=
=
=
=
displaced volume of pipe, ft3/ft

buoyancy of pipe, lb/ft
environmental multiplier (Table 9-2)
specific weight of the liquid outside the pipe, lb/ft3
The environmental multiplier, K, compensates for the effects of tidal flows and currents. Unless
neutral buoyancy is desired, K should be greater than 1.0.
Table 9-3 Environmental Multiplier, K
Underwater Environment
Neutral buoyancy
1.0
Lakes, ponds, slow moving streams or rivers, low

currents and tidal actions
1.3
Significant stream or rover currents or tidal flows
1.5
Table 9-4 presents specific weights for various liquids. For other liquids and slurries Formula 9-6
may be used to calculate a specific weight when the specific gravity of the liquid is known. For
this discussion, gasses (air, gas, carbon dioxide, etc.) in the pipe have a specific gravity of zero
relative to water.
L = 62.4 S L
(9-6)
Where
L
SL
=
=
specific weight of liquid

specific gravity of liquid

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Table 9-4 Specific Gravities and specific Weights of various liquids at 60F (15C)
Liquid
Specific Gravity,
SL
Specific Weight,
L
Gasoline
0.68
42.5
Kerosene
0.80
50.2
Crude Oil
0.86
53.1
Fresh water
1.00
62.4
Seawater
1.026
64.0
Brine, 6% NaCl
1.044
65.1
Brine, 12% NaCl
1.088
67.8
Brine, 18% NaCl
1.135
70.8
Brine, 24% NaCl
1.184
73.8
Brine, 6% CaCl2
1.050
65.52
Brine, 12% CaCl2
1.105
68.95
Brine, 18% CaCl2
1.162
72.51
Brine, 24% CaCl2
1.223
76.32
Brine, 30% CaCl2
1.287
80.35
Step 2
Determine negative buoyancy (pipe weight and pipe contents weight):
VB =
d2
576
(9-7)
BN = w P + (VB LI )
(9-8)
Where
VB
d
BN
wP
LI
=
=
=
=
=
pipe bore volume, ft3/ft

negative buoyancy, lb/ft
pipe weight, lb/ft
specific weight of the liquid inside the pipe, lb/ft3
Table 9-5 Pipe Weight Conversion Factors

Multiply
By
To Obtain
PE 3408 Pipe weight, lb/ft
0.986
PE 2406 yellow pipe weight, lb/ft
Step 3
Determine the weight of the submerged ballast:
W BS = BP BN
Where
WBS =
weight of submerged ballast, lb/ft

page 127
(9-9)
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Step 4
The designer must choose an appropriate ballast weight material (concrete, steel, etc.). For the
chosen ballast weight material, determine the dry land weight required. Ballast weights are
usually spaced every to 10-15 feet to avoid excessive pipe bending stresses during and after
installation.
W BD =
L W BS B
( B K LO )
(9-10)
Where
WBD =
L =
B =
weight of dry ballast, lb

ballast weight spacing, ft
specific weight of ballast material. lb/ft3
Weight Shapes
Submergence weights are frequently made of reinforced concrete, which allows considerable
flexibility of shape design. Weights are typically formed in two or more sections that clamp
around the pipe over an elastomeric padding material. There should be clearance between the
sections, so when clamped onto the pipe, the sections do not slide along the pipe. In general,
weights are flat bottom, and bottom heavy. This prevents rolling from crosscurrent conditions.
Fasteners securing the weight sections together must be resistant to the marine environment.
Figure 9-2 Concrete Weight
Go to Book 3: Chapter 1
page 128
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CPChem
PERFORMANCE PIPE
TM
a di
vision of Che
vr
y LP
division
Chevr
vron
Company

Engineering Manual
TM
Book 3: System Installation


Return to TOC
1. Handling and Storage

After the piping system has been designed and specified, the components for the piping system
must be obtained. Typically, project management and purchasing personnel work closely
together so that the necessary components are available when they are needed for the
upcoming construction work.
Few things are more frustrating and time consuming than not having what you need, when you
need it. Before piping system installation begins, an important initial step is a receiving
inspection of incoming products. Construction costs can be minimized, and schedules
maintained by checking incoming goods to be sure the parts received are the parts that were
ordered, and that they arrived in good condition and ready for installation.
Receiving Inspection
Performance Pipe ships pipe, fittings, and fabrications by commercial carriers who are
responsible for the products from the time they leave the manufacturing plant until the receiver
accepts them. Pipe is usually shipped on flatbed trailers. Fittings may be shipped in enclosed
vans, or on flatbed trailers depending upon size and packaging. Smaller fittings may be boxed,
and shipped by commercial parcel services.
Product Packaging
Depending on size, OD controlled pipe is produced in coils or in straight lengths. Coils are
stacked together into silo packs. Straight lengths are bundled together in bulk packs or loaded
on the trailer in strip loads. Standard straight lengths are 40 long. Straight lengths up to 60 long
may be produced. State transportation restrictions on length, height and width usually govern
allowable load configurations. Higher freight costs will apply to loads that exceed length, height,
or width restrictions. Although polyethylene pipe is lightweight, weight limitations may restrict
load size for very heavy wall or longer length pipe.
DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipe lengths are 20 (13 special order) and truckload
Figure 1-1 Typical Silo Pack Truckload (40' Trailer)
Book 3: Chapter 1: Handling & Storage

page 129
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shipments are usually on standard 40 flatbed trailers. Pipes are commonly packaged in bundles
or as strip loads. Pipes 96" ID and 120" ID will exceed 8 overall width, and are subject to wide
load restrictions.
Figures 1-1 through 1-3 are general illustrations of truckload and packaging configurations.
Actual truckloads and packaging may vary from the illustrations.
Small fittings are packaged in cartons that may be shipped by package carriers. Large orders
may be palletized and shipped in enclosed vans. Large fittings and custom fabrications may be
packed in large boxes on pallets, or secured to pallets. Occasionally, when coiled pipe silos and
boxed fittings are shipped together; fitting cartons are placed in the center of the silo packs.
Tanks, manholes, and large fittings and custom fabrications are usually loaded directly onto
flatbed trailers.
Product Identification
OD controlled pipe is identified along its length by a printline that repeats every two feet. The
printline states the manufacturer, product trade name, material, size and dimension ratio,
manufacturing standard, production lot code and manufacturing date.
DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipe is identified with embossed markings inside the bell and
the spigot ends of the pipe. The markings state the manufacturer and trade name, material, size
and RSC, ASTM standard, and production code. These markings are also hand lettered on the
end of the pipe.
Fittings are individually marked with labels presenting the description, material, manufacturing
standard, and production lot number. For boxed fittings, this information is also on the box label.
Larger fittings, custom fabrications, tanks, and manholes are individually labeled and hand
marked.
Figure 1-2 Typical Bulk Pack Truckload (40' Trailer)

page 130
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Figure 1-3 Typical Strip Load Truckload (40' Trailer)
Checking the Order

When a shipment is received, it should be checked to see that the correct products and
quantities have been delivered. Several documents are used here. The Order Acknowledgment
lists each item by its description, and the required quantity. The incoming load will be described
in a Packing List that is attached to the load. The descriptions and quantities on the Packing List
should match those on the Order Acknowledgment.
The carrier will present a Bill of Lading that generally describes the load as the number of
packages the carrier received from the manufacturing plant. The Order Acknowledgment,
Packing List, and Bill of Lading should all be in agreement. Any discrepancies must be
reconciled among the shipper, the carrier, and the receiver. The receiver should have a
procedure for reconciling any such discrepancies.
Load Inspection
There is no substitute for visually inspecting an incoming shipment to verify that the paperwork
accurately describes the load. As presented above, Performance Pipe products are identified by
markings on each individual product. These markings should be checked against the Order
Acknowledgment and the Packing List. The number of packages and their descriptions should
be checked against the Bill of Lading.
This is the time to inspect for damage that may occur anytime products are handled. Obvious
damage such as cuts, abrasions, scrapes, gouges, tears and punctures should be carefully
inspected.
When pipe installation involves saddle fusion joining, diesel smoke on the pipes outside surface
may be a concern because it may reduce the quality of saddle fusion joints. Covering at least
the first third of the load with tarpaulins effectively prevents smoke damage. If smoke tarps are
required, they should be in place covering the load when it arrives.

page 131
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Receiving Report & Reporting Damage

The delivering truck driver will ask the person receiving the shipment to sign the Bill of Lading,
and acknowledge that the load was received in good condition. Any damage, missing
packages, etc., should be noted on the bill of lading at that time.
Shipping problems such as damage, missing packages, document discrepancies, incorrect
product, etc., should be reported to Performance Pipe Customer Service immediately. Shipping
claims must be filed within 7 days.
Unloading Instructions
Unloading and handling must be performed safely. Unsafe handling can result in
damage to property or equipment, and can be hazardous to persons in the area. Keep
unnecessary persons away from the area while unloading.
Observe unloading and handling instructions that are supplied with the load and
available from the driver.
Before unloading the shipment, there must be adequate, level space to unload the
shipment. The truck should be on level ground with the parking brake set and the wheels
chocked. Unloading equipment must be capable of safely lifting and moving pipe,
fittings, fabrications or other components.
Unloading Site Requirements

The unloading site must be relatively flat and level. It must be large enough for the carriers
truck, the load handling equipment and its movement, and for temporary load storage. Silo
packs and other palletized packages should be unloaded from the side with a forklift. Nonpalletized pipe, fittings, fabrications, manholes, tanks, or other components should be unloaded
from above with lifting equipment and wide web slings, or from the side with a forklift.
Handling Equipment
Appropriate unloading and handling equipment of adequate capacity must be used to
unload the truck, and safe handling and operating procedures must be followed.
Pipe must not be rolled or pushed off the truck. Pipe, fittings, fabrications, tanks,
manholes, and other components must not be pushed or dumped off the truck, or
dropped.
Although polyethylene piping components are lightweight compared to similar components
made of metal, concrete, clay, or other materials, larger components can be heavy. Lifting and
handling equipment must have adequate rated capacity to lift and move components from the
truck to temporary storage. Equipment such as a forklift, a crane, a side boom tractor, or an
extension boom crane is used for unloading.

page 132
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When using a forklift, or forklift attachments on equipment such as articulated loaders or bucket
loaders, lifting capacity must be adequate at the load center on the forks. Forklift equipment is
rated for a maximum lifting capacity at a distance from the back of the forks. (See Figure 1-4.) If
the weight-center of the load is farther out on the forks, lifting capacity is reduced.
Before lifting or transporting the load, forks should be spread as wide apart as practical, forks
should extend completely under the load, and the load should be as far back on the forks as
possible.
During transport, a load on forks that are too short or too close together, or a load too far
out on the forks, may become unstable and pitch forward or to the side, and result in
damage to the load or property, or hazards to persons.
Lifting equipment such as cranes, extension boom cranes, and side boom tractors, should be
hooked to wide web choker slings that are secured around the load or to lifting lugs on the
component. Only wide web slings should be used. Wire rope slings and chains can damage
components, and should not be used. Spreader bars should be used when lifting pipe or
components longer than 20.
Before use, inspect slings and lifting equipment. Equipment with wear or damage that
impairs function or load capacity should not be used.
Manholes and Tanks

Smaller diameter DRISCOPLEX 2000 manholes and tanks should be unloaded using a wide
web choker sling and lifting equipment such as an extension boom crane, crane, or lifting boom.
The choker sling is fitted around the manhole riser or near the top of the tank. Do not use stub
outs, outlets, or fittings as lifting points and avoid placing slings where they will bear against
outlets or fittings.
Larger diameter manholes and tanks are fitted with lifting lugs. All lifting lugs must be used.
The weight of the manhole or tank is properly supported only when all lugs are used for
lifting. Do not lift tanks containing liquids.
Pre-Installation Storage
The size and complexity of the project and the components, will determine pre-installation
storage requirements. For some projects, several storage or staging sites along the right-of-way
may be appropriate, while a single storage location may be suitable for another job.
The site and its layout should provide protection against physical damage to components.
General requirements are for sufficient size to accommodate piping components, to allow room
for handling equipment to get around them, and to have a relatively smooth, level surface free of
stones, debris, or other material that could damage pipe or components, or interfere with
Figure 1-4 Forklift Load Capacity

page 133
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Figure 1-5 Loose Pipe Storage
handling. Pipe may be placed on 4-inch wide wooden dunnage, evenly spaced at intervals of 4
feet or less.
Pipe Stacking Heights

Coiled pipe is best stored as received in silo packs. Individual coils may be removed from the
silo pack without disturbing the stability of the package.
Pipe received in bulk packs or strip load packs should be stored in the same package. If the
storage site is flat and level, bulk packs or strip load packs may be stacked evenly upon each
other to an overall height of about 6. For less flat or less level terrain, limit stacking height to
about 4.
Before removing individual pipe lengths from bulk packs or strip load packs, the pack
must be removed from the storage stack and placed on the ground.
Individual pipes may be stacked in rows. Pipes should be laid straight, not crossing over or
entangled with each other. The base row must be blocked to prevent sideways movement
or shifting. (See Figure 1-5; Table 1-1 and Table 1-2.)
The interior of stored pipe should be kept free of debris and other foreign matter.

page 134
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Table 1-1 Suggested Jobsite Loose Storage

Stacking Height for OD Controlled Pipe
Nominal Size
Stacking Height, rows

DR Above 17
DR 17 & Below
15
12
12
10
10
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
36
42
48
54
Table 1-2 Suggested Jobsite Loose Storage

Stacking Heights for DRISCOPLEX 2000
SPIROLITE Pipe
DRISCOPLEX 2000
SPIROLITE Pipe Size
Suggested Stacking
Height, rows
18
21
24
27
30
33
36
42
48
54
60
66
72
84
96
120
Suggested stacking heights based on 6 for level

terrain and 4 for less level terrain.
Suggested stacking heights based on 6 for level

terrain and 4 for less level terrain.
Exposure to UV and Weather

Performance Pipe polyethylene pipe products are protected against deterioration from exposure
to ultraviolet light and weathering effects.
Both color and black products are compounded with antioxidants, thermal stabilizers, and UV
stabilizers. Color products use sacrificial UV stabilizers that absorb UV energy, and will
eventually be depleted. In general, non-black products should not remain in unprotected outdoor
storage for more than 1 years.
Some products such as yellow gas pipe have special UV protection systems that allow
unprotected outdoor storage for about 4 years.
Black products contain 2% to 3% carbon black to protect the material from UV deterioration.
Black products with and without stripes are generally suitable for unprotected outdoor storage
and service.
Cold Weather Handling

Temperatures near or below freezing will affect polyethylene pipe by increasing stiffness,
vulnerability to impact damage and sensitivity to suddenly applied stress especially when
cutting. Polyethylene pipe will be more difficult to uncoil or field bend in cold weather.
page 135
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Significant impact or shock loads against a polyethylene pipe that is at freezing or lower
temperatures can fracture the pipe.
Do not drop pipe. Do not allow pipe to fall off the truck or into the trench.
Do not strike the pipe with handling equipment, tools or other objects.
Do not drag pipe lengths at speeds where bouncing against the surface may cause
impact damage.
Pipe should be firmly supported on both sides when cutting with a handsaw. Low temperature
can cause the pipe to split at the cut if bending stress is applied.
Ice, snow, and rain are not harmful to the material, but may make storage areas more
troublesome for handling equipment and personnel. Unsure footing and traction require greater
care and caution to prevent damage or injury.
Performance Pipe cautions against walking on pipe at any time. In particular, inclement
weather can make pipe surfaces especially slippery. Do not walk on pipe when footing is
unsure.
Go to Chapter 2
page 136
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2. Joining & Connections

For satisfactory material and product performance, system designs and installation methods rely
on appropriate, properly made connections. An inadequate or improperly made field joint may
cause installation delays, may disable or impair system operations, or may create hazardous
conditions.
Performance Pipe Polyethylene Piping Products are connected using heat fusion, electrofusion,
thermal welding, and mechanical methods such as gasketed bell-and-spigot joints, flanges, and
compression couplings. Joining and connection methods will vary depending upon requirements
for internal or external pressure, leak tightness, restraint against longitudinal movement (thrust
load capacity), gasketing requirements, construction and installation requirements, and the
product.
WARNING Connection design limitations and manufacturers joining procedures must
be observed. Otherwise, the connection or products adjacent to the connection may leak
or fail which may result in property damage, or hazards to persons.
Correctly made fusion joints do not leak. Leakage at a joint or connection may
immediately precede catastrophic failure. Never approach or attempt to repair or stop
leaks while piping is pressurized. Always depressurize piping before making repairs.
Performance Pipe recommends using the tools and components required to construct
and install joints in accordance with manufacturers recommendations. However, field
connections are controlled by, and are the responsibility of the field installer.
General Procedures
All field connection methods and procedures require that the component ends to be connected
must be clean, dry, and free of detrimental surface defects before the connection is made.
Contamination and unsuitable surface conditions usually produce an unsatisfactory connection.
Gasketed joints require appropriate lubrication.
Cleaning
Before joining, and before any special surface preparation, surfaces must be clean and dry.
General dust and light soil may be removed by wiping the surfaces with clean, dry, lint free
cloths. Heavier soil may be washed or scrubbed off with soap and water solutions, followed by
thorough rinsing with clear water, and drying with dry, clean, lint-free cloths.
Before using chemical cleaning solvents, the user should know the potential risks and
hazards to persons, and appropriate safety precautions must be taken. Chemical
solvents may be hazardous substances that may require special handling and personal
protective equipment.
The manufacturers instructions for use, and the material safety data sheet (MSDS) for the
chemical should be consulted for information on risks to persons and for safe handling and use
procedures. Some solvents may leave a residue on the pipe. Information on chemical
compatibility with polyethylene may be found in the Performance Pipe Engineering Manual,
Book 1 Engineering Properties or in other sources.
Cutting DRISCOPLEX OD controlled Pipe

Joining methods for plain end pipe require square-cut ends. Pipe cutting is accomplished with
guillotine shears, run-around cutters and saws. Before cutting, provide firm support on both
Book 3: Chapter 2: Joining & Connections
page 137
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sides.
Guillotine shears are commonly available for 2" and smaller pipe and tubing, and may
incorporate a ratcheting mechanism to drive the blade through the pipe. Run-around pipe
cutters are equipped with deep, narrow cutter wheels, and because of wall thickness, are
usually limited to about 4" pipe. Care should be taken to avoid cutting a spiral groove around the
pipe. Guillotine and run-around cutters provide a clean cut without chips.
For larger diameters, handsaws and chain saws are used. Coarse tooth handsaws provide
greater chip clearance between the teeth, and maintain a clean blade when cutting. Chain saws
are usually operated without chain lubrication because chain oil contamination will need to be
removed from the pipe. Therefore, chain and bar life is reduced, but polyethylene is relatively
soft and non-abrasive, so saw chains stay sharp longer. Some installers may dedicate a drychain, chain saw for polyethylene pipe cutting. Bucking spikes should be removed.
Saws will produce chips that must be removed from the pipe bore and cleared from the jobsite.
Pipe ends may require deburring.
Cutting DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE Pipe

DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipe is usually joined using a gasketed bell-and-spigot
system. Pipe is manufactured with a formed bell and a machined spigot as an integral part of
each length. Therefore, cutting DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE profile wall pipe to length
in the field is not recommended. When a non-standard field length is required,
DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE Closure Pipe is used with a closure bell and a special gasket
to make the final connection.
DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE Closure Pipe has a smooth OD and ID, and may be field cut
to length using a handsaw or chain saw. Take care to provide a smooth, square cut end.
The DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE Closure Pipe System is incorporated into standard
DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE Manholes and Manhole Tees. It is also available for straight
piping runs without manholes.
Cutting Branch Outlet Holes

With the exception of self-tapping saddle tees, hole cutting will be required for field installed side
outlet fittings. Commercial hole saws for metals are generally unsatisfactory for polyethylene
because they do not provide adequate chip clearance, and may not be deep enough for the wall
thickness. Polyethylene pipe hole saws are deep shell cutters with very few teeth, large chip
clearance, and inside relief to retain the coupon. Polyethylene pipe joining equipment
manufacturers should be contacted for additional information on hole saws.
When cutting, hole saws should be withdrawn frequently to clear the chips. Powered hole saws
should be operated at relatively low speeds to avoid overheating and melting the material.
Fully Restrained Connections

Heat Fusion Joining
Please see Performance Pipe Bulletin PP-750 Fusion Joining Procedures.
Performance Pipe Fusion Joining Procedures should be reviewed before making heat
fusion joints, and should be observed when making heat fusion joints with
DRISCOPLEX OD controlled polyethylene piping products. ASTM D 2657, Standard
Practice for Heat-Joining Polyolefin Pipe and Fittings, and ASTM F 905, Standard Practice for
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Qualification of Saddle Fusion Joints provide general information on heat fusion joining.
Heat fusion joining is a process where mating surfaces are prepared for joining, heated until
molten, joined together and cooled under pressure. All fusion procedures require appropriate
surface preparation tools, alignment tools, and temperature controlled heating irons with
properly shaped, non-stick heater faces. An open flame cannot be used for heating because it
oxidizes the surface and prevents bonding. During joining, all heat fusion procedures require the
mating components to be moved several inches apart to accommodate surface preparation and
surface heating tools.
Socket fusion joins a male pipe or fitting end into a female socket fitting. Saddle fusion joins a
curved base, branch outlet to the side of a pipe. Butt fusion joins plain end pipe or fittings end
to end. Heat fusion joining procedures do not add material to the joint; that is, no welding rods,
adhesives, or cements are used.
Heat fusion joints made between appropriate products using appropriate equipment and
recommended procedures are fully restrained, permanent joints. That is, the joints may be
expected to last the life of the system, and to withstand thrust loads equal to the strength of the
pipe without adding external restraint or thrust blocking.
In some circumstances, polyethylene pipe or fittings may be exposed to internal or external
chemicals such as hydrocarbons, which may permeate polyethylene. Liquid hydrocarbon
permeated polyethylene pipes should not be joined using heat fusion. Permeating
chemicals may vaporize during heating, contaminate the bonding area and cause a low quality
bond.
Heat fusion tools should be inspected before use, and if found to be defective, the tools should
be repaired or replaced before making joints. Once made, heat fusion joints should be
inspected, and if found to be faulty, the unsatisfactory joint should be removed from the system.
Faulty socket or butt fusions must be cut out and re-done. Faulty saddle fusions may be
cut out, or the saddle fitting may be cut off above the base to prevent use. Faulty heat
fusion joints cannot be repaired, and socket and saddle fusion fittings cannot be re-used.
Butt fittings outlets are usually long enough to allow a second fusion if the first fusion is carefully
cut out.
Socket Fusion
Socket fusion is used with 1/2" through 4" DRISCOPLEX OD controlled Pipe and Fittings.
Socket fusion fittings are manufactured to ASTM D 2683, Socket-Type Polyethylene Fittings for
Outside Diameter-Controlled Polyethylene Pipe and Tubing. Pipe and tubing must be
manufactured to OD controlled pipe or tubing specifications. Socket fusion heater faces are
manufactured to ASTM F 1056, Standard Specification for Socket Fusion Tools for Use in
Socket Fusion Joining Polyethylene Pipe or Tubing and Fittings.
Field socket fusion tools are hand-held, and for 3" and 4" sizes, two persons are usually needed
to make joints.
Saddle Fusion
When used as a field procedure, saddle fusion branch outlets are usually 8" IPS and smaller,
and are applied to pipe sizes 12" IPS and smaller. Larger outlets and pipe sizes are available as
factory-made fabricated fittings.
Table 3-1, below, is a general reference to the size limitations of field saddle fusion. Please refer
to Performance Pipe product literature for size and availability of saddle fusion fittings. Some
industries and applications are better equipped for saddle fusion than others. For example, gas
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distribution systems commonly use smaller size saddle fusion fittings for branch connections, so
installers of gas distribution systems are frequently well equipped and proficient in the
procedure. However, municipal and industrial systems frequently use much larger pipes and
branches for which saddle fusion equipment is not as readily available, so saddle fusion joining
is uncommon for municipal and industrial systems.
Table 2-1 Field Saddle Fusion Size
Guidelines
Table 2-2 Approximate Butt Fusion Joining

Rates
Pipe Size, IPS
Approximate Number
of Fusions per Day
11
10
15-40
11
10 18
10-24
13.5
18 24
6 16
13.5
24 36
5 15
13.5
36 48
4 10
12
17
54
3-6
Main Pipe
Outlet Size,
IPS
Size, IPS
DR
1-1/4
1-1/4
Butt Fusion
All standard sizes of DRISCOPLEX OD controlled Pipe, Tubing, and Butt Fusion Fittings may
be field joined by butt fusion. Molded butt fusion fittings are manufactured to ASTM D 3261,
Specification for Butt Heat Fusion Polyethylene (PE) Plastic Fittings for Polyethylene (PE)
Plastic Pipe and Tubing.
Butt fusion equipment ranges in size from hand held units for 1" and smaller pipe and tubing, to
manual units for up to 8" pipe, to hydraulically assisted, semi-automatic machines for pipes up
to 54". Butt fusion equipment can be fitted with collets (inserts), and will accommodate a range
of pipe sizes.
For estimating purposes, an approximate number of field joints for a typical construction day is
presented in Table 2-2. Actual joining rates may be different depending upon pipe size and wall
thickness, jobsite conditions, product staging, equipment condition, crew size and experience,
and handling equipment. Table 2-2 rates do not include fusion machine set-up time, and do not
apply to tie-in joints, or to butt fusion in the trench. Heavier wall (lower DR) pipes take longer.
It is frequently easier and faster to bring lightweight polyethylene pipe lengths to the machine,
rather than moving the machine to the pipe. Electric heating irons, especially large ones, take
some time to heat up, so each time the machine is relocated, the heater must be brought back
up to temperature before joining and the machine must be set-up for fusion.
For fusion in the trench, set-up may involve the removal of the fusion clamp assembly from the
cart, and additional excavation to clear open clamps, facing and heating tools, and to allow
machine removal. In the trench, it is recommended to remove the machine from the pipe, rather
than lift the pipe out of the machine. This involves rotating the machine around the pipe, then
lifting it off or dropping the machine down below the pipe, and moving it to the side to clear the
pipe. Additional excavation for machine removal clearance may be required.
Set-up time is minimized when pipe lengths are fed through the machine and joined into long
strings. Common construction practice is to set up a fusing station to join lengths into long
strings. The strings are then positioned along the pipe run and joined together by moving the
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fusion machine from string to string. At the fusing station, pipe lengths are stockpiled near the
fusion machine. The first two lengths are joined; then pulled through the machine so that a third
length can be joined to the second, and so forth. Typical strings are 500 to 1500 or longer.
Joining strings is also called tie-in joining.
Caution Dragging pipe strings along the ground at speeds above a walking pace can damage
the pipe, especially in cold weather.
Many Performance Pipe Distributors provide fusion joining services, and rent heat fusion
equipment. In some cases, larger equipment is rented only with fusion services, and there may
be additional charges for equipment transportation, technician travel, lodging, or meals.
Performance Pipe Distributors may be consulted about equipment rental and fusion joining
services. Performance Pipe does not rent fusion equipment or provide contract field fusion
joining services.
Bead Removal
Butt fusion produces a double-roll melt bead on the inside and the outside of the pipe. Although
it is seldom necessary, internal or external beads may be removed. The bead is removed
down to, or just above the pipes surface, never below it. The joint must be completely
cooled to ambient temperature before bead removal. Polyethylene shrinks as it cools from
the molten state. Removing the bead before complete cooling will result in a notch at the fusion
that will increase the potential for failure at the fusion joint.
External beads are removed with run-around planing tools, which are forced into the bead; then
drawn around the pipe. Power planers may also be used, but care must be taken not to cut into
the pipes outside surface.
It is uncommon to remove internal beads, as they have little or no effect on flow and removal is
time consuming. Internal beads may be removed from pipe strings with self-driven, remote
controlled cutters, or length by length during assembly. In the latter case, the internal bead is
removed before making the next butt fusion with a cutter fitted to a long pole. Since the fusion
must be completely cooled before bead removal, string assembly time is increased.
Electrofusion
Electrofusion is a heat fusion process where a coupling or saddle fitting contains an integral
heating source. After surface preparation, the fitting is installed on the pipe and the heating
source is energized. During heating, the fitting and pipe materials melt, expand and fuse
together. Heating and cooling cycles are automatically controlled.
Electrofusion is the only heat fusion procedure that does not require longitudinal movement of
one of the joint surfaces. It is frequently used where both pipes are constrained, such as for
repairs or tie-in joints in the trench. Joints made between dissimilar polyethylene brands or
grades are also made using electrofusion, as the procedure readily accommodates
polyethylenes with different melt flow rates.
Flange Connection
Flanged joints are made using a DRISCOPLEX Flange Adapter that is butt fused to pipe. A
back-up ring is fitted behind the flange adapter sealing surface flange and bolted to the mating
flange. DRISCOPLEX Flange Adapters have a serrated sealing surface. At lower pressure,
typically 80 psi or less, a gasket is usually not required. At greater pressure, the serrations help
hold the gasket in place. See Figure 2-1.
Standard back-up rings are Class 125 for 160 psi and lower pressure ratings, or Class 150 for
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higher pressures. Back-up ring materials are ductile iron, steel, primer-coated steel; epoxy
coated steel, or stainless steel. Fiberglass is also available. In below ground service, coatings
and cathodic protection may be needed to protect metal back-up rings from corrosion. One
edge of the back-up ring bore must be radiused or chamfered. This edge fits against the back of
the sealing surface flange.
Figure 2-1 Flange Adapter and Back-Up
Ring
Figure 2-2 Flange Adapter and Back-Up

Ring
An all-polyethylene flange without a back-up ring is not recommended because polyethylene

flanges require uniform pressure over the entire sealing surface. Without a back-up ring, a
polyethylene flange will leak between the bolts.
Flange adapters differ from stub-ends by their overall length. See Figure 2-1. A flange adapter
is longer allowing it to be clamped in a fusion machine like a pipe end. The back-up ring is fitted
to the flange adapter before fusion, so external fusion bead removal is not required.
A stub-end is short, and requires a special stub-end holder for butt fusion. Once butt fused to
the pipe, the external bead must be removed so the back-up ring can be fitted behind the
sealing surface flange. In the field, flange adapters are usually preferred over stub-ends.
Flange Gasketing
A flange gasket may not be necessary between polyethylene flanges. At lower pressures
(typically 80 psi or less) the serrated flange-sealing surface may be adequate. Gaskets may be
needed for higher pressures or for connections between polyethylene and non-polyethylene
flanges. If used, gasket materials should be chemically and thermally compatible with the
internal fluid and the external environment, and should be of appropriate hardness, thickness,
and style. Elevated temperature applications may require higher temperature capability. Gasket
materials are not limited to those shown in Table 2-4. Other materials may also be suitable.
Gasket thickness should be about 1/8"-3/16" (3-5 mm), and about 55-75 durometer Shore D
hardness. Too soft or too thick gaskets may blow out under pressure. Overly hard gaskets may
not seal.

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Figure 2-3 Flange Gasket Styles
Table 2-4 Typical Gasket Materials

Gasket Material
Suitable Chemicals
Brown Rubber (cloth

reinforced)
Water (hot or cold)
Neoprene
Oils
Red Rubber (cloth or

wire reinforced)
Air, gas water, ammonia

(weak solutions)
Cork Fiber
Oils (cold)
Common gasket styles are full-face or drop-in. Full-face style gaskets are usually applied to
larger sizes, because flange bolts will hold a flexible gasket in place while fitting the components
together. Drop-in style gaskets are usually applied to smaller pipe sizes. See Figure 2-3.)
Flange Bolting
Mating flanges are usually joined together with
hex head bolts and hex nuts, or threaded studs
and hex nuts. Bolting materials should have
tensile strength equivalent to at least SAE
Grade 3 for pressure pipe service, and
equivalent to at least SAE Grade 2 for nonpressure service. Corrosion resistant materials
should be considered for underground,
underwater or other corrosive environments.
Flange bolts are sized 1/8" smaller than the
bolthole diameter. Flat washers should be used
between the nut and the back-up ring.
Figure 2-4 Bolt Length parameters
Flange bolts must span the entire width of the

flange joint, and provide sufficient thread length
to fully engage the nut. (See Figure 3-4, above.)
Dimensions
for
DRISCOPLEX
Flange
Adapters, Stub-Ends, and Back-Up Rings are
page 143
Table 2-3 Flange Dimensions (Inch

Sized)
IPS
Pipe
Size
Flange
OD
Bolt
Circle
Diameter
Bolt Hole
Diameter
No. of
Bolts
1-1/2
5.00
3.75
0.50
6.00
4.75
0.75
7.50
6.00
0.75
9.00
7.50
0.75
11.00
9.50
0.88
13.50
11.75
0.88
10
16.00
14.25
1.00
12
12
19.00
17.00
1.00
12
14
21.00
18.75
1.12
12
16
23.50
21.25
1.12
16
18
25.00
22.75
1.25
16
20
27.50
25.00
1.25
20
22
29.50
27.25
1.38
20
24
32.00
29.50
1.38
20
26
34.25
31.75
1.38
24
28
36.50
34.00
1.38
28
30
38.75
36.00
1.38
28
32
41.75
38.50
1.63
28
34
43.75
40.50
1.63
32
36
46.00
42.75
1.63
32
42
53.00
49.50
1.63
36
48
58.50
56.00
1.63
44
54
66.25
62.75
2.00
44
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found in Performance Pipe product literature. The minimum bolt length required for joining two
DRISCOPLEX Flange Adapters (Stub-Ends) may be determined using the following:
LB = 2 (T b + Tf ) + Tg + d B
(2-1)
Where
LB
Tb
Tf
Tg
db
=
=
=
=
=
minimum bolt length, in

back-up ring thickness, in
flange adapter flange thickness, in
gasket thickness, in
bolt diameter, in
The LB term provides for a standard flat washer under the nut and full thread engagement into a
standard nut. Bolt length should be rounded up to the nearest standard bolt length. Rounding
down may result in bolts shorter than the required minimum length. A gasket may or may not be
present so gasket thickness should be included only when a gasket is used.
If threaded studs are used, then nuts and washers are installed on both sides. For two
DRISCOPLEX Flange Adapters (Stub-Ends), stud length is determined by:
LS = 2 (Tb + Tf + d B ) + Tg
(2-2)
Where terms are as above and

LS
minimum stud length, in
As with bolts, stud length should be rounded up to the nearest standard length.
Flange Installation
Mating flanges must be aligned together before tightening. Tightening misaligned
flanges can cause leakage or flange failure.
Surface and above grade flanges must be properly supported to avoid bending stresses. See
Chapters 5 and 6 in the Performance Pipe Engineering Manual, Book 2 System Design for
support design recommendations.
Below grade flange connections to heavy appurtenances such as valves or hydrants or to metal
pipes require a support foundation of compacted, stable granular soil (crushed stone) or
compacted cement stabilized granular backfill or reinforced concrete as illustrated in Figure 2-5.
Figure 2-5 Buried Appurtenance Flange Foundation
Flange connections adjacent to pipes passing through structural walls must be structurally
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supported to avoid shear and bending loads as illustrated in Figure 2-6.

Figure 2-6 Flange Support at Wall
See Performance Pipe Technical Note PP-811-TN PE Flange Connections for recommended
assembly procedure for DRISCOPLEX Flange Adapters.
Retightening is recommended about an hour or so after tightening to the final torque
value the first time because polyethylene and the gasket (if used) will undergo some
compression set. In pattern sequence, retighten each flange bolt nut to the final torque value.
For high pressure or environmentally sensitive or critical pipelines, a third tightening,
about 4 hours after the second, is recommended.
Special Cases
When flanging to brittle materials such as cast iron, accurate alignment and careful tightening
are necessary. Polyethylene flange adapters and stub ends are not full-face, so tightening
places a bending stress across the flange face. Over-tightening, misalignment, or uneven
tightening can break brittle material flanges.
When joining a polyethylene flange adapter or stub-end to a flanged butterfly valve, the inside
diameter of the pipe flange should be checked for valve disk rotation clearance. The open valve
disk may extend into the pipe flange. Valve operation may be restricted if the pipe flange
interferes with the disk. If disk rotation clearance is a problem, a tubular spacer may be installed
between the mating flanges, or the pipe flange bore may be chamfered slightly. Chamfering
must not increase the flange inside diameter at the sealing surface by more than 10%, nor
extend into the flange more than 20% of the flange thickness, Tf (Figure 2-4). Increase the
length of the flange bolt or stud, LB or LS (Formulas 2-1 and 2-2), by the length of the spacer.
Butterfly valves must be centered in the flange for proper operation. Installing a butterfly valve
with the disk rotated open may assist with alignment. After fitting up and tightening flange bolts
to the 5 ft-lbs initial torque value, operate the valve to insure that the valve disk can rotate
without interference. Realign if necessary, then tightened up.
Thrust Restrained Mechanical Joints

Mechanical joints to polyethylene pipe are fully restrained against thrust load only if pressure
and tensile tests cause the pipe to yield before the pipe disjoins from the mechanical joint.
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Mechanical joints that provide full thrust restraint are designed to mechanically compress the
pipe wall between an OD compression sleeve and a rigid tube or stiffener in the pipe ID. See
Figure 2-9.
Insert fittings are pushed into the mating pipe bores and use individual compression sleeves on
the pipe ODs. Compression couplings fit over the pipe ends, and use individual insert stiffeners
in the pipe bores.
Insert fittings are commercially available for DRISCOPLEX OD controlled pipe through 2" IPS.
Larger sizes may be available on special order. Compression couplings are commercially
available for DRISCOPLEX OD controlled pipe through 12" IPS. Larger sizes may be
available on special order. For larger sizes, insert stiffeners are either custom manufactured for
the actual pipe ID measurement or adjustable. Adjustable stiffeners usually feature a tapered
wedge or a mechanical design that allows a reduced-diameter sleeve to be expanded and
locked into the actual pipe ID. See Figure 2-8.
ID Stiffeners for OD Controlled Pipe
OD controlled pipe is manufactured to specifications for the OD and the wall thickness, not the
inside diameter. Therefore, the pipe ID is subject to both OD and wall thickness tolerances.
Depending upon the piping standard, the actual ID dimension can vary significantly. Fixed
metal stiffeners that are made to the pipe OD less twice the minimum wall thickness will not fit.
Adjustable stiffeners or stiffeners made to fit measurements taken from the actual pipe are
recommended.
DRISCOPLEX MJ Adapters
DRISCOPLEX MJ Adapters are
manufactured in standard IPS and
DIPS sizes for connecting IPSsized or DIPS-sized polyethylene
pipe to mechanical joint pipe,
fittings and appurtenances that
meet AWWA C111/ANSI A21.11.
DRISCOPLEX MJ Adapters seal
against leakage and restrain
against pullout.
No additional
external clamps or tie rod devices
are required.
Figure 2-7 DRISCOPLEX MJ Adapter
DRISCOPLEX MJ Adapters are

provided as a complete kit
including the MJ adapter with a
stainless steel stiffener, extended
gland bolts and nuts, gland and
gasket.
See Performance Pipe Technical Note PP-812-TN DRISCOPLEX MJ Adapter Connections
for assembly and installation recommendations.
Partially Restrained Joints

A partially restrained joint is one that will withstand significant thrust load, but not a load that is
sufficient to cause yielding of the pipe. Partially restrained couplings typically are a split housing
that clamps around the pipe end, but there is no insert stiffener in the pipe bore. The housing
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clamp surface will usually have sharp edged grooves to grip the pipe. A gasket provides a leak
seal between the pipe ends. See Figure 2-10.
When joining plain end polyethylene pipe to bell-and-spigot or mechanical-joint type
fittings or pipe, an external joint restraint must be used to provide restraint against thrust
loads and an internal stiffener must be installed in the polyethylene pipe end. Typically,
external joint restraints employ individual external clamps that fit behind the bell and around the
pipe and tie rods between the clamps. The stiffener should extend under the external clamp.
When DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipe bell and spigot joints are sealed with extrusion
welding, the resulting joint is partially restrained.
Only trained welding technicians should perform extrusion welding. Extrusion welding may be
performed in the pipe ID by welding the spigot end to the mating pipe, or on the OD by welding
the bell end to the mating pipe, or both. Internal extrusion welding is limited to 27" ID and larger
DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipe.
Figure 2-8 Insert Coupling
Figure 2-9 Mechanical Coupling with Insert

Stiffeners
Unrestrained Joints
Joints that provide leak tightness but are not designed to resist thrust loads are unrestrained.
For OD controlled pipe and DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE Pipe, unrestrained joints are
applicable only to non-pressure or gravity flow service. Unrestrained joining methods should
not be used with pressure piping.
Typical unrestrained connectors are bell-and-spigot joints (including mechanical joint type),
elastomeric connectors with screw clamps, and full encirclement repair clamp with full length,
full encirclement gaskets. Elastomeric connectors are frequently used to connect sanitary sewer
service lines to lateral outlets on the main. Repair clamps are used to join DRISCOPLEX
Slipliners. The primary DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipe joint is a gasketed bell-andspigot joint. Each standard pipe length is produced with a bell on one end and a machined
spigot on the other. The spigot is grooved for a gasket. See detailed instructions for
DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE gasket and joint assembly in the DRISCOPLEX 2000
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SPIROLITE Installation Guide.

Figure 2-11 External Joint Restraint
Figure 2-10 Partially Restrained

Compression Coupling
Special Joining Considerations

When transitions are made between fully restrained polyethylene pressure pipe and nonrestrained non-polyethylene pressure pipes such as ductile iron or PVC, measures such as
longitudinal force thrust blocks (in-line anchoring) and external restraints applied to nonrestrained joints are necessary. Polyethylene pipe when pressurized will expand in diameter
and shorten in length according to the Poisson ratio of the material. While Poisson effect pipe
shortening is minimal for short lengths, a long length of fully restrained PE pressure pipe can
shorten enough to disjoin unrestrained non-PE transition joints connected to the PE pipe length.
See Performance Pipe Technical Note PP-813 TN for additional information.
Other Joining Techniques

Pipe Threads
Standard 60 v-groove taper pipe threads are not recommended for joining
DRISCOPLEX OD controlled pipe or for joining components to OD controlled pipe.
Threaded polyethylene pipe is easily stripped or cross-threaded, and the thread depth reduces
wall thickness. Threaded holes in PE pipe are easily striped or cross-threaded.
Extrusion Welding
Extrusion welding employs a small handheld extruder that feeds molten PE onto pre-heated,
specially prepared PE surfaces. Preparation requires removing a thin layer of material from the
surfaces of the parts being welded and cleaning, scraping, planing or beveling. The extrusion
gun preheats the surfaces; then feeds a molten polyethylene bead into the prepared joint area.
The ideal environment for extrusion welding is in a plant or shop area where the requisite
conditions for good welding are present, that is, cleanliness, properly trained operators and the
special jigs and tools that are required for the extrusion welding process. Using prescribed
procedures, welded joints produced under ideal conditions can be expected to develop up to
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70% the tensile strength of the base material. Field joints usually require special care and highly
trained operators to produce similar quality joints.
Typically, extrusion welding is used in the manufacture of structures for low pressure or nonpressure service, such as manholes, tanks, very large diameter pipe fittings, dual containment
systems and odor control structures.
Extrusion welding is not a substitute for butt fusion or saddle fusion and should not be
used to repair pressure pipe or fittings. Extrusion welding is not the same as Hot Gas
(Hot Air) Welding.
Hot Gas Welding

Performance Pipe does not recommend hot gas (hot air) welding for joining Performance
Pipe polyethylene piping products. Hot air (hot gas) welding uses hot air to melt a
polyethylene welding rod and join the surfaces. It is usually limited to joining low molecular
weight, high melt flow rate polyethylene materials because such materials are easy to melt and
flow together. However, Performance Pipe polyethylene pipe products are made from stressrated, high molecular weight, low melt flow rate polyethylene materials. These high quality
polyethylene materials do not melt or flow easily. Hot gas weld strength is typically less than
15% of the parent materials strength, thus this joining method is unsuitable for joining stressrated polyethylene materials.
Manhole Connections
Methods of connecting to DRISCOPLEX Standard Manholes and Standard Manhole Tees are
detailed in DRISCOPLEX DriscoPlex 2000 SPIROLITE product literature. Connections are
by standard gasketed bell-and-spigot joints, a gasketed closure joint or flanges.
For precast concrete manholes, options include installing a DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE AConnector pipe into an A-Lok1 gasket cast into the manhole base or by casting or fastening a
Kor-N-Seal2 boot or equivalent to the manhole outlet wall and securing OD controlled pipe or
DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE Smooth OD Pipe in the boot. Options for connecting to
Poured-In-Place manhole bases include casting the DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE
Tomahawk connector pipe into the manhole base or casting the manhole base around OD
controlled pipe or DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE Pipe that has been coated with Noahs
Pitch3 and wrapped with Kent-Seal4 or an equivalent tar-based mastic. After the manhole
base concrete has set, benching concrete is placed and finished, and the top of the OD
controlled pipe or DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE Pipe is cut out.
Please refer to ASTM F 585 and Performance Pipe product literature for additional information
on sliplining and connecting to manholes.
Branch Connections
DRISCOPLEX OD Controlled Pressure Piping
Branch connections may be made with equal outlet and reduced outlet tees that are installed in
1
A-Lok is a registered trademark of A-Lok Products, Inc.
Kor-N-Seal is a registered trademark of NPC Corporation.
Noahs Pitch is a registered trademark of Celotex Corporation.
Kent Seal is a registered trademark of the Hamilton Kent Corporation.

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the line during construction. When main sizes are 16" IPS and larger, it is recommended that
two of the three connections be flanged. The tee is usually butt fused to the end of a pipe run,
then set into location. The mating run and branch pipes are then coupled to the fitting flanges.
Handling a large diameter (16" IPS and larger) fabricated fitting when it is joined to more
than one pipe can break the fitting.
During or after laying the main, service saddles, tapping tees and branch saddles may be
saddle fused to the main. Field installed saddle fusion fittings are usually limited to 4" IPS and
smaller branch connections on 12" IPS and smaller mains. DRISCOPLEX Saddle Fusion
Products are detailed in Performance Pipe product literature. Mechanical saddle or branch
fittings that clamp around the main and seal with gaskets, should be limited to
applications where service temperatures are relatively constant and stable.
Figure 2-12 Large Diameter Tee Installation
After a system has been installed, large diameter branch taps may be made with commercially
available tapping sleeves for IPS outside diameter pipe. See Figure 2-13. Tapping sleeves
must be installed in accordance with manufacturers instructions. Hole saws must be sized in
accordance with the tapping sleeve manufacturers instructions and should be designed for
cutting polyethylene pipe. See Cutting Branch Outlet Holes at the beginning of this chapter.
For gas distribution, service connections are usually made by saddle fusing a Service Saddle or
Tapping Tee to the main. For other services such as potable water or force mains, commercially
available strap-on service saddles may be used. Mechanical Service Saddles must be
secured with wide band straps, and double strap designs are preferred. U-bolt type
service saddles are not recommended. Full encirclement band style service saddles may
also be used. Service saddles may also be used for connections to gauges, vacuum breakers,
and air release valves.

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Figure 2-13 Tapping Sleeve
Outlets in Non-Pressure Piping

Connections to non-pressure or gravity flow OD controlled and DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE
Pipes are usually for sanitary sewers, slipliners or for outfall diffuser nozzles. Such service
connections usually involve a strap-on type saddle or an Inserta-Tee5 branch outlet that
secures in a gasketed hole in the main. Inserta-Tee hole saws and installation equipment are
available from the manufacturer.
Figure 2-14 Inserta-Tee
Go to Chapter 3
5
Inserta-Tee is a registered trademark of Inserta Fittings Company.

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3. Installation
General Considerations
Polyethylene piping may be installed underground, on the surface, supported above grade,
underwater, or floating on the surface. For a piping system to work as designed, the unique
demands of the installation must be taken into account.
Polyethylene pipe is tough, lightweight and flexible. Installation does not usually require high
capacity lifting equipment. See Book 3, Chapter 1, Handling and Storage, for information on
handling and lifting equipment.
To prevent injury to persons or property, safe handling and construction practices must
be observed at all times. The installer must observe all applicable local, state, and federal
safety codes and any safety requirements specified by the owner or the project engineer.
Heat fusion joining requires specialized equipment for socket, saddle, and butt fusion and for
electrofusion. Heat fusion joining may be performed in any season. During inclement weather, a
temporary shelter should be set-up over the joining operation to shield heat fusion operations
from precipitation and wind. Most heat fusion equipment is not explosion-proof. The
equipment manufacturers safety instructions must be observed at all times and
especially when heat fusion is to be performed in a potentially volatile atmosphere.
When installing polyethylene pipe in a butt fusion machine, do not bend the pipe against
an open fusion machine collet or clamp. The pipe may suddenly slip out of the open
clamp and cause injury or damage.
Smaller diameter OD controlled pipe and tubing is available in coils that can reduce the number
of joints required. When joining between coils, it is recommended to S the pipe, that is, orient
the pipes at the joint so their printlines are 180 apart. This minimizes joint stresses and assists
in alignment.
Underground Installations
Buried installations generally involve trench excavation, placing pipe in the trench, placing
embedment backfill around the pipe, then placing backfill to the required finished grade. Pipe
application and service requirements, size, type (OD controlled or DRISCOPLEX 2000
SPIROLITE), soil conditions, backfill soil quality, burial depth and joining requirements will all
affect the installation.
The care taken by the installer during installation will dramatically affect system performance. A
high quality installation in accordance with recommendations and engineered plans and
specifications can ensure performance as designed, while a low quality installation can cause
substandard performance.
Additional information on pipe burial may be found in ASTM D 2321, Standard Practice for
Underground Installation of Thermoplastic Pipe for Sewers and Other Gravity Flow Applications,
ASTM D 2774, Standard Practice for Underground Installation of Thermoplastic Pressure
Piping. The installer should be familiar with this information, and the information in this manual
before installing Performance Pipe OD controlled or DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE piping
products.
Pipe Embedment Terminology

The backfill materials enveloping a buried pipe are pictorially identified in Figure 3-1, below, and
Book 3: Chapter 3: Installation
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by their function or location:

Foundation A foundation is required only when the native trench bottom does not provide a
firm working platform, or the necessary uniform and stable support for the installed pipe. If a
foundation is installed, bedding is required above the foundation.
Initial Backfill This is the critical zone of embedment surrounding the pipe from the
foundation to at least 6" over the pipe. The pipes ability to support loads and resist deflection is
determined by the quality of the embedment material and the quality of its placement. Within
this zone are bedding, haunching, primary and secondary zones.
Bedding In addition to bringing the trench bottom to required pipe bottom grade, the
bedding levels out any irregularities, and ensures uniform support along the pipe length.
Bedding is required when a foundation is installed, but a foundation may not be required to
install bedding.
Haunching The embedment under the pipe haunches supports the pipe and
distributes the load. The quality of the haunching backfill and its placement are the most
important factors in limiting flexible pipe deformation.
Primary Initial Backfill - This embedment zone provides primary support against lateral
pipe deformation. It extends from pipe bottom grade to at least 3/4 of the pipe diameter height,
or to at least 6" over the pipe crown if the pipe is installed where the pipe will be continuously
below normal groundwater levels.
Secondary Initial Backfill - Embedment material in this zone distributes overhead
loads, and isolates the pipe from any adverse effects from placing final backfill material. Where
the ground water level may rise over the pipe, the secondary initial backfill should be a
continuation of the primary initial backfill.
Final Backfill Final backfill is not an embedment material, however, it should be free of large
rocks, frozen clods, lumps, construction debris, stones, stumps, and any other material with a
dimension greater than 8".
Figure 3-1 Trench Construction and Terminology
Trenching
In stable ground, minimum trench width, Bd, will vary by the pipe diameter as illustrated in Figure
3-2 and Table 3-1. The trench must be wide enough to place and compact backfill soils in the
haunch areas below the pipe springline.
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Figure 3-2 Trench Width
Table 3-1 Minimum Trench Width

Nominal Pipe
OD, in
Minimum
Trench Width,
Bd, in
Parallel Pipe
Clearance, in
<3
12
3 16
Pipe OD + 12
18 34
Pipe OD + 18
36 63
Pipe OD + 24
12
72 - 96
Pipe OD + 36
18
To minimize the load on the pipe, the maximum trench width should not exceed the minimum
trench width by more than 18" plus the thickness of any sheeting, shoring or shielding, unless
approved by the engineer. For trenches containing multiple pipes, the distance between parallel
pipes should be the same as the clearance distance between the pipe and the trench wall. See
Table 3-1.
Depending upon trench soil stability and depth, trench sides above the pipe crown may need to
be sloped or stepped as illustrated in Figure 3-2. When trenching in ground not considered to
be stable, the trench width above the pipe crown should be sloped and/or widened. Trench
sidewall bracing such as trench shield or sheeting should always be used wherever required by
site safety conditions, by OSHA, or by other regulatory agencies. When using a trench box, a
trench offset should be excavated at a depth between the pipe crown and 1/4 pipe diameter
below the pipe crown; then the trench box should be installed on the offset shelf. Further
excavation of the pipe zone trench down to the foundation grade should be performed within the
protection of the trench box.
Figure 3-3 Trench Box Installation
For pressure piping systems such as water mains, gas mains, or sewage force mains, the grade
of the trench bottom is not critical. The trench bottom may undulate, but must support the pipe
continuously and be free from ridges, hollows, lumps and the like. Any significant irregularities
must be leveled off and/or filled with compacted embedment backfill. If the trench bottom is
reasonably uniform, and the soil is stable and free of rock, foundation or bedding may not be
required.
For gravity drainage systems of Performance Pipe OD controlled or DRISCOPLEX 2000
SPIROLITE pipe, the trench bottom determines the pipe grade, so the trench bottom must be
constructed to the required grade, usually by installing foundation and bedding, or bedding. If
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the trench bottom is reasonably uniform and the soil is stable and free of rock, foundation or
bedding may not be required.
The pipe should be laid on a stable foundation. Where water is present in the trench, or where
the trench bottom is unstable, excess water should be removed before laying the pipe. Ground
water should be lowered to below the level of the bedding material. During dewatering, take
care not to remove sand or silt, and not to displace foundation or bedding soil material.
Where an unstable trench bottom exists such as in mucky or sandy soils with poor bearing
strength, trench bottom stabilization is required by excavating the trench below the pipe bottom
grade, and installing a foundation and bedding, or a bedding of compacted Class I or Class II
materials to the pipe bottom grade. When required, the minimum foundation thickness is 6".
When bedding and foundation are both required, the minimum bedding thickness is 4". Without
a foundation, the minimum bedding thickness is 6". All materials used for bedding, haunching,
primary and secondary backfill should be installed to at least 90% Standard Proctor Density, or
as specified by the engineer. Mechanical compaction, which may be as simple as shovel slicing
Class I material, is usually required to achieve 90% Standard Proctor Density.
When the pipe is laid in a rock cut or stony soil, the trench should be excavated at least 6"
below pipe bottom grade, and brought back to grade with compacted bedding. Remove ledge
rock, boulders, and large stones to avoid point contacts, and to provide a uniform bed for the
pipe.
The approximate length of open trench required to lay long strings of OD controlled pipe may be
determined from Formula 3-1:
L = 1.75 100 + 6 H (D H )
(3-1)
Where
L
H
D
=
=
=
trench length, ft
trench depth, ft
pipe diameter, in
Placing Pipe in the Trench

OD controlled pipe up to about 8" diameter and weighing roughly 6 lbs per foot or less can
usually be placed in the trench manually. Heavier, larger diameter OD controlled pipe, and all
DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipe will require appropriate handling equipment to lift,
move, and lower the pipe into the trench. Pipe must not be dumped, dropped, pushed, or
rolled into the trench. Appropriate safety precautions must be observed whenever
persons are in or near the trench.
Requirements for handling and lifting equipment are discussed in Handling and Storage in
Book 3, Chapter 1.
Cold (Field) Bending

Coiled lengths and long strings of OD controlled pipe may be cold bent in the field. Allowable
bend radius is determined by the pipe diameter and dimension ratio. See Table 3-3. When a
fitting or a flange connection is present in the bend, the allowable field bending radius is
controlled by the rigidity of the fitting or flange connection.
Field bending usually involves excavating the trench to the desired bend radius, then sweeping
or pulling the pipe string into the required bend and placing it in the trench. Temporary restraints
may be required to bend the pipe, and to maintain the bend while placing the pipe in the trench
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and placing initial backfill. Temporary blocks or restraints must be removed before installing final
backfill, and any voids must be filled with compacted initial backfill material.
Considerable force may be required to field bend the pipe, and the pipe may spring back
forcibly if the restraints slip or are inadvertently released while bending. Observe
appropriate safety precautions during field bending.
DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipe spigot-and-bell joints allow field bends by slight
lateral deflection at the joint. See Table 3-4.
Figure 3-4 Bend Radius
Table 3-2 Minimum Cold Bending Radius

for OD Controlled Pipe (Long-Term)
Pipe DR
Minimum Cold
Bending Radius
20 times pipe OD
> 9 13.5
25 times pipe OD
> 13.5 21
27 times pipe OD
> 21
30 times pipe OD
Fitting or flange
present in bend
100 times pipe OD
Table 3-3 DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE Curve Radius

Minimum Curve Radius, ft
Pipe ID, in
Maximum Joint
Deflection, degrees
20 ft Length
13 ft Length
18 36
3.0
382
248
42 66
2.5
458
298
72 96
2.0
573
372
Installing Fabricated Fittings

To avoid field damage, large diameter (16" IPS and above) fabricated directional fittings such as
elbows, tees, wyes, and crosses, should not be joined to more than one pipe before placement
in the trench. The remaining outlet connections are made with flanges or mechanical couplings
after placement in the trench. Connecting pipes to more than one outlet, then attempting to lift,
move, and lower the assembly into the trench frequently results in fitting breakage and is not
recommended.
Pipe Embedment Soils

Preferred embedment materials for Performance Pipe OD controlled pipe are Class I and Class
II angular gravels and sands classified as meeting soil types GW, GP, SW or SP and dual
classifications beginning with one of these symbols as defined in ASTM D 2487. These
materials should be used for bedding, haunching, and for primary and secondary initial backfill.
The maximum particle size should be limited to 1/2" for pipes to 4" diameter, 3/4 for pipes 6 to
8 diameter, 1 for pipes 10 to 16 diameter and 1-1/2 for larger pipes.
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Class III materials may be used in the embedment zone only when specified by the engineer,
and if allowed, they must be compacted to at least 90% Standard Proctor Density, or as
specified by the engineer. Class IVa and Class IVb materials are not preferred, and should be
used only with the specific approval of a geotechnical soils engineer.
For DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipe, Class I and Class II materials with a maximum
aggregate size of 1-1/2" are preferred. Limiting aggregate size to 3/4" will aid placement under
the pipe haunches. Angular aggregate, graded to limit soil migration is desirable, especially
when the pipe is located below the groundwater level.
Embedment soils are defined and classified in accordance with ASTM D 2487 Standard Test
Method for Classification of soils for Engineering Purposes, ASTM D 2488 Standard practices
for Description and Identification of Soils (Visual-Manual Procedure) and USBR Designation E3. Table 3-4 provides information on embedment materials suitable for Performance Pipe OD
Controlled pipe, DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipe, fittings, manholes and fabricated
structures.
Table 3-4 Embedment Soil Classification
Embedment Backfill
Class
Soil Description Pipe Embedment Material
Class I
Manufactured angular, granular material with little or no fines. Angular crushed stone,
particle size 1/4 to 1-1/2, including materials of regional significance such as marl, coral,
crushed shells, cinders, slag, etc.
Class II
Coarse-grained soils with little or no fines GW, GP, SW, SP containing less than 12%
fines
Class III
Coarse-grained soils with fines GW, GP, SW, SP containing more than 12& fines
Class IVa
Fine grained soils (LL < 50); soils with medium to no plasticity CL, ML, ML-CL with more
than 25% coarse-grained particles
Class IVb
Fine-grained soils (LL > 50); Soils with medium to high plasticity CH, MH, CH-MH. Finegrained soils (LL < 50); Soils with medium to no plasticity CL, ML, ML-CL with less than
25% coarse-grained particles.
ASTM D 2487, USBR Designation E-3. Or any borderline soil beginning with one of these symbols (e.g., GM
GC, GC-SC, etc.). LL = liquid limit.
For a given density or compaction level, Class III and Class IVa soils provide less support than
Class I or Class II soils. Placement of Class III and Class IVa materials is difficult, soil moisture
content must be carefully controlled, and significantly greater effort is required to achieve the
necessary compacted density for pipe support. Class IVb materials are not recommended for
bedding or initial backfill around DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipe. Class IVa soils may
be used in the embedment zone only when specified by a geotechnical engineer.
Embedment Backfilling
Underground pressure pipes should be installed in accordance with ASTM D 2774 Standard
Practice for Underground Installation of Thermoplastic Pressure Pipe. Non-pressure and gravity
flow pipes should be installed in accordance with ASTM D 2321 Standard Practice for
Underground Installation of Thermoplastic Pipe for Sewers and Other Gravity-Flow Applications,
and for DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipe, the SPIROLITE Installation Guide.
Voids in the haunch areas are undesirable. The haunch areas should be completely filled and
void free to the extent possible. For the lower half of the haunch area, materials should be
shoveled evenly into the area on both sides of the pipe in layers not more than 4" thick, and
compacted with an angled haunch tamping tool like that illustrated in Figure 3-5. Layers can
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then be increased to 6" and flat tamping tools can be used.

Figure 3-5 Haunch Tamping Tool
Following haunching, primary and secondary initial backfill materials should be placed in 6"
layers and compacted with flat tamping tools. If mechanical tampers are used, take care not to
damage the pipe. If sheeting has been used, the sheeting should be lifted progressively for each
layer.
Joint Anchoring with Thrust Blocks

DRISCOPLEX pressure pipe systems must be assembled with fully restrained joints, or with
partially restrained joints AND external joint restraints. DRISCOPLEX OD controlled pressure
piping systems that are joined by heat fusion or flanges are fully restrained, and do not require
external joint restraints or thrust block joint anchors.
Partially restrained joints with joint restraints should be anchored with thrust blocks at fittings.
However, thrust block anchoring is not a substitute for and must not be used in place of external
joint restraints. Unrestrained connections are not recommended for use with DRISCOPLEX
pressure piping systems.
If used, thrust block anchors should be installed at direction changes and at dead ends. Thrust
block anchors should bear against undisturbed trench wall soil or well compacted backfill.
Allowable horizontal bearing loads for concrete against undisturbed soil firm enough to be
trenched without sheeting are 3000 to 6000 lb/ft2 depending upon soil rigidity. Thrust block
anchors should be located so they will not prevent access to joints.
Thrust blocks at polyethylene fittings must fully encapsulate the fitting to distribute stresses over
the body of the fitting. Thrust blocks that do not fully encapsulate will bear on a small part of the
fitting resulting in impingement loads that can cause premature failure. (Concrete encasement
cannot be used to increase the pressure rating of a fabricated fitting.)
Anchor thrust reaction load from internal pressure or surge pressure may be determined by:
TP = Pi
Di 2
Ff
4
(3-2)
Where
TP
Pi
Di
Ff
=
=
=
=
internal pressure reaction thrust, lb

internal pressure, lb.in2
fitting factor, Table 3-5
See Fluid Flow, Water Hammer and Pressure Surge Considerations in Book 2, Chapter 4 for
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information on surge pressure in Performance Pipe pressure piping systems.

Table 3-5 Fitting Factor
Fitting
Fitting Factor
90 ell
1.41
Caps, plugs, tees
1.00
45 ell
0.77
22-1/2ell
0.39
11-1/4 ell
0.20
Centrifugal thrust due to water flowing in the pipe will also act against the thrust block.
Centrifugal thrust load may be determined from:
Di 2 V 2
TC =
288 g
sin
(3-3)

TC
V
g
=
=
=
=
=
centrifugal thrust, lb
fluid density, lb/ft3
fluid velocity, ft/sec
acceleration of gravity, 32.2 ft/sec2
direction change angle, degrees
Controlling Shear and Bending Loads at Rigid Structures

Performance Pipe OD controlled or DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipes that enter or exit
a casing or a structure wall such as a building wall, vault, or manhole, must be protected against
shear and bending loads that can develop from settlement and embedment consolidation.
Figure 3-6 Controlling Shear and Bending
A compacted foundation and compacted bedding should be installed below the pipe where it
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exits the casing or structure as illustrated in Figure 3-6. At a casing entry or exit, the pipe
should be wrapped with an elastomeric sheet material; then the annulus between the pipe and
the casing should be sealed either mechanically or with a cement grout. The seal prevents
backfill migration into the annulus.
Where OD controlled pipe is flanged at a wall such as a building or vault wall, a structural
support as illustrated in Figure 3-7 is recommended to prevent shear and bending loads. Within
the clamp, the pipe is protected against chafing by wrapping it with an elastomeric sheet.
Where Performance Pipe OD controlled pipe or fittings are joined to valves, hydrants, other
heavy devices, or rigid pipes, a support pad as illustrated in Figure 3-8 should be provided
below the device or rigid pipe, and for at least two pipe diameters length under the connecting
pipes. Support pad materials should be at least compacted Class I or II soil, or cement
stabilized Class I, II, or III soils, or poured concrete. Embedment soils around the connecting
pipes, the device, and in any bell holes must be compacted.
Figure 3-8 Appurtenance Support Pad
Locating Tapes or Wires

Polyethylene pipes are non-metallic, so once buried, metal detector type locators are ineffective.
To facilitate locating buried pipe, metallic locating tapes or 12-14 AWG copper wire can be
placed in the trench. Locating tapes or wires are usually placed above the pipe between the
initial and final backfill.
Final Backfilling
In general, final backfill may be material excavated from the trench provided it is free of
unsuitable matter such as lumps, stones, frozen clods, construction debris, boulders, and other
materials exceeding 8" in their longest dimension.
Where the trench is subject to surcharge loads such as H-20 or E-80 live loads, or building
foundations or footings, or paved parking or storage areas, final backfill should be an angular
Class I or Class II granular material, compacted to at least 95% Standard Proctor density or as
specified by the engineer.
Backfill Stabilizing Agents

In some regions, soil may be stabilized by the addition of a pebble lime and starch-base
polymer mixture. This mixture reacts with soil moisture and can generate temperatures in
excess of 200 F. Polyethylene pipe coming into direct contact with the reacting mixture can be
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weakened or damaged.
Therefore, un-reacted stabilizer and un-reacted stabilized soil must not come into contact with
polyethylene pipe. Mixing soil and stabilizing agents as the soil is excavated from the trench will
usually allow sufficient time for reaction and cooling. After mixing, the stabilized soil must be
allowed to react and cool completely before placing it around polyethylene pipe.
Burrowing Animal Control

Polyethylene contains nothing to attract burrowing rodents or insects, however burrowing
animals may find it easy to dig in trench backfill soils and may occasionally damage 4" and
smaller polyethylene pipes in their path. Larger pipes are too great an obstruction, and are
generally free from such attacks.
The possibility of burrowing animal damage may be reduced a) by using commercially available
repellent sprays in the ditch, b) by installing smaller lines below the animals normal activity
area, typically deeper than 3 feet, c) using larger diameter pipes, d) installing embedment zone
backfill that is difficult for the animals to penetrate such as angular crushed stone, or e) installing
the pipe or tubing within a shielding tube such as DRISCOPLEX 6600 Rodent Protection
Tubing.
Special Installation Techniques

Because of its flexibility and the high integrity of properly made butt fusion joints, special
installation techniques may be employed to install DRISCOPLEX OD controlled pipe. Special
techniques include plowing, planting or pulling pipe into a narrow trench, horizontal boring, and
directional boring. These techniques minimize excavation by making a tight fitting trench cut or
hole for the pipe, and either pulling or placing the pipe in the cut. They require suitable native
soil conditions that are free of large rocks, and except directional boring, are generally limited to
shallower depths.
Plowing and Planting
Plowing and planting involve cutting a narrow trench, and feeding the pipe into the trench
through a shoe or chute fitted just behind the trench cutting equipment. Trench cuts for pipes
around 1-1/2" IPS and smaller are frequently made with vibratory plows. Larger sizes use wheel
or chain type trenchers with semi-circular cutters. The trench width should be only slightly larger
than the pipe outside diameter.
The shoe or chute should feed the pipe into the bottom of the cut. The short-term pipe bending
radius through the shoe may be tighter than the long-term cold bending radius in Table 3-2, but
it must not be so tight that the pipe kinks. Table 3-6 presents minimum short-term bending radii
for applications such as plowing and planting. The pipes path through the shoe or chute should
be as friction free as practicable.
Table 3-6 Minimum short-Term Bending Radius
Pipe Dimension Ratio
Minimum short-Term
Bending Radius
10 times pipe OD
> 9 13.5
13 times pipe OD
> 13.5 21
17 times pipe OD
> 21
20 times pipe OD

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Pipe is usually fed over the trenching equipment and through the shoe or chute from coils or
straight lengths that have been butt fused into a long string. Pipe up to 12" IPS has been
installed using this method.
Pulling-in
Pulling-in involves cutting a trench, then pulling the pipe in from one end of the trench. Pulling-in
may be accomplished as a simultaneous operation by attaching the leading end of the pipe
behind the trench cutter, or as a separate operation after the trench has been opened. In either
case, pulling-in requires a relatively straight trench and the pulling force applied to the pipe must
not exceed the allowable tensile load, ATL, (safe pull strength) for the pipe. Therefore, this
method is limited to shorter runs.
Allowable Tensile Load (safe pull strength) may be determined by:
1
1
ATL = D 2 fY fT TY 2
R
R
(3-4)
Where
ATL
D
fY
fT
TY
R
=
=
=
=
=
=
allowable tensile load, lb

tensile yield design (safety) factor, Table 3-7
time under tension design (safety) factor, Table 3-7
pipe tensile yield strength, lb/in2 (Table 3-8)
pipe dimension ratio (DR or SDR)
When polyethylene pipe is subjected to a significant short term pulling stress, the pipe will
stretch somewhat before yielding. However, if the pulling stress is limited to about 40% of the
yield strength, the pipe will usually recover undamaged to its original length in a day or less after
the stress is removed.
Table 3-7 Recommended Design Factors
Factor
Parameter
Recommended Value
fY
Tensile yield design factor
0.40
fT
Time under tension design factor
1.0 for up to 1 h
0.95 for up to 12 h
0.91 for up to 24 h
Design and safety factors are the inverse of each other. Multiplying by a 0.40 design factor is the same as dividing
by a 2.5 safety factor.
Pipe yield strengths may be estimated by using the values from Table 3-8. Unlike more brittle
materials, polyethylene pipe materials stretch greatly between tensile yield and tensile break.
Tensile yield to break elongations of 800% for HDPE and 1000% for MDPE are common.
Further, tensile yield and break stresses are usually a similar value, so if pulling continues after
the material has yielded, it will stretch to the breaking point with little change in pulling force.
Table 3-8 Approximate Tensile Yield Strength Values
Material
Approximate Tensile Yield Strength, TY, at Pipe Temperature

73F (23C)
2
100F (38C)
120F (49C)
2600 lb/in (17.9 MPa)
2365 lb/in (16.3 MPa)
1920 lb/in (15.4 MPa)
1640 lb/in2 (11.0 MPa)
HDPE
3200 lb/in2 (22.1 MPa)
2910 lb/in2 (17.4 MPa)
2365 lb/in2 (13.7 MPa)
2015 lb/in2 (14.3 MPa)
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140F (60C)
MDPE

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When pulling polyethylene pipe, it is important to stay well below the yield strength, because the
yield strength and the breaking strength are about the same, but in between the pipe can stretch
over 400% before it breaks. Because yield and break strengths are about the same, pull force
gauges will not show that the pipe has been damaged. The only indication will be that the
trailing end stops while the pulling end continues to move.
When pulling-in polyethylene pipe, especially smaller diameters, the pulling force should be
monitored and kept below the safe pull strength for the pipe size, and both the pulling end and
trailing end should be monitored for continuous, smooth movement. A weak-link device should
always be installed at the lead end of the polyethylene pipe.
Because pull-in loads will cause the pipe to stretch, the leading end should be pulled past the
termination point by 4-5% of the total pulled-in length, and the trailing end should be left long by
the same amount. Final tie-ins should be made a day after the pull to allow the pipe to recover
from the pulling stress and contract to its original pre-pull length. The extra length at both ends
assures that the pipe wont recede back past the tie-in points as it recovers from the pull.
Horizontal Boring
Horizontal boring or road boring is usually performed to install a pipeline below existing
roadways or structures where opening a trench may be impractical or undesirable. Typically,
entry and exit pit excavations are required. Tunneling directly across and under the structure
makes the bore.
Road bores are usually performed using a rotating auger within a steel casing. The auger
projects just ahead of the casing, and the auger and casing are advanced together across to the
exit pit. If a casing is being installed, either the auger casing is left, or a new casing is installed
by pulling it in from the exit pit while withdrawing the bore casing.
DRISCOPLEX OD controlled pipe may be installed through a casing, or directly in the
borehole. For information on sealing the end of the casing, see Controlling Shear and Bending
Loads at Rigid Structures earlier in this chapter.
When installed in a casing, OD controlled polyethylene pipe does not require centering spacers
(centralizers) for electrical isolation to a metal casing. Polyethylene is non-conductive and will
not affect casing cathodic protection. Unless groundwater pressure could cause OD controlled
pipe to collapse, grouting the casing annulus is not required.
Allowing the pipe to snake inside the casing can usually accommodate minor thermal length
changes of the polyethylene pipe in the casing. If used, centering spacers will force thermal
expansion thrust loads to the pipe ends, which may weaken or break casing end seals.
When installing OD controlled pipe either directly in the borehole or in a casing, joining to the
installed pipe should be considered. Generally, the trailing end may be joined to the system by
any appropriate method. However, the leading end may need to be a restrained mechanical
joint, or electrofusion. If a casing is large enough to allow a flange adapter to pass, a split backup ring as illustrated in Figure 3-9 may be used for the flange joint.
When installing smaller diameter pipes directly in a borehole, soil friction around the pipe may
result in significant pulling forces. The allowable tensile load, Formula 3-4, for the pipe must not
be exceeded.

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Figure 3-9 Split Back-Up Ring
Horizontal Directional Drilling (HDD)

Horizontal directional drilling uses directional drilling techniques to guide a drill string along a
borepath around obstacles such as under rivers or lakes or through congested underground
infrastructure. As with horizontal boring, horizontal directional drilling may be used to install a
casing, or to directly install long strings of OD controlled pipe. DRISCOPLEX 2000
SPIROLITE pipe with the standard gasketed spigot and bell joint is not recommended for
HDD pull-in type installations.
As the hole is bored, a steel drill string is extended behind a cutting head. Drilling mud is used
to cool the cutter, flush excavated soil from the borehole and lubricate the borehole. At the end
of the borepath, the drill string is angled upwards and through the surface. The cutting head is
removed and a backreamer attached. The pipe string is attached to the backreamer through a
weak-link device. As the drill string is withdrawn to the drilling rig, the backreamer enlarges the
borehole and the pipe string is drawn in. As with any pipe pulling technique, the movement of
the pipe string and the pulling load on the polyethylene pipe (Formula 3-4) must be monitored.
Information on horizontal directional drilling is available in ASTM F 1962 and Performance Pipe
Technical Note PP 800-TN.
Pipeline Rehabilitation Techniques

Existing underground pipelines may be rehabilitated with Performance Pipe OD controlled or
DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipe. Rehabilitation techniques include conventional
sliplining or insertion, and techniques to install a tight-fitting liner. Performance Pipe OD
controlled pipe may be used for pressure or gravity flow service and gasketed spigot and bell
joined DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipe for gravity flow service.
Conventional Sliplining (Insertion Renewal) With OD Controlled Pipe
Conventional sliplining or insertion renewal is a pipeline rehabilitation technique where a new,
smaller diameter pipe is installed within a larger existing pipe. Sliplining usually denotes sewer
rehabilitation, and Insertion Renewal the rehabilitation of a pressure pipe line. Sliplining or
insertion renewal reduces the bore of the rehabilitated pipeline, however, polyethylene pipe
usually has lesser flow resistance compared to many conventional pipes and pressure rating
may be improved, so the reduced bore may not significantly reduce flow capacity. In some
cases, capacity may be unchanged, or even increased. See Table 4-10 in Book 2, Chapter 4,
for comparative flows for slipliners.
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OD controlled pipe may be used for pressure or non-pressure service and may be installed by
pulling or pushing or a combination of both. For OD controlled slipliners, the usual diametrical
clearance between the original pipe inside diameter and the renewal pipe outside diameter is
Table 3-9 Approximate Collapse Resistance for OD Controlled Pipe, ft of water
Values are for 3% oval pipe and include a 2.0 safety factor.
Service Temperature, F
40
60
73
100
120
DR
50 Years
10 Years
1 Year
42 Days
4.2 Days
10 Hours
167.9
188.5
226.3
260.6
304.9
342.7
11
86.0
96.5
115.9
133.5
156.1
175.4
13.5
44.0
49.4
59.3
68.3
79.9
89.8
17
21.0
23.6
28.3
32.6
38.1
42.8
21
10.7
12.1
14.5
16.7
19.5
21.9
26
5.5
6.2
7.4
8.5
10.0
11.2
32.5
2.8
3.1
3.7
4.3
5.0
5.6
41
1.3
1.5
1.8
2.1
2.4
2.7
128.4
143.8
173.0
199.2
233.2
261.9
134.1
11
65.7
73.7
88.6
102.0
119.4
13.5
33.7
37.7
45.4
52.2
61.1
68.7
17
16.0
18.0
21.6
24.9
29.1
32.7
21
8.2
9.2
11.1
12.8
14.9
16.8
26
4.2
4.7
5.7
6.5
7.6
8.6
32.5
2.1
2.4
2.8
3.3
3.8
4.3
41
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.9
2.1
121.1
135.7
163.2
187.6
219.9
246.9
11
62.0
69.5
83.5
96.1
112.6
126.4
13.5
31.7
35.6
42.8
49.2
57.6
64.7
17
15.1
17.0
20.4
23.5
27.5
30.9
21
7.7
8.7
10.4
12.0
14.1
15.8
26
4.0
4.4
5.3
6.1
7.2
8.1
32.5
2.0
2.2
2.7
3.1
3.6
4.0
41
1.0
1.1
1.3
1.5
1.8
2.0
98.8
110.8
133.1
153.3
179.5
201.4
103.1
11
50.6
56.7
68.2
78.5
91.9
13.5
25.9
29.0
34.9
40.2
47.1
52.8
17
12.3
13.8
16.6
19.2
22.4
25.2
21
6.3
7.1
8.5
9.8
11.5
12.9
26
3.2
3.6
4.4
5.0
5.9
6.6
32.5
1.6
1.8
2.2
2.5
2.9
3.3
41
0.8
0.9
1.1
1.2
1.4
1.6
64.4
72.1
86.7
99.6
116.8
131.0
11
33.0
36.9
44.4
51.0
59.8
67.1
13.5
16.9
18.9
22.7
26.1
30.6
34.3
17
8.1
9.0
10.8
12.5
14.6
16.4
21
4.1
4.6
5.6
6.4
7.5
8.4
26
2.1
2.4
2.8
3.3
3.8
4.3
32.5
1.1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.9
2.1
41
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0

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around 10% of the original pipe ID. Lesser clearance is possible if the original line is relatively
straight, and there are no obstructions such as dropped or offset joints. Greater clearance is
acceptable, however, gravity flow pipelines may require blocking or grouting to maintain grade if
high groundwater levels could be encountered. For push-in sliplining, the diametrical clearance
should be 30% or less.
Sliplining does not require a dry casing. When sliplining sanitary sewers, the annulus may be
adequate for normal flows without bypass pumping, or minimal bypassing may be necessary.
Some bypassing may be required when making a tie-in.
Sliplining is usually performed to control infiltration leakage in a deteriorated underground
pipeline. By itself, the liner restores only leak-tightness. It requires a structurally sound casing.
In some cases, structural integrity can be restored or improved by grouting the annulus.
For gravity flow applications, the slipliner must have sufficient wall thickness so that any
temporary or long-term standing water above the pipe will not significantly deflect it. Municipal
sewer systems may be installed above or below the normal water table, or may be exposed to
temporary high water or flood conditions. Table 3-9 presents allowable external buckling loads
for free standing (not grouted) slipliners under temporary and long-term conditions.
ASTM F 585 Standard Practice for Inserting Flexible Polyethylene Pipe into Existing Sewers
provides additional information on sliplining. The basic sliplining procedure is cleaning and
inspecting the original pipeline, lining, making service connections, grouting the annulus if
required and backfilling point excavations. Cleaning the original pipeline may involve water jet
cleaning, powered cutterhead cleaning (power rodding), and/or pigging with various hard or soft
pigs. Any obstructions that could interfere with liner passage must be removed. At the liner
installation opening, the edge of the casing should be fitted with padding material to prevent
scraping or gouging the liner.
Inspection follows with a TV camera drawn through the cleaned, cleared line. Inspection is
necessary to locate service connections, direction changes and fittings, dropped or offset joints,
and any structurally deteriorated areas. Service connections must be accurately located so they
can be reestablished after lining. Generally, direction changes greater than 11 1/4 cannot be
sliplined with maximum size liners. Slightly larger angle bends may be negotiated with a smaller
diameter liner, or the bend may be removed.
Dropped or offset joints may be negotiated only if the offset does not use all of the diametrical
clearance. Any excessive offsets must be corrected or removed before installing the liner.
The casings structural integrity should be evaluated. Unsound areas must either be removed,
or once the liner is installed, the annulus must be grouted. Structural collapse of the casing can
collapse the liner.
DRISCOPLEX OD controlled slipliners are installed by pulling, pushing, or a push/pull
combination. Excavation is required for access to the original pipe, and for service connections
to the liner. Job planning prior to liner installation may reveal convenient locations for installation
pit excavations, such as where a deteriorated manhole is to be replaced, or a bend is to be
removed, or at a structurally unsound casing area.
For DRISCOPLEX OD controlled slipliner pipe, the insertion trench must be long enough for
the pipe string to bend from surface grade into the existing pipe. As illustrated in Figure 3-10,
the trench will be sloped on one end if sliplining in one direction and sloped on both ends if
sliplining in both directions. Insertion trench length is given by:
L1 = 2.5 H + 12 D

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L2 = 5 H + 12 D
(3-6)
Where
L1
L2
H
D
=
=
=
=
unidirectional trench length, ft

bi-directional trench length, ft
trench depth, surface to invert, ft
slipliner diameter, in
Depending upon soil stability, shoring, sheeting, or sidewall bracing may be required.
Figure 3-10 Slipliner Insertion Trench
The maximum installable liner length is dependent upon the available pushing or pulling force,
the safe pull strength or safe push strength of the pipe, and the frictional resistance between the
liner and the casing.
ASTM F 585 recommends a winch of 12 tons pulling capacity for 24" IPS and smaller liners.
Larger liners may require greater pulling force, or a push/pull technique may be applicable.
Allowable tensile load for DRISCOPLEX OD controlled pipe may be determined from Formula
3-4. Safe pushing force for OD controlled pipe may be determined from:
1
1
FP = 800 D 2 2
R
R
(3-7)
Where terms are as defined above and

FP
safe push force, lb
The maximum installable length to pull or push a liner into a casing may be found from:

LPull =
ATL
W f (cos sin )
(3-8)
LPush =
FP
W f (cos sin )
(3-9)
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LPull
LPush
W
f
cos
sin
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
maximum pull-in slipliner length, ft

maximum push-in slipliner length, ft
slipliner weight, lb/ft
coefficient of friction
slope angle, degrees
cosine
sine (+ = uphill; - = downhill)
The coefficient of friction, f, can vary substantially under different installation conditions. Typical
values range from 0.1 to 0.8. Higher values, typically 0.7-0.8 should be used for dry conditions.
For installations in sanitary sewers with flow, 0.1 is recommended and 0.3 without flow.
If there is a significant slope, the installable length is reduced when going uphill, and increased
when going downhill. The sign of the sin term in Formulas 3-8 and 3-9 + for uphill, and -
for downhill.
However, for essentially level installations,
(cos sin ) = 1
So Formulas 3-8 and 3-9 reduce to:

LPull =
ATL
Wf
(3-10)
LPush =
FP
Wf
(3-11)
DRISCOPLEX OD controlled slipliners are pulled in by attaching a winch cable to a pulling

head joined to the leading end of the liner. Pulling heads may be prefabricated units mounted to
the liner, or may be prepared on site from a section of liner. Several slipliner pulling head
designs are illustrated in Figures 3-11 and 3-12. Other pulling head designs may also be
suitable. For flowing sewer sliplining, the pulling head should be open to allow flow through the
liner. The cable connection to the pulling head should be a swivel connection to allow cable
rotation. Slipliner pulling head designs may not be suitable for use with horizontal directional
drilling.

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Figure 3-11 Slipliner Pulling Heads
Figure 3-12 "Banana Peel" Pulling Head
The leading end of the slipliner should be pulled past the termination point by 4-5% of the total
pull length, and the trailing end left long by the same amount. After the pull is completed, the
liner should be allowed to relax for 24 hours before making final tie-ins. This over-pull length is
not required for push-in installations.
When sliplining sanitary sewers, the manhole-to-manhole distance may be a convenient
installation length, however, pulls exceeding 4000 feet have been performed and pulling through
straight-through manholes is routine practice.
DRISCOPLEX OD controlled slipliners may also be pushed in using a fabric choker sling
around the liner, hooked to a backhoe bucket as illustrated in Figure 3-13.
Figure 3-13 Backhoe Slipliner Push-In Technique
After liner installation, service connections are reestablished. Point excavations are usually
required. Any branch connection appropriate for the service may be used. For a mechanical
branch connection such as a strap-on saddle or an Inserta-Tee, the casing crown down to the
springline must be removed to expose the top of the liner. For socket, saddle, or butt fusion to
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the liner, the entire casing must be removed for complete access to the liner. The point
excavation and casing removal must provide clearance for equipment and personnel.
Once the service connection is completed, the casing to liner annulus must be sealed to prevent
backfill migration and the area must be backfilled. The annulus may be sealed using a
mechanical seal, grout, concrete or cement-stabilized Class I or Class II soil. The point
excavation initial backfill is commonly cement-stabilized Class I or Class II soils, compacted
Class I or Class II soils or concrete. Care should be taken to ensure the haunch areas are filled
and compacted.
Sliplining with DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE Pipe
DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE liner pipe is jacked or pushed into the existing pipe, length
by length. The diametrical clearance for DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE sliplining may
vary, and is based on flow requirements through the liner, grout viscosity, and liner RSC.
Installation requires a straight, clean casing pipe, without obstructions or dropped or offset
joints. Bends and curves may be negotiated with DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE Slinks, which are specially joined, short pipe sections.
Safe push force for DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipe is based on pipe construction,
wall thickness, and joint design. Contact Performance Pipe Technical Services for information
on safe push force for DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipe.
If groundwater will be above the casing pipe invert, the liner to casing annulus must be grouted.
Grouting restores some or all of the casing structural integrity, prevents liner flotation, and
maintains the invert grade of the liner.
CAUTION. Grouting is a critical process. The liner may see its greatest loads during
grouting. The project engineer should provide the installer with a specification for the
grouting process. Grout pressure must not exceed the collapse resistance of the liner.
Improper grouting procedure can cause liner collapse. See Performance Pipe Technical
Note PP 838-TN, Grout Encasement for DRISCOPLEX 2000 Spirolite Pipe in Casings and
Tunnels for general information on grouting.
Preparation and planning for grouting includes consideration of blocks or skids, strutting or
internal bracing, grout injection ports, and bypassing existing flows.
Equipment used to jack or push the pipe may be a telescopic ram, or a backhoe from above, or
lengths may even be drawn in by pulling on a bar that spans across the pipe end with a winched
cable. Jacking equipment in the trench must be placed on a stable foundation of either stable,
undisturbed native soil, or compacted foundation backfill. Lengths must be joined before
pushing into the casing, so the downstream length must be temporarily restrained against
longitudinal movement while the next length is being joined into its bell. DRISCOPLEX 2000
SPIROLITE pipe joint assembly is always spigot into bell, so jacking force must be evenly
applied to the bell end of the length. See the Performance Pipe Technical Note PP 837-TN
SPIROLITE Gasket Joint Assembly Procedure.

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Figure 3-14 DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE Liner Insertion Technique
As illustrated in Figure 3-14, the DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE liner installation trench
must accommodate the jacking equipment, the pipe length, and joint assembly clearance.
Trench length may be determined from:
L = (L j + 2) + (1.5 L p )
(3-12)
Where
L
Lj
Lp
=
=
=
insertion trench length, ft

jacking (pushing) equipment length, ft
length of liner pipe, ft (20 ft or 13 ft)
The trench should be 3 feet (1-1/2 feet per side) wider than the jacking equipment or the pipe
diameter whichever is wider. Depending upon soil stability, shoring, sheeting, or sidewall
bracing may be required.
DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE sliplining procedure is the same as the OD controlled
sliplining procedure except for grout encasement if it is required. Basic requirements include
cleaning and inspecting the original pipeline, liner installation, making service connections,
grouting the annulus if required, and backfilling the point excavations. Cleaning the original
pipeline may involve water jet cleaning, powered cutterhead cleaning (power rodding), and/or
pigging with various hard or soft pigs. Any obstructions that could interfere with liner passage
must be removed.
Inspection follows with a TV camera drawn through the cleaned, cleared line. Inspection is
necessary to locate service connections, direction changes and fittings, dropped or offset joints,
and any structurally deteriorated areas. Service connections must be accurately located so they
can be reestablished after lining.
Dropped or offset joints may be negotiated only if the offset does not use all of the diametrical
clearance with any skids or blocking installed on the liner. Any excessive offset must be
corrected or removed before installing the liner.
Following liner installation, service connections are reestablished. Point excavations are
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required. Any branch connection appropriate to the service may be used. For a mechanical
branch connection such as an Inserta-Tee, the casing crown must be removed to expose the
top of the liner. The point excavation and casing removal must provide clearance for equipment
and personnel.
After the service connection is completed, the casing to liner annulus must be sealed to prevent
backfill migration and the area must be backfilled. The annulus may be sealed with grout,
concrete or cement-stabilized Class I or Class II soil. Initial backfill should be with cementstabilized Class I or Class II soils, compacted Class I or Class II soils, or concrete. Care should
be taken to ensure the haunch areas are filled and compacted.
Proprietary Trenchless Rehabilitation Techniques
A number of proprietary techniques use polyethylene pipe to rehabilitate a deteriorated or
partially deteriorated host pipe. Tight-fitting liner techniques generally employ a mechanical
means to temporarily reduce the diameter of the liner by swaging, rolling-down, or deforming.
The liner is pulled into the host pipe, and then expanded to fit closely to the host pipe inside
diameter. The liner restores leak tightness, but the condition of the host pipe determines the
structural integrity of the rehabilitated pipeline. Tight fitting liners maximize the flow potential
through the rehabilitated line and minimize excavation, however, service connections may not
be leak tight.
In pipe bursting, a bursting head is attached to a polyethylene pipe string. When pulled into the
host pipe, the bursting head breaks the host pipe into pieces, enlarges the hole and draws a
new pipe in the hole. Pipe bursting can provide increased capacity where the host pipe can be
used as a guide path to install a larger pipe. Since the original host pipe is destroyed during
installation, the new pipe must be structurally designed for the necessary static and dynamic
loads. Pipe bursting is limited to host pipes that can be fractured and appropriate soil
conditions.
Surface Installations
Surface installations for Performance Pipe OD controlled pipe normally require fully restrained
joints such as heat fusion, flanges and fully restrained mechanical couplings. Primary
installation considerations are to accommodate thermal expansion and contraction and to
control bending stresses and strains at rigid structures. Sunlight heating may require
elevated temperature pressure ratings.
Standard DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE gasketed spigot and bell joints usually do not
accommodate enough thermal expansion movement for surface applications and generally
should not be considered for surface applications. Contact Performance Pipe Technical
Services for assistance with surface applications for DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipe.
Under the summer sun, black polyethylene pipe may reach temperatures up to 140 F and may
be cooled to sub-zero temperatures in wintertime. In response to these temperature extremes,
polyethylene pipe will expand and contract, both diametrically and longitudinally. For long piping
runs, thermal length changes can be very significant. See the Performance Pipe Engineering
Manual, Book 2 System Design, Chapters 5 and 6 for design information.
Thermal length change may be accommodated with lateral deflection expansion loops that allow
the pipe to snake side to side. Expansion joints are not recommended.
Surface pipelines should be placed on a smooth, uniform bed, wide enough to accommodate
lateral deflection movement. The bed should be free of large rocks, clumps, clods and projecting
stones or debris. Continuous support is preferred, however, small ditches, and open spaces
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may be crossed if they are less than the minimum support spacing distance for the pipe.
Greater spans require structural support.
Some native soil conditions will allow simply bulldozing a smooth, flat bed for the pipe. Rocky
conditions may require laying a bed of Class I, II, or III soil. For gravity flow pipelines, the bed
must be prepared on grade. Temperature changes will cause lateral deflection and result in
bending stresses at connections to rigid structures or may apply bending stresses to rigid
structures.
Rigid structures and connections must be protected against excessive bending stresses
or failures may occur. Fabricated fittings 16" IPS and larger are rigid structures and
must be protected against bending stresses. Rigid connections such as paired flanges,
or flanged connections to rigid pipe, valves, or other rigid structures or devices must be
protected against bending stresses at the connection.
Paired flanges laid on the ground are vulnerable to bending stresses because the bottom of the
flange may eventually work into the soil and become tightly embedded. Protection against
bending stresses may be provided by supporting the pipes adjacent to paired flanges on
sleepers as illustrated in Figure 3-15. Fabricated fittings may be similarly protected as illustrated
in Figure 3-16.
Valves and other such heavy devices must be structurally supported exclusive of the pipe and
the connections to the device must be protected against excessive bending stresses. The
device should be mounted to foundation structure such as sleepers or a concrete slab, then
bending protection such as that shown in Figures 3-15 and 3-16 should be provided.
A pipe run along the surface will expand and contract with temperature changes, and will snake
side to side. If it is necessary to confine pipe movement to a general right-of-way, the pipe
should be laid between paired posts spaced about every 50 feet along the run. The distance
from post to post across the pipe should be 2 pipe diameters or more. In some cases, a berm or
embankment on one side and posts on the other will serve the same purpose.
Figure 3-15 Surface Flange Bending
Protection
Figure 3-16 Surface Tee Bending

Protection
Occasionally, a surface pipe may be laid to run along the side of an embankment. To support
the pipe, posts or support structures spaced at the recommended support spacing may be
installed above the pipe. The pipe is tethered to the posts with wire rope connected to clamps at
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least 1/2 pipe diameter wide around the pipe.

Tethering may also be used to support a pipe running vertically up an embankment. The top
connection should be a structurally supported flange with bending protection. At an appropriate
supporting distance below the top flange, a flange pair should be installed for tether rope
connections. At appropriate points to the side and above the tether connection flange, install
posts or structures, and connect tether ropes from the posts to the tether flange. Tether ropes,
flanges and support posts can be installed as required along the vertical run.
Above Grade Installations

Like surface installations, above grade installations of DRISCOPLEX OD controlled pipe
normally require fully restrained joints. Primary considerations are to accommodate thermal
expansion and contraction and to control bending stresses at rigid structures. Sunlight heating
may require elevated temperature pipe pressure ratings.
DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipe generally should not be considered for surface
applications. Standard DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE gasketed spigot and bell joints
usually do not accommodate enough thermal expansion movement and do not provide sufficient
restraint for above grade installations. Contact Performance Pipe Technical Services for
assistance with surface applications for DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE pipe.
Above grade piping may be either supported in racks or hung from overhead supports. Racks
must be wide enough to accommodate deflection from thermal expansion. If the rack is too
narrow, the pipe may expand enough to fall off, or jump out, or damage adjacent piping or
structures. Expansion joints generally provide unsatisfactory service with polyethylene pipe and
are not recommended. Polyethylene pipe tends to deflect laterally rather than generate reactive
thrust that would close the expansion joint. In pressure service, expansion joints simply expand
out and cause further pipe deflection.
Rack beams supporting the pipe must be spaced at the recommended support spacing or less.
See the Performance Pipe Engineering Manual, Book 2, System Design, Chapter 6 for specific
information on rack design. See the Performance Pipe Engineering Manual, Book 2, System
Design, Chapter 5 for thermal expansion and contraction information.
Figures 3-17 and 3-18 illustrate examples of rack designs. Center anchored pipes deflect to
either side of the centerline. Pipe anchors must pivot with pipe deflection. Side anchored pipes
deflect to one side only and anchors can be fixed to the one side.

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Figure 3-17 Pipe Rack, Center Anchored
Figure 3-18 Pipe Rack, Side Anchored
When installing in racks, pipes are usually laid with an initial lateral deflection so additional
deflection will continue to the same side. Some deflection should exist when the pipe has
contracted and is at the lowest anticipated temperature.
Thermal length change is found by:
L = L (t 1 t 2 )
(3-13)
Where
L
L
t1
t2
=
=
=
=
=
length change, ft
pipe length, ft
thermal expansion coefficient, in/ft/F
initial temperature, F
final temperature, F
The thermal expansion coefficient, , for Performance Pipe polyethylene materials is

approximately 1.08 x 10-3 in/ft/F (9 x 10-5 in/in/F), or roughly 1" for each 10 F temperature
change for each 100 ft of pipe.
Additional pipe length should be provided so contraction at low temperature will not completely
straighten out the pipe. Determine the length change, L, for the change from ambient
temperature at the time of installation, to the minimum expected temperature, add
approximately 10% as a safety factor; then add this length to the anchor point distance, L. The
length of the expanded pipe may be determined from:
L p = L + 1.1L
(3-14)
Where
Lp
expanded pipe length, ft

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Figure 3-19 Deflected Pipe Installation
Above grade pipelines may also be suspended from hangers. As illustrated in Figure 3-20,
hangers should allow lateral deflection. Support should be at least 1/2 pipe diameter wide, and
should cradle the bottom 120 of the pipe.
Underwater Installation
Underwater lines must be ballast weighted to prevent floatation. See the Performance Pipe
Engineering Manual, Book 2. System Design, Chapter 9 for ballast weight design. Ballast
weights may be installed on shore or over water. The line is then floated into location and sunk
into position. Floats may be required to control sinking, or if the line is designed with heavy
ballast weights. However, typical ballast weight design allows an air-filled pipeline to float with
ballast weights attached if both ends of the pipeline are capped.
On shore ballast weight installation can be eased by using a skid way and sliding ballasted pipe
into the waterway. Over water, barge mounted cranes may be used to lift and move ballast
weights and pipe.
Once ballasted, the pipeline is moved into position with marine craft or pulled into position with
cables. Temporary anchoring may be used to maintain position during sinking. Water is
introduced from the shore end, and air bled out slowly from the opposite end. Water must not be
allowed to run the full length of the pipe. The shore end should be raised slightly to create a ubend of water that moves down the line as the line sinks. The floating air bleed end should be
elevated above the water to prevent water entry. Bleeding air from the floating end controls the
water entry rate. Sinking rate must be controlled so the pipe does not bend too tightly and kink.
page 176
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If the pipeline is to be buried, all trench excavations must be performed before sinking. To aid in
placement, underwater backfill should be coarse soil such as gravel or crushed rock. If
additional erosion protection is necessary, riprap, such as large stones or broken pavement,
may be placed over the initial backfill.
Floating Pipelines
Pipelines for dredging or for discharging slurries into impoundments may be required to float on
or above the surface. Polyethylene is about 4.5% lighter than water, so the pipe will float when
filled with water. However, liquid slurries may be heavy enough to sink the line.
When the pipeline is supported above the surface, the floats must support their own weight and
the weight of the pipeline and its contents. When floated at the surface, the displacement of the
pipeline in the water reduces floatation requirements. Figures 3-21 and 3-22 illustrate float
attachment methods.
Figure 3-21 Flotation Above the Surface
Figure 3-22 Flotation On the Surface
Polyethylene Pipe for Flotation

DRISCOPLEX OD controlled pipe may be used for flotation to support pipelines above the
water or at the surface. Typically, floats are pipe lengths that are capped on the ends. Floats
can be filled with lightweight foam so that physical damage will not allow the float to fill with
water and impair its ability to support a load.
Float sizing is an iterative process because the float must support itself as well as the load. The
first step is to determine the load, and choose an initial size for the float.
Step 1. Load Determination
The supported load is the weight of the pipeline and its contents plus the weight of the float and
the structure for attaching the float to the pipeline. If the float is foam-filled, the weight of the
foam must also be included.
P = W P + WC + W S + W F + W M
(3-15)
Where
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P
WP
WC
WS
WF
WM
=
=
=
=
=
=
supported load, lb/ft

weight of pipeline, lb/ft
weight of pipeline contents, lb/ft
weight of float attachment structure, lb
weight of float, lb/ft (Table 3-10)
weight of foam fill, lb/ft
W M = VF M M
VF
MM
=
=
(3-16)
float internal volume, ft3/ft (Table 3-10)

density of foam fill, lb/ft3
Thermoplastic foams typically weigh 2 to 3 lb/ft3.

Float spacing should not exceed maximum support spacing intervals. See the Performance
Pipe Engineering Manual, Book 2, Chapter 6, Table 6-1.
Table 3-10 Polyethylene Float Properties
Nominal Size
Float Diameter, d, in
Float Weight, WF,

lb/ft
Float Buoyancy, B,
lb/ft
Internal Volume, VF,

ft3/ft
4.500
0.83
6.9
0.097
6.625
1.80
14.9
0.211
8.625
3.05
25.3
0.357
10
10.750
4.75
39.3
0.555
12
12.750
6.67
55.3
0.781
14
14.000
8.05
66.7
0.941
16
16.000
10.50
87.1
1.230
18
18.000
13.30
110
1.556
20
20.000
16.41
136
1.921
22
22.000
19.86
165
2.325
24
24.000
23.62
196
2.767
26
26.000
27.74
230
3.247
28
28.000
32.19
267
3.766
30
30.000
36.93
306
4.323
32
32.000
42.04
349
4.919
34
34.000
47.43
393
5.553
36
36.000
53.20
441
6.225
Properties based on black HDPE material (0.955 g/cm density) and DR 32.5 pipe.
Step 2. Float Submergence Percentage

The percent submergence is the percent of the float that is below the water level as illustrated in
Figure 3-23.
% Submergence = 100
h
d
(3-17)
Where
h
pipe submergence below water level, in

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pipe diameter, in (Table 3-10)

Figure 3-23 Float Submergence
The designer should choose an appropriate percent submergence and submergence margin.
For the floats in Table 3-10, submergence margins are shown in Table 3-11. If the percent
submergence is too high, point-loaded floats may deflect at the load center and be more deeply
submerged at the load center compared to unloaded areas.
Table 3-11 Submergence Margin
% Submergence
Submergence Margin
55%
43%
37%
Step 3. Float Support Capacity

Determine the float buoyancy, B, from Table 3-10 for the initial float size. Then determine the
submergence factor, fS, from Table 3-12.
Table 3-12 Submergence Factor, fS
Submergence
Submergence
Submergence
Submergence
Percent
Factor, fS
Percent
Factor, fS
Percent
Factor, fS
Percent
Factor, fS
0.019
30
0.252
55
0.564
80
0.858
10
0.052
35
0.312
60
0.623
85
0.906
15
0.094
40
0.377
65
.0688
90
0.948
20
0.142
45
0.436
70
0.748
95
0.981
25
0.196
50
0.500
75
0.804
100
1.000
Determine the load supporting capacity of the float, PF.

PF = f S B
(3-18)
Where
PF
fS
B
=
=
=
float load supporting capacity, lb/ft

submergence factor from Table 3-12
buoyancy from Table 3-10

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Step 4. Compare Float Support Capacity to Load

The support capacity of the float must equal or exceed the load it is to support.
(3-19)
PF P
If the load, P, is greater than the float support capacity, PF, choose a larger float and repeat
Steps 1, 2 and 3. If the float support capacity, PF, is significantly greater than the load, P, a
smaller float may be adequate.
Step 5. Check Actual Float Submergence
Once the proper float size has been determined, check the actual float submergence.
f SA =
P
B
(3-20)
Where
fSA
actual float submergence factor
The actual float submergence factor, fSA, may be compared to the values in Table 3-12 to
determine the approximate percent submergence.
Go to Chapter 4
page 180
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4. Inspection & Testing

Pre-Construction
Inspections and tests begin before construction. Jobsite conditions dictate how piping may be
installed and what equipment is appropriate for construction. Soil test borings and test
excavations may be useful to determine soil bearing stress and whether or not native soils are
suitable as backfill materials.
In slipline rehabilitation applications, the deteriorated pipeline should be inspected by remote TV
camera to locate structurally deteriorated areas, obstructions, offset and separated joints,
undocumented bends and service connections. In some cases, a test pull, drawing a short
section of slipliner through the line, may be conducted to ensure that the line is free of
obstructions.
The contractor should carefully inspect contract specifications and plans. It is important that the
specifications and plans fit the job. Different piping materials require different construction
practices and procedures. These differences should be accurately reflected in the contract
documents. Good plans and specifications help protect all parties from unnecessary claims and
liabilities. Good documents also set minimum installation quality requirements and the testing
and inspection requirements that apply during the job.
As presented in the Performance Pipe Engineering Manual, Book 3, Chapter 1, Handling and
Storage, all incoming materials should be inspected to be sure that sufficient quantities of the
correct products for the job are at hand and that they arrived in good condition, ready for
installation.
For critical jobs, an inspection of the manufacturer's facilities may be in order. The manufacturer
should have an established reputation for quality products, should have a detailed, welldocumented quality control and quality assurance program and should have adequate facilities
to make the size and quantities required.
During Construction
Tests and inspections performed during construction include butt fusion joint quality tests; soil
compaction and density tests; pipe deflection tests, pressure tests and other relevant
inspections.
Butt Fusion Joint Quality

Visual inspection is the only reliable non-destructive joint evaluation test applicable to all sizes
of OD controlled Pipe. Non-destructive tests such as microprocessor controlled ultrasonic
inspection may be available for selected sizes. X-ray inspection is generally unreliable because
x-ray is a poor indicator of cold fusion.
Butt fusion joints are visually inspected to ensure joint quality. The size and shape of the
external fusion beads indicate if a proper joint has been made. As illustrated in Figure 4-1, a)
the double bead width should be 2 to 2-1/2 times the height from the pipe surface, b) both
beads should be uniform in size and shape all around the joint, and c) the depth of the v-groove
between the beads must not be more than half the bead height.
If the v-groove is too deep, a cold fusion may be indicated. Cold fusion results when most of
the melt is pressed out of the joint. It is caused by insufficient heating (heating iron too cold or
cold spots or insufficient heating time), or excessive pressure during heating, or excessive
Book 3: Chapter 4: Inspection & Testing
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pressure during joining. A non-uniform bead shape around the pipe indicates uneven heating,
possibly from cold spots on the heating iron surface.
Figure 4-1 Butt Fusion Bead Visual Inspection Guidelines
Cold fusion is a poor quality joint that should be removed and re-done. If not repaired, joint
failure can occur.
When butt fusion is between pipe and molded fittings, the fitting-side bead may exhibit shape
irregularities that are caused by the fitting manufacturing process. A slightly irregular fitting-side
bead may not indicate an improper joint, provided that the pipe-side bead is properly shaped,
and the v-groove between the beads is correct. Contact Performance Pipe Technical Services if
assistance is required.
During construction fusion joining, Performance Pipe recommends that the installer should
verify operator procedure, equipment set-up and field fusion quality by making and testing a trial
fusion. The trial fusion is allowed to cool completely; then test straps are cut out and bent strap
tested in accordance with ASTM D 2657. If the bent strap test of the trial fusion fails at the joint,
any field fusions represented by the trial fusion should be redone.
The bent strap test specimen is prepared by making a trial butt fusion, and allowing it to cool to
ambient temperature. A test strap that is at least 6" or 15 pipe wall thicknesses long on each
side of the fusion, and 1-1/2 wall thicknesses (at least 1") wide is cut out of the trial fusion pipe.
See Figure 4-2. The strap is then bent so that the ends of the strap touch. Any disbondment at
the fusion is unacceptable and indicates poor fusion quality. If failure occurs, fusion procedures
and/or machine set-up should be changed, and a new trial fusion and bent strap test specimen
prepared and tested.
Figure 4-2 Bent Strap Test Specimen

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A test strap from thick wall pipe may require considerable effort to bend. Further, the test
strap may spring back if the ends are inadvertently released while bending. Appropriate
personnel safety precautions should be observed.
Additional information and guidelines for evaluating butt, socket and saddle fusions are
presented in Performance Pipe Bulletin PP-750 Performance Pipe Heat Fusion Joining
Procedures.
Soil Tests
During buried pipe installation, work should be checked throughout the construction period by
an inspector who is thoroughly familiar with the jobsite and the contract specifications, materials,
and installation procedures. Inspections should reasonably ensure that significant factors such
as trench depth, grade, pipe foundation (if required), quality and compaction of embedment
backfill, and safety are in compliance with contract specifications and other requirements.
To evaluate soil stability, density and compaction, appropriate ASTM tests may be required in
the contract specifications.
Surface Damage
Surface damage may occur during construction handling and installation. Significant damage
may impair the future performance of the pipeline. The following guidelines may be used to
assess damage significance.
For DRISCOPLEX pressure piping systems, damage or butt fusion misalignment in excess of
10% of the minimum wall thickness required for pipeline operating pressure may be significant.
If the pipeline is to operate at the maximum permissible pressure for the material and DR, the
damage allowance is 10% of the pipe minimum wall thickness. On the other hand, if the pipe is
to operate at lower pressure, damage depth may be greater.
Excessive damage may require removal and replacement of the damaged pipe section, or
reinforcement with a full encirclement repair clamp. Damaged pipe cannot be repaired by filling
damaged area with extrusion or hot gas welding. Misaligned butt fusions should be cut out and
redone.
The shape of the damage should also be considered. For small damage areas where the depth
is not excessive, sharp notches and cuts should be dressed smooth so the notch is blunted.
Blunt scrapes or gouges should not require attention. Minor surface abrasion from sliding on the
ground or insertion into a casing should not be of concern.
Deflection Tests
Buried flexible pipes rely on properly installed backfill to sustain earthloads and other loads.
Proper installation requires using proper backfill materials and installing the pipe as specified by
the designer. See the Performance Pipe Engineering Manual, Book 2. System Design, Chapter
7 for detailed information on buried flexible pipe design.
Deflection checks may be used to monitor the quality of installation. Improperly installed flexible
pipe can develop significant deflection in a short time, thus alerting the installer and the
inspector to investigate the problem. Inspection should be performed as the job progresses; that
way, any errors in the installation procedure can be identified and corrected.
Initial deflection checks may be performed after embedment materials have been placed and
compacted. Procedures for determining deflection are presented in Performance Pipe Technical
Note PP 817-TN Checking Vertical Deflection of Gravity-Flow Pipe.
page 183
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Leak Testing
Recommended leak testing procedures for Performance Pipe polyethylene piping products are
published in Performance Pipe Technical Note PP 802-TN Leak Testing. Contact any
Performance Pipe Representative or Distributor for a copy.
Leak tests should not be confused with pressure tests. Leak tests using a pressurized fluid
media are intended to find leaks in a piping system.
Pressure tests are used with some piping materials to verify the pressure capacity of the
pipeline. The pressure rating of polyethylene pipe, however, is based on long term sustained
pressure tests, not short-term material properties. For polyethylene pipe, short-term pressure
tests cannot verify long-term performance and are incapable of verifying the pressure capacity
of the pipeline.
If leak tests are required in the Contract Specifications, leak tests should be conducted in
accordance with Performance Pipe recommended procedures.
Liquids such as clean water are preferred as the test medium because less energy is released if
the test section fails catastrophically. During a pressure test, energy (internal pressure) is
applied to stress the test section. If the test medium is a compressible gas, then energy is used
to compress the gas as well as apply stress to the pipeline. If a catastrophic failure occurs
during a pneumatic test, both the pipeline stress energy and the gas compression energy are
explosively released. With an incompressible liquid as the test medium, the energy release is
only the energy required to stress the pipeline.
WARNING
Death or serious injury can result from failure at a joint or connection during leak tests
with a liquid or gas under pressure. Keep all persons a safe distance away during
testing. The test section is to be supervised at all times during the test.
Ensure that all piping is restrained against possible movement from catastrophic failure
at a joint or connection. When pressurized, faulty joints or connections may separate
suddenly causing violent and dangerous movement of piping or parts. Correctly made
joints do not leak. Leakage at a joint or connection may immediately precede
catastrophic failure. Never approach or attempt to repair or stop leaks while the test
section is pressurized. Always depressurize the test section before making repairs.
Go to Chapter 5
page 184
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5. Operational Guidelines
Disinfecting Water Mains
Applicable procedures for disinfecting new and repaired potable water mains are presented in
standards such as ANSI/AWWA C651, Disinfecting Water Mains. ANSI/AWWA C651 uses
liquid chlorine, sodium hypochlorite, or calcium hypochlorite to chemically disinfect the main.
Disinfecting solutions containing chlorine should not exceed 12% active chlorine, because
greater concentration can chemically attack and degrade polyethylene.
Cleaning
Pipelines operating at low flow rates (around 2 ft/sec or less) may allow solids to settle in pipe
invert. Polyethylene has a smooth, non-wetting surface that resists the adherence of
sedimentation deposits. If the pipeline is occasionally subject to higher flow rates, much of the
sedimentation will be flushed from the system during these peak flows. If cleaning is required,
sedimentation deposits can usually be flushed from the system with high-pressure water.
Water-jet cleaning is available from commercial services. It usually employs high-pressure water
sprays from a nozzle that is drawn through the pipe system with a cable.
Pressure piping systems may be cleaned with the water-jet process or may be pigged. Pigging
involves forcing a resilient plastic plug (soft pig) through the pipeline. Usually, hydrostatic or
pneumatic pressure is applied behind the pig to move it down the pipeline. Pigging should
employ a pig launcher and a pig catcher.
A pig launcher is a wye or a removable spool. In the wye, the pig is fitted into the branch, then
the branch behind the pig is pressurized to move the pig into the pipeline and downstream. In
the removable pipe spool, the pig is loaded into the spool, the spool is installed into the pipeline,
and then the pig is forced downstream.
A pig catcher is a basket or other device at the end of the line to receive the pig when it
discharges from the pipeline. A pig may discharge from the pipeline with considerable
velocity and force. A pig catcher provides a means of safe pig discharge from the
pipeline.
Soft pigs must be used with polyethylene pipe. Scraping finger type or bucket type pigs will
severely damage the pipeline, and must not be used. Commercial pigging services are
available if line pigging is required.
Frozen Pipes
Water can be frozen solid in polyethylene pipe without damaging the pipe, but an ice plug in the
pipe will stop flow. Do not apply pressure to a frozen pipeline that has an ice plug because it
can move the plug down the line at significant velocity. If the plug stops suddenly at an
obstruction, water hammer will result, which can burst or shatter the line.
WARNING -- Severe water hammer shock (such as from an ice plug stopping suddenly at
an obstruction) in a frozen, surface or above grade pipeline can shatter the pipeline and
flying fragments can cause death, injury or property damage. Allow an ice plug to thaw
before applying pressure to the line.
Book 3: Chapter 5: Operational Guidelines

page 185
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Squeeze-Off
Squeeze-off (or pinch-off) is a means of controlling flow in smaller diameter Performance Pipe
OD controlled pipe by flattening the pipe between parallel bars. Flow control does not imply
complete flow stoppage in all cases. For larger pipes, particularly at higher pressures, some
seepage is likely. If the situation will not allow seepage, then it may be necessary to vent the
pipe between two squeeze-offs.
Performance Pipe OD controlled Gas Pipe manufactured to ASTM D 2513 is suitable for
squeeze-off; however, squeeze-off practices are not limited to gas applications. Squeeze-off is
applicable to OD controlled MDPE and HDPE pressure pipe up to 16" IPS and 100 psi internal
pressure. Larger sizes and higher pressures may be possible, but suitable commercial
equipment is not presently available, so there is no demonstrated experience with larger sizes
or higher pressures.
Squeeze-off procedures that are recommended for Performance Pipe OD controlled pipe are
published in Performance Pipe Technical Note PP-801-TN Polyethylene Pipe Squeeze-Off.
Copies may be obtained from any Performance Pipe representative or distributor.
Additional information on squeeze-off may be found in ASTM F 1041 Standard Guide for
Squeeze-off of Polyolefin Gas Pressure Pipe and Tubing, ASTM F 1563 Specification for Tools
to Squeeze-Off Polyethylene (PE) Gas Pipe or Tubing and ASTM F 1734 Practice for
Qualification of a Combination of Squeeze Tool, Pipe and Squeeze-Off Procedure to Avoid
Long-Term Damage in Polyethylene (PE) Gas Pipe.
Static Electricity Control

When pipe conveying a compressed gas is being flattened, the gas flow velocity through the
flattened area increases. High velocity, dry gas, especially with particles present in the flow, can
generate a static electric charge on pipe surfaces that can discharge to ground. Before
flattening the pipe, the tool should be grounded and procedures to control static charge build-up
on pipe surfaces should be employed. Grounding and static control procedures should remain in
place for the entire procedure.
WARNING
Fire or Explosion Static electricity discharge can ignite a flammable gas or combustible
dust atmosphere. Where a flammable gas or combustible dust atmosphere may be
encountered and static electric charges may be present such as during squeeze-off, leak
repair, purging, making a connection, etc., arc preventing safety precautions are
necessary. Observe all Company (pipeline operator, utility, contractor, etc.) procedures
for static electricity safety and control, including procedures for discharging static
electricity and personal protection.
Routine or Emergency?
Squeeze-off procedures may be used for routine, scheduled changes to piping systems, or as
an emergency procedure to control gasses or liquids escaping from a damaged pipe. For
scheduled piping changes, the above procedure should be followed, and if followed, the pipes
service life is not expected to be compromised.
However, an emergency situation may require quickly flattening the pipe and controlling flow
because the escaping fluid may be an immediate hazard of greater concern than damaging the
page 186
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pipe.
If an emergency situation requires rapid flattening, the pipe or tubing will probably be damaged.
Repairs
Repair situations may arise if DRISCOPLEX OD controlled or DRISCOPLEX 2000
SPIROLITE pipe has been damaged. Damage may occur during shipping and handling, during
installation, or after installation. Damage may include scrapes or abrasions, breaks, punctures,
kinks, or emergency squeeze-off. Permanent repair usually involves removing and replacing the
damaged pipe or fitting. However, temporary repairs may restore serviceability and allow time to
effect permanent repairs in the future.
Damage Assessment
Damage may be assessed according to guidelines presented in the Performance Pipe
Engineering Manual, Book 3, Chapters 1 and 4. Damaged pipe or fittings should be inspected
and evaluated to determine if the damage impairs serviceability.
Pipe or fittings that have sustained service impairing damage should not be installed.
Post-installation damage may require that the damaged pipe or fitting be removed and
replaced.
Scrapes or gouges cannot be repaired by filling-in with extrusion or hot air welding.
The damaged section should be removed and replaced.
Improperly made fusion joints cannot be repaired. Improper butt fusions must be cut out
and re-done from the beginning. Poorly joined socket or electrofusion fittings must be
removed and replaced. Poorly joined saddle fittings must be removed by cutting out the
main pipe section, or, if the main is undamaged, made unusable by cutting the branch outlet
or chimney off the saddle fitting, and installing a new saddle fitting on a new section of main.
Socket fusion fittings cannot be reused.
Broken or damaged fittings cannot be repaired. They must be removed and replaced.
Kinked pipe must not be installed and cannot be repaired. Kinked pipe must be
removed and replaced.
Pipe damaged during an emergency squeeze-off cannot be repaired. Squeeze-off

damaged pipe must be removed and replaced.
Permanent Repairs
For buried large diameter Performance Pipe OD controlled or SPIROLITE pipe that has been
poorly backfilled, excessive deflection may be correctable by removing and reinstalling backfill
in accordance with recommended procedures.
Where replacement is required, any joining method appropriate to the product and service
requirements may be used. Butt and socket fusion to OD controlled pipe and butt fittings
requires that one of the components move longitudinally. However, constrained installations,
such as buried pipes, may not allow such movement. Permanent repairs of constrained pipes
require techniques that do not require longitudinal movement. As illustrated in Figure 5-1,
repairs may be effected by cutting out and replacing a section of pipe, or deflecting pipe ends to
the side and installing an appropriate coupling. Typical joining methods include flanges,
electrofusion, and fully restrained mechanical couplings.
To repair using a flanged spool, cut out, remove and discard the damaged pipe section. Install
page 187
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flanges on the two pipe ends. Measure the distance between the flange sealing surfaces, and
prepare a flanged pipe spool of the same length. Install the flanged spool.
Repair using an electrofusion coupling or a fully restrained mechanical coupling is limited to pipe
sizes for which such couplings are available. Mechanical or electrofusion coupling repairs are
made by deflecting one pipe end to the side for the coupling body to be slipped on. The pipe
ends are then realigned, and the coupling joint fitted up. To allow lateral deflection, a length of
about 10 times the pipe outside diameter is needed.
Figure 5-1 Constrained Pipe Repair
Temporary Repair
Temporary repairs may be needed to seal leaks or punctures, to restore pressure capacity, or to
reinforce damaged areas until permanent repairs can be effected. Methods include but are not
limited to mechanical repair couplings and welded patches.
Go to TOC
page 188
CPChem
PERFORMANCE PIPE
TM
a di
vision of Che
vr
y LP
division
Chevr
vron
Company

Engineering Manual
TM
Table of Contents

Table Of Contents
Preface
Book 1: Engineering Properties

Chapter 1: About Performance Pipe
The Polyethylene Pipe Advantage
Colors to identify applications:
Color stripe patterns to identify sizing systems:
Color stripes to identify DR:
Solid Colors
Handling
Pressure Rating
Non-contaminating
Sealed Joints
Abrasion Resistance
Thermal Expansion
Additional Information
Chapter 2: Performance Pipe Products

Piping Constructions
Sizing Systems
Third Party Certification and Listing
Table 2-1 Performance Pipe DRISCOPLEX Products
Table 2-2 Markets and Typical Applications and Uses for

Performance Pipe M & I Piping Products
10
Table Of Contents
Chapter 3: Polyethylene Material Fundamentals
Polymerization
11
Fundamental Characteristics
11
Figure 3-1 Branched Polyethylene Molecule
11
Crystallinity (Density)
12
Figure 3-2 Crystalline and Amorphous Structure
12
Pigmentation Effects on Density
12
Molecular Weight
13
Molecular Weight Distribution
13
Figure 3-3 Molecular Weight Distribution and Modality
13
Understanding Property-Characteristic Interrelationships
14
A Discussion of Table 3-1
14
Table 3-1 Physical Property Changes due to Fundamental

CharacteristicChanges
15
Graphical Illustrations of Interrelationships
15
Stiffness
16
Figure 3-4 Stiffness
16
Tensile Strength, Impact & Melt Viscosity
16
Figure 3-5 Yield Strength
16
Figure 3-6 Tensile Strength vs. Molecular Orientation
17
Figure 3-7 Property Change vs. Molecular Weight
17
Tensile Elongation
18
Figure 3-8 Tensile Elongation vs. Pulling Speed
18
Resistance to Slow Crack Growth
18
Figure 3-9 Resistance to Slow Crack Growth
18
Permeation
19
Figure 3-10 Resistance to Permeation
19
Hardness
19
Figure 3-11 Hardness
19
ii
Table Of Contents
Chapter 4: Polyethylene Material Standards
Cell Classification Number
20
Long Term Strength
20
Table 4-1 ASTM D 3350 Properties and Cell Classification Limits
21
Material Designation Code
22
Performance Pipe Materials
23
Chapter 5: Environmental Effects

Resistance to Corrosion
24
Resistance to Stress Cracking
24
Biological Effects
24
Sunlight (Ultraviolet) Effects
24
Thermal Effects
25
Chemical Effects
25
Resistance to Chemical Attack
25
Solvents and Suface Cleaning
26
Chemical Solvation (Permeation)
26
Chemical Attack
27
Chemical Resistance Information
27
Chemical Reistance Key for Table 5-1
28
Table 5-1 Chemical Resistance
28
Chapter 6: Organizations, Standards & Publications

Organizations
35
Standards
35
Other Publications
37
iii
Table Of Contents
Book 2: System Design
Chapter 1: Introduction
DRISCOPLEX Outside Diameter (OD) Controlled Polyethylene Pipe
38
DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE Inside Diameter Controlled

Polyethylene Pipe
39
Chapter 2: Stress Rated Materials

Table 2-1 Hydrostatic Design Basis Ratings and Service Temperatures
40
Chapter 3: Pressure Rating Design

Pipe Pressure Ratings
41
Table 3-1 Environmental Design Factors, fE
42
Table 3-2 Service Temperature Design Factors, fT
42
Fitting Pressure Ratings
42
Chapter 4: Fluid Flow

Application Limitations
43
Frozen Pipes
43
Pipe Internal Diameter
43
Pressure Flow of Liquids
44
Darcy-Weisbach/Colebrook/Moody
44
Table 4-1 Absolute Roughness for Commercial Pipe Materials
46
Figure 4-1 Moody Diagram
46
Fitting and Valve Friction Losses
46
Table Fitting Coefficient K
47
Hazen-Williams
47
Table 4-3 Properties of Water
48
Table 4-4 Hazen-Williams Friction Factor, C
48
Losses Due to Elevation Change
49
Air Binding and Vacuum Release
49
Water Hammer and Pressure Surge Considerations
49
Effects on Pressure Piping Systems
49
Surge Allowance
50
50
iv
Table Of Contents
Working Pressure Rating (WPR)
51
51
Effects of Cyclic Stressing
51
Controlling Water Hammer
51
Recommended Flow Velocities
52
Gravity Flow of Liquids
52
Manning
52
Table 4-8 Values of n for use with Manning Equations
54
Comparative Flows for Slipliners
54
Table 4-9 Comparative Flows for Slipliners
55
Pipe Surface Condition, Aging
55
Slurry Flow
55
Particle Size
56
Solids Concentration and Specific Gravity
56
Critical Velocity
57
Table 4-10 Scale of Particle Sizes
58
Table 4-11 Specific Gravity and Slurry Solids Concentration
58
Table 4-12 Water-Base Slurry Specific Gravities
59
Table 4-13 Velocity Coefficient, FL (Uniform Particle Size)
59
Table 4-14 Velocity Coefficient, FL (50% Passing Particle Size)
60
Head Loss
60
Compressible Gas Flow
60
High Pressure Formulas
60
Low Pressure Formulas
61
Gas Permeation
62
Table 4-15 Permeability Constants
62
Table 4-16 Physical Properties of Gases
63
Chapter 5: Thermal Effects

Unrestrained Thermal Effects
64
End Restrained Thermal Effects
64
v
Table Of Contents
Table 5-1 Typical Elastic Modulus for DRISCOPLEXTM PE 3408
66
Controlling Expansion and Contraction
66
Lateral Deflection Expansion Loops
66
Table 5-1 Lateral Deflection
66
Table 5-2 Allowable Bending Strain
68
Figure 5-3 Midpoint and End Anchoring
68
Example 5-1
69
Anchored and Guided Pipe
70
Figure 5-4 Typical Guides
70
Example 5-2
71
Conventional Expansion Loops
73
Figure 5-5 Conventional Expansion Loop
70
Example 5-3
74
Expansion Joints
75
Buried Piping Systems
75
Figure 5-6 Longitudinal Force Thrust Block
75
Heat Transfer
76
Table 5-3 Thermal Properties
76
Chapter 6: Above Grade Supporting

Figure 6-1 Pipeline Supports
77
77
Figure 6-3 Deflection Between Supports
78
Support Spacing
78
Figure 6-5 Pipe Rack - Center Anchored
79
Figure 6-4 Pipe Rack - Side Anchored
79
Pipe Rack Support
79
Table 6-1 Support Spacing
80
vi
Table Of Contents
Chapter 7: Buried Pipe Design
General Design Procedure
81
Loads on Buried Pipe
82
Figure 7-1 Soil Prism
82
Dead Loads
82
Prism Load
82
Soil Arching
83
Figure 7-2 Soil Arching Development
83
Marston Load
83
Table 7-1 Typical Values for Ku
84
Soil Creep
84
Example 7-1
85
Modified Arching Load
85
Figure 7-3 Arching Coefficient for Modified Arching Load
86
Surcharge Load
87
Distributed Load Over Pipe
87
Example 7-2
88
88
Table 7-2 Influence Coefficient, lc, for Distributed Loads Over Pipe
89
Distributed Load Not Over Pipe
89
Example 7-3
89
88
Vehicular Loads
90
Minimum Cover Depth
90
Highway Loads
90
Figure 7-7 AASHTO Standard H20 Static Loading
90
Figure 7-8 AASHTO Standard H20 Static Loading
91
Rigid Pavement Highway Loads

Table 7-3 H20 and HS20 Highway Loading (AISI)
Off-Highway and Unpaved Road Loads
Vehicular Loads As Point Loads
91
91
92
92
vii
Table Of Contents
Single Wheel Load Centered On Pipe
92
Holls Intergration
93
Multiple Wheel Loads Along Pipe Length
93
Point Load On Pipe Crown
93
Table 7-4 Load Coefficient, Ch, for Holls Integration of

Boussinesq Equation
94
Figure 7-10 Concentrated Point Load
95
Example 7-5
95
Point Load Not On Pipe Crown
95
Multiple Wheel Loads on Rigid Pavement
96
Example 7-6
96
97
Vehicular Loads As Distributed Loads
97
Distributed Wheel Loads
97
Load Areas
97
Example 7-7
98
Timoshenkos Method
99
Example 7-8
99
Railroad Loads
99
Table 7-5 Cooper E80 Live Load
100
Figure 7-13 Cooper E80 Live Loading
100
Designing Polyethylene Pipes to Withstand Loads

External Forces On Pipe
100
100
Constrained Pipe Wall Compressive Stress
101
Example 7-9
101
102
Ovality Effects
103
Figure 7-14 Ovality Compensation Factor for Unconstrained

Buckling
104
Example 7-10
104
viii
Table Of Contents
Constrained Pipe Wall Buckling
105
Example 7-11
106
Ring Deflection
107
Soil Reaction Modulus, E
108
Table 7-7 Bureau of Reclamation Average E Values for

Iowa Forumula (Initial Deflection)
109
Table 7-8 Duncan-Hartley Soil Reaction Modulus
109
Lag Factor and Long Term Deflection
110
Example 7-12
110
Deflection Limits
110
Ring Bending Strain
112
Table 7-9 Safe Pressure Pipe Deflection
112
Example 7-13
112
Design Considerations For Shallow Cover Pipe
112
Shallow Cover Surcharge Load
112
Shallow Cover Buckling
113
Chapter 8: Groundwater Floation Effects

Table 8-1 Typical Soil Densities
115
Figure 8-1 Groundwater Flotation (Empty Pipe)
115
Groundwater flotation of Pipe
116
Figure 8-2 Pipe Liquid level
117
Groundwater flotation of Manholes
117
118
Figure 8-4 Anti-flotation Anchor Installation
118
Table 8-2 Anti-Flotation Anchor Weights
118
Table 8-3 Upward Thrust of a Base, UTB
119
Table 8-4 Riser Upward Thrust per Vertical Foot of a Cover UTB
120
Table 8-5 Soil Weight Multipliers
120
Table 8-6 Soil Downward Force over Two Anti-Flotation

Anchors, DFA
120
ix
Table Of Contents
Table 8-7 Soil Downward Force Per Vertical Foot of Cover over Two
stub-outs, DFS
121
Table 8-8 Upward Thurst of Anchored Base, UTBA
121
Table 8-9 Frictional Resistance of soil Surrounding Riser for

selected Cover Depths, FRS
122
Chapter 9: Water Environment Design Considerations

External Hydraulic Pressure
123
123
Pipe Ovality Effects
123
Figure 9-1 Ovality Compensation Factor for Unconstrained Buckling
124
Table 9-1 Selected Conversion Factors
124
Table 9-2 Approximate External Pressure Resistance for OD Controlled

Pipe, Ib/in2
125
Submergence Weighting
126
Ballast Design for DRISCOPLEXTM OD Controlled Pipe
126
Table 9-3 Environmental Multiplier, K
126
Table 9-4 Specific Gravities and specific Weights of various liquids at

60F (15C)
127
Table 9-5 Pipe Weight Conversion Factors
127
Weight Shapes
128
128
128
Book 3: System Installation

Chapter 1: Handling and Storage
Receiving Inspection
129
Product Packaging
129
Figure 1-1 Typical Silo Pack Truckload (40 Trailer)
129
Product Identification
130
Figure 1-2 Typical Bulk Pack Truckload (40 Trailer)
130
Figure 1-3 Typical Strip Load Truckload (40 Trailer)
131
Checking the Order
131
x
Table Of Contents
Load Inspection
131
Receiving Reports & Reporting Damage
132
Unloading Instructions
132
Unloading Site Requirements
132
Handling Equipment
132
Manholes and Tanks
133
Pre-Installation Storage
133
Figure 1-4 Forklift Load Capacity
133
Figure 1-5 Loose Pipe Storage
134
Pipe Stacking Heights
134
Table 1-1 Suggested Jobsite Loose Storage Stacking Height for OD

Controlled Pipe
135
Table 1-2 Suggested Jobsite Loose Storage Stacking Heights for

CDRISCOPLEXTM 2000 SPIROLITE Pipe
135
Exposure to UV and Weather
135
Cold Weather Handling
135
Chapter 2: Joining & Connections

General Procedures
137
Cleaning
137
Cutting DRISCOPLEXTM OD Controlled Pipe
137
Cutting DRISCOPLEXTM 2000 SPIROLITE Pipe
138
Cutting Branch Outlet Holes
138
Fully Restrained Connections
138
Heat Fusion Joining
138
Socket Fusion
139
Saddle Fusion
139
Table 2-1 Field Saddle Fusion Size Guidelines
140
Table 2-2 Approximate Butt Fusion Joining Rates
140
Butt Fusion
140
Bead Removal
141
Electrofusion
141
xi
Table Of Contents
Flange Connection
141
Figure 2-1 Flange Adapter and Back-Up Ring
142
Figure 2-2 Flange Adapter and Back-Up Ring
142
Flange Gasketing
142
Table 2-4 Typical Gasket Materials
143
Figure 2-3 Flange Gasket Styles
143
Flange Bolting
143
Table 2-3 Flange Dimensions (Inch Sized)
143
Figure 2-4 Bolt Length Parameters
143
Flange Installation
144
Figure 2-5 Buried Appurtenance Flange Foundation
144
145
Special Cases
145
Thrust Restrained Mechanical Joints

ID Stiffeners for OD Controlled Pipe
145
145
DRISCOPLEXTM MJ Adapters
146
Partially Restrained Joints
146
Figure 2-7 DRISCOPLEXTM MJ Adapter
146
Figure 2-8 Insert Coupling
147
Figure 2-9 Mechanical Coupling with Insert Stiffeners
147
Unrestrained Joints
147
Figure 2-10 Partially Restrained Compression Coupling
148
Figure 2-11 External Joing Restraint
148
Special Joining Considerations
148
Other Joining Techniques
148
Pipe Threads
148
Extrusion Welding
148
Hot Gas Welding
149
Manhole Connections
149
Branch Connections
149
xii
Table Of Contents
DRISCOPLEXTM OD Controlled Pressure Piping
149
Figure 2-12 Large Diameter Tee Installation
150
Figure 2-13 Tapping Sleeve
151
Outlets in Non-Pressure Piping
151
Figure 2-14 Inserta-Tee
151
Chapter 3: Installation
General Considerations
152
Underground Installations
152
Pipe Embedment Terminology
152
Figure 3-1 Trench Construction Terminology
153
Trenching
153
Figure 3-2 Trench Width
154
Table 3-1 Minimum Trench Width
154
Figure 3-3 Trench Box Installation
154
Placing Pipe in the Trench
155
Cold (Field) Bending
155
Figure 3-4 Bend Radius
156
Table 3-2 Minimum cold Bending Radius for OD Controlled Pipe

(Long-Term)
156
Table 3-3 DRISCOPLEXTM 2000 SpiroliteTM Curve Radius
156
Installing Fabricated Fittings
156
Pipe Embedment Soils
156
Table 3-4 Embedment Soil Classification
157
Embedment Backfilling
157
Figure 3-5 Haunch Tamping Tool
158
Joint Anchoring with Thrust Blocks
158
Table 3-5 Fitting Factor
159
Controlling Shear and Bending Loads at Rigid Structures
159
Figure 3-6 Controlling Shear and Bending
159
159
xiii
Table Of Contents
Figure 3-8 Appurtenance Support Pad
160
Locating Tapes or Wires
160
Final Backfilling
160
Backfill Stabilizing Agents
160
Burrowing Animal Control
161
Special Installation Techniques
161
Plowing and Planting
161
Table 3-6 Minimum Short-Term Bending Radius

Pulling-in
161
162
Table 3-7 Recommended Design Factors
162
Table 3-8 Approximate Tensile Yield Strength Values
162
Horizontal Boring
163
Figure 3-9 Split Back-Up Ring
164
Horizontal Directional Drilling (HDD)

Pipeline Rehabilitation Techniques
Conventional Sliplining (Insertion Renewal) With OD
Controlled Pipe
164
164
164
Table 3-9 Approximate Collapse Resistance for OD

Controlled Pipe, ft of water
165
Figure 3-10 Slipliner Insertion Trench
167
Figure 3-11 Slipliner Pulling Heads
169
Figure 3-12 Banana Peel Pulling Head
169
Figure 3-13 Backhoe Slipliner Push-In Technique
169
Sliplining with DRISCOPLEXTM 2000 SPIROLITETM Pipe
170
Figure 3-14 DRISCOPLEXTM 2000 SPIROLITETM Liner Insertion

Technique
171
Proprietary Trenchless Rehabilitation Techniques
172
Surface Installations
172
Figure 3-15 Surface Flange Bending Protection
173
Figure 3-16 Surface Tee Bending Protection
173
Above Ground Installations
174
xiv
Table Of Contents
Figure 3-17 Pipe Rack, Center Anchored
175
Figure 3-18 Pipe Rack, Side Anchored
175
Figure 3-19 Deflected Pipe Installation
176
176
Underwater Installation
176
Floating Pipelines
177
Figure 3-19 Flotation Above the Surface
177
Figure 3-19 Flotation On the Surface
177
Polyethylene Pipe for Flotation
177
Table 3-10 Polyethylene Float Properties
178
Figure 3-23 Float Submergence
179
Table 3-11 Submergence Margin
179
Table 3-12 Submergence Factor, fs
179
Chapter 4: Inspection & Testing

During Construction
181
Butt Fusion Joint Quality
181
Figure 4-1 Butt Fusion Bead - Visual Inspection Guidelines
182
Figure 4-2 Bent Strap Test Specimen
182
Soil Tests
183
Surface Damage
183
Deflection Teste
183
Leak Testing
184
Chapter 5: Operational Guidelines

Cleaning
185
Frozen Pipes
185
Squeese-Off
186
Static Electricity Control
186
Routine or Emergency?
186
Repairs
187
xv
Table Of Contents
Damage Assessment
187
Permanent Repairs
187
Figure 5-1 Constrained Pipe Repair
188
Temporary Repair
188
xvi

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The Performance Pipe

Book 1: Engineering Properties

PLEXCO, PLEXVUE, and YELLOWSTRIPE are registered trademarks of Chevron Phillips

1. About PERFORMANCE PIPE

The Polyethylene Pipe Advantage

Plexco was formerly a Division of Chevron Chemical Company.

Driscopipe was formerly a Division of Phillips Petroleum Company.

Book 1: Chapter 1: About Performance Pipe

2002 Chevron Phillips Chemical Company LP

Some of the features of DRISCOPLEX polyethylene piping products include:

Identification Stripes and Colors

Flexibility and Toughness

Outstanding Chemical Resistance

Sealed, Leak-Tight Heat Fusion Joints

Surge and Liquid Velocity

Lower Life Cycle Costs

Identification Stripes and Colors

Colors to identify applications:

Yellow for natural gas

Blue for potable water

Red for underground fire main

Green for wastewater

Purple for treated effluent

Other stripe colors white, orange, gray to meet application requirements

Color stripe patterns to identify sizing systems:

Color stripes to identify DR:

2002 Chevron Phillips Chemical Company LP

Flexibility and Toughness

Book 1: Chapter 1: About Performance Pipe

2002 Chevron Phillips Chemical Company LP

Outstanding Chemical Resistance

Book 1: Chapter 1: About Performance Pipe

2002 Chevron Phillips Chemical Company LP

Surge and Liquid Velocity

Book 1: Chapter 1: About Performance Pipe

2002 Chevron Phillips Chemical Company LP

Book 1: Chapter 1: About Performance Pipe

2002 Chevron Phillips Chemical Company LP

2. Performance Pipe Products

CTS: Copper Tube Size same OD as inch-sized copper tubing

Custom OD Sizes Inch or metric OD sizes per customer specification

ID Controlled DRISCOPLEX 2000 SPIROLITE ID Sizes per ASTM F 894;

Third Party Certification and Listing

2002 Chevron Phillips Chemical Company LP

CSA Canadian Standards Association

FMR Factory Mutual Research

NSF National Sanitation Foundation

IAPMO International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (marked

RUS Rural Utility Service listed

Table 2-1 Performance Pipe DRISCOPLEX Products

Former Plexco Product

EHMW Perforated Pipe

4000 BLUESHELL (DIPS)

4100 BLUESHELL (IPS)

Water Service Pipe

4200 GREENSHELL (IPS)

1200 OPTICORE (IPS)

1400 OPTICORE (DIPS)

Book 1: Chapter 2: Performance Pipe Products

2001 Chevron Phillips Chemical Company LP

Typical Markets for

Oil & Gas Pipe